books on essay writing for university uk

• Schools & departments

Academic writing

Advice and resources to support you with effective academic writing.

Approaches to writing

Assignment writing is a process which involves planning, drafting and reviewing what you are going to say. You will find you need to review your initial plan and edit it as you go along. You should expect to have to redraft some sections of writing.

You should also check any guidance given to you as part of your course, as conventions vary between subject areas.

One of the hardest things can be to get started writing an assignment. Sometimes this is a question of taking the time to reflect on what you are being asked to do in the assignment brief. 

Getting started with an assignment

The handout Getting started suggests a way in which you can break down your task, think about aspects of it and commit some of your initial ideas to paper. It also suggests ways you can start to adapt this method to suit you. Alternatively you may prefer to use a prompt list to start to analyse your title.

Getting started (pdf)       Getting started (Word rtf)

Essay title prompts (pdf)       Essay title prompts (Word rtf)

You will want to respond to the assignments you have been set as well as you can. This means paying attention to key words in the question or assignment brief. These are sometimes known as command or directive words because they tell you what to do. The document Directive words provides definitions of some of the commonly used words.

Directive words (pdf)       Directive words (Word rtf)   Directive words – British Sign Language translation (Media Hopper video)

Getting your ideas in order

In any written assignment you will be expected to organise and structure information which is synthesised from a range of sources. You will need to make notes from your readings to help you consolidate and connect your research to your question. The Reading at university page has strategies to help you develop effective skills for making notes from reading.

Reading at university

Making notes means you end up with lots of bits of writing which you need to link together for your reader. Sometimes it can be hard to know what to select and how to identify relationships between ideas and concepts.

There are suggestions in the Getting your ideas in order handout of practical ways in which you might reorganise your material in response to the task set. Playing around with the order can help you arrive at a line reasoning that will convince the reader. Aim to experiment and find out what works for you.

Getting your ideas in order (pdf)           Getting your ideas in order (Word rtf)

Essay parts and paragraphs

If you have been asked to write an academic essay, and you haven't done this before, you may be unsure of what is expected. The Parts of an essay handout gives a brief introductory overview of the component parts of an essay.

Parts of an essay (pdf)           Parts of an essay (Word rtf)

Paragraphs are the building blocks of an essay and are a way of organising your thinking and making your meaning clear in your writing for your reader. The handout Developing writing in paragraphs encourages you to think about the way you shape your paragraphs and when to move on to a new one.

Developing writing in paragraphs (pdf)          Developing writing in paragraphs (Word rtf) 

Build an argument as you go

Identifying and writing about good evidence is not enough. You need to build an argument. An argument is:

Using reasons to support a point of view, so that known or unknown audiences may be persuaded to agree. Cottrell, S. (2011)Critical thinking skills: developing effective analysis and argument. 2nd edn. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, p52.

You can develop your argument as you read and write by creating a working hypothesis or basic answer in response to the assignment brief.  

Building an argument as you go (pdf)            Building an argument as you go (Word rtf)

As you move through your studies lecturers will expect more from your written work. They will expect the accurate attribution of ideas from others (including academic and other authors, and the ideas of those who teach you). There is general advice and resources for referencing and citations (and avoiding plagiarism) on the Referencing and citations page.

Referencing and citations

Your marker(s) will expect written pieces to be logically structured with fluid expression of thought, and with deeper and more critical engagement with the subjects and ideas you are reading and learning about. 

Aim to become familiar with the level of writing required by reading good quality examples.  At an advanced level you are aiming to write to the style you read in academic journals. 

As your written tasks become longer and more complex it can be helpful to reflect on your own writing process.

Reflect on your writing process (pdf)            Reflect on your writing process (Word rtf)

Different types of academic writing

Academic writing is much more than just an essay. You might be asked to write a lab or business report, a policy brief, a blog post, a journal article or a reflection piece for example. These tend to be subject and task specific so you need to check the assignment brief and any criteria for details of their purpose, formatting, structure, things to include etc.

Reflective academic writing

In some subjects, assessment may be based on critical reflection. This can be a challenge as it is a very particular style and form of writing which you may not have come across before. As well as check your assignment brief for specifics, the University’s Employability Consultancy have created a Reflection Toolkit of resources, models and questions to help you develop your reflective writing skills.

The Reflection Toolkit

School-level support

Take advantage of any writing development sessions organised through or learning materials offered by your School, Deanery or course. These will help you develop the specific writing skills you need for your discipline or subject area.

Writing your own title

If you have to write your own title in response to the brief you have been set, you need to think about how to frame this.  The Formulating your own title handout suggests some aspects to consider.

Formulating your own title (pdf)          Formulating your own title (Word rtf)

Differences from non-academic writing

If you are studying during a career break, or part-time while still working, you need to be aware that academic writing is a very different skill from other forms of writing you may have done in the workplace. Academic writing tends to be more formal, requiring succinct prose rather than bullet points, and it is more about the argument than simply conveying, or describing, information. Writing for assessment requires you to think carefully about your assignment and criteria, your argument and content, use of your subject specific conventions (e.g. language, style etc.), and your audience.

Your written work needs to be grounded in and backed up by appropriate and informed opinion and sources, rather than solely by personal opinion and experience. Academic written work will also make fewer absolute statements. Language is often more tentative or cautious.

Academic Phrasebank is a collection of general phrases taken from academic sources created by John Morley at the University of Manchester. The phrases are sorted into writing and assignment themes such as being critical and writing conclusions.

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Essay Writing A Student's Guide

• MunLing Shields - University of Central Lancashire, UK
• Description

MunLing Shields places essay writing within the larger university experience for students. In a clear and easy to understand way the author guides the reader through the process of writing successful university essays by looking at essay writing in the context of academic communication, academic culture and different learning styles and approaches. This book:

• Helps students study more independently and learn more meaningfully to write better essays
• Offers invaluable insights into the way tutors see essays
• Explains why essays are set, and how to understand the rationale behind them
• Demonstrates how best to approach answering the question.

This highly accessible book offers practical, in-depth guidance on each of the stages of the essay writing process - planning, drafting and editing - and relates them to the important sub-skills of information-gathering, reading academic texts, how to get the most out of lectures, referencing and citations, and fluency and appropriateness of style and language. 'An excellent guide for students new to writing essays at university' - David Ellicott, Senior Lecturer in Youth Justice and Youth Studies, Nottingham Trent University

SAGE Study Skills are essential study guides for students of all levels. From how to write great essays and succeeding at university, to writing your undergraduate dissertation and doing postgraduate research, SAGE Study Skills help you get the best from your time at university. Visit the SAGE Study Skills hub  for tips, quizzes and videos on study success!

Supplements

'An excellent guide for students new to writing essays at university'

David Ellicott, Senior Lecturer in Youth Justice and Youth Studies, Nottingham Trent University

A really useful guide to help students master an essential skill, with practical tips and guidance to make student assignments a little more accessible.

Very clear and supportive guidelines on how to improve essay writing. Many students have commented on its accessibility.

This is a really helpful book for students returning to education, preparing for Higher Education. It equips them with all the essential skills of planning, writing and referencing.

good for undergrads

The book covers the skills needed for essay writing and is well illustrated with examples. I felt that it was too long to be of great appeal to students who tend to want a short, sharp introduction and lots of very practical, immediately applicable methods.

This is one of the books which will be recommended for our 2nd and 3rd years UG students in preparation for their dissertations.

It gives me pleasure to write to you. I thank you for supporting me by (Essay Writing )book ,i am keen on reading this book, i think could finish it today and i will thank you again for your effort and the opportunity that you give it to me and for this interesting book that full of benefits , it will help my students.

Dr. Mona S. El-Kutry

Specific Education Faculty-Ain Sams University, Cairo

A very easy to read, valuable and helpful resource especially for under graduate foundation degree students.

I would recommend this to individual students who were struggling with this aspect.

Preview this book

Sample materials & chapters.

Introduction

Chapter One PDF

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Introduction to Academic Writing: Writing

• Essay Structure
• Argumentation

Overview of academic writing

'Your success with academic writing depends upon how well you understand what youare doing as you write and then how you approach the writing task.' - L. Lennie Irvin

The main task of academic writing is to refine and focus an idea through research and interrogation, then to clearly state and properly support that idea with effective argumentation and adequate evidence. Any style of writing that stands in the way of your ideas is not serving your task: to communicate. Be sure to ask for specific requirements within your discipline.

Guide contents

The tabs of this guide will support you in developing a strong foundation for your writing at university. The sections are organised as follows:

• The Six Cs  - Presents a quick, helpful overview of the main qualities of effective academic writing.
• Essay Structure  - Defines the primary building blocks of an academic essay, with videos to illustrate.
• Argumentation   - Distinguishes between argument in academia and common usage, and conveys the importance of evidence in academic writing.

The six Cs of academic writing

There is a common misconception that academic writing should be difficult to read. How many books or articles have you read where the language obstructs the clarity of the writing and the meaning of the text?

Good academic writing should be complex, but the complexity of your work should stem from the ideas presented and the depth of your discussion, not from the style of communication or the language used.

The six Cs provide a helpful way to prioritise and think about the qualities of effective writing in academic contexts:

Considerate

Have a clear picture of your intended reader and tailor your writing to meet those expectations. Consider what knowledge they might possess and whether they have any potential biases.

Don’t absorb information in a passive manner. Engage with your sources and the topic by investigating ideas thoroughly.

Your primary aim should be communicating your ideas and your argument as clearly and directly as possible. Avoid confusing punctuation, long and convoluted sentences and any unnecessarily complex language.

Before you submit an assignment, read it aloud to yourself. If you find it difficult to recite or run out of breath before you reach the end of a sentence, you should consider simplifying your prose.

Be direct and avoid any unnecessary phrases or paragraphs. Be mindful of any repetition and always try to ensure that your language directly communicates your ideas. Also, resist any unnecessary deviations that distract from your focus.

Ensure that the ideas and evidence presented directly relate to your main point. Think carefully about the structure and linearity of your argument. Does your argument progress in a logical manner? Give careful thought to the ordering of your paragraphs and consider how they relate to one another.

Be sure that the information presented is accurate and that the general formatting and referencing adheres to the standards set by your discipline.

Practicing the six Cs

Academic writing entails a whole suite of skills that you will continually develop throughout your degree. It takes time, trial, and error to discover your academic voice. To scaffold your abilities in writing clearly and critically, consider studying phrase banks to explore the kind of language typically used to convey ideas in academia.

– Academic phrasebank (University of Manchester)

– 'They say / I say': the moves that matter in academic writing (Graff, Birkenstein, & Durst, 2012)

The importance of structure

An academic essay should explicitly state its purpose and outline the way in which it plans to achieve that purpose. It should then methodically move through critical points supported by evidence until it supports all its claims and achieves its purpose. Therefore, the strength of an academic essay lies in its logical argumentation through sound evidence and clear structure.

The basics of structure

Despite the variety you will find in the topics covered and arguments made across academic essays, the same basic structure underpins the writing. Here are the building blocks you will normally use to build an academic essay:

Check the rubric or assignment brief for any details about the essay title. In some cases, the module lead will ask everyone to use a predetermined title. If this is the case, follow those instructions.

If you have a chance to write your own title, make it short, but pertinent. Don’t just write the essay question. Capitalise it in the manner dictated by your subject area's style guide ( find the link to your style guide for details). Many markers love a clever pun in the title, but do get to know your instructor's personality before trying this out!

Introduction

Introduce us to your topic, your main argument, and how you plan to support that argument. Explain what you plan to write and why it matters. The introduction typically opens with broader context and then narrows to your specific aim and thesis.

For a detailed exploration of the introduction and its components, please see our Crafting the Introduction guide .

Body paragraphs

Each paragraph should have a central focus that helps to develop and validate your central thesis. Establish that focus using a clear topic sentence. Within each paragraph, you should then move methodically through specific pieces of evidence and focused commentary connected to the topic sentence. Finally, you transition to the next topic (in a new paragraph).

In this way, your whole essay can move from more general writing (i.e., introducing) to more specific writing (i.e., citing evidence, supporting claims). If you cannot summarise each body paragraph into a few words easily, think about reorganising the essay's body, perhaps by amending the focus of your paragraphs.

Tip:  There aren't hard and fast rules governing how long a body paragraph can be. However, if your paragraph lasts for an entire page, think about breaking it up. Consider your own experience as a reader: if you shudder when an author forces you to wade through a whole-page paragraph, then why subject  your  readers to that tedium? 

Some people like a conclusion that reiterates the thesis and summarises the evidence. Other people like the conclusion to offer a new synthesis of the evidence to propose a solution. Others like a conclusion that offers new questions that have been raised. Ask your tutor which they prefer.

Diving deeper into structure

The two recorded webinars linked below expand on the concepts introduced on this page. Check them out to develop your skills in devising and honing the building blocks of a strong academic essay.

Argument in academia

There are different ways to understand the concept of argument.  Indeed, scholars have created many frameworks and definitions to express exactly what an argument entails.

When writing an essay for university, the most important distinction to make is that between  argument  as it's understood in  academia  versus  common usage . In daily life, the word argument  gives the sense of something adversarial or even aggressive. Arguments depicted in the media can be very binary in their presentation: 'Stance A' versus 'Stance B', for example, with each side believing the other to be wrong, wrong,  wrong.

In academia,   however,  argument  is often far more subtle and nuanced. Emphasis is placed on how you use critical thinking and evidence (e.g. journal articles, statistics, experiment results, etc.) to support claims.

How to write an essay

Essay writing is an inevitable part of the student experience. To achieve top grades on these assignments, discover how to compose a well-written essay

You might think you know how to write a good essay from your time at school but writing an essay at undergraduate level is a whole new ball game. Taking the time to properly plan your work can lead to higher marks, with lecturers welcoming a logical structure that clearly demonstrates your understanding of the subject.

However, knowing where to begin and how to go about completing the assignment is not always easy - especially if you're still adjusting to university life and you haven't written at undergraduate level before.

'There is an art (and a bit of a science) to every type of writing,' says Dr Rushana Khusainova, lecturer in marketing at the University of Bristol. 'By mastering the art of academic essay writing, you'll also be mastering the skill for writing general and business emails, reports, etc. Overall, it's a vital skill to have.'

Katherine Cox, professor and head of department for humanities and law at Bournemouth University agrees. 'Getting feedback on your development is a key part of developing as a student. Essay writing is an excellent opportunity for formal feedback on your progress, and like any skill it needs practice and polish.'

Here we'll cover the seven main points of planning and executing a well-written essay:

• understanding the question
• researching and gathering helpful resources
• putting together an essay plan
• writing the essay
• tackling the introduction and conclusion
• reviewing what you’ve written.

Mastering how to write an essay early on will also help you prepare for  writing your dissertation  in your final year.

Understand the question

The first step in tackling an essay is to make sure that you understand what is being asked of you.

'I recommend that you read and re-read the essay question,' advises Dr Khusainova. 'With each time, the question will feel clearer.' Break it down into its component parts and pay particular attention to instruction words, for example, 'explain', 'discuss', 'outline' - what do these mean in practice? What are you being asked to do? Be aware that essays take several different forms and a 'compare and contrast' essay requires a different approach to an analytical ('analyse') or argumentative ('critically examine') essay.

For example, the question, 'Compare and contrast the representation of masculinity in two James Bond films from the 1960s and 2000s', can be classified like this:

• instruction (i.e. compare and contrast)
• topic (i.e. the representation of masculinity)
• focus (i.e. in two James Bond films)
• further information (i.e. from the 1960s and 2000s).

'Take coloured pens and highlight each sub-question or sub-task within the essay brief,' explains Dr Khusainova. 'Write bullet points for all sub-questions of the essay. I would recommend using pen and paper. Research suggests that when we use pen and paper to write down our thoughts, our brain structures information in a more efficient way.'

Ask yourself:

• What is significant about the question and its topic?
• What existing knowledge do you have that will help you answer this question?
• What do you need to find out?
• How are you going to successfully address this question?
• What logical sequence will your ideas appear in?

If you still don't understand the question or the complexity of the response expected from you, don't be afraid to ask for clarification from your lecturer or tutor if you need it. If you have questions, speak up when the essay is set rather than leaving it too late.

Gather resources

With so much information available, it's vital that you only look for directly relevant material when researching. Decide where the gaps in your knowledge and understanding are, and identify the areas where you need more supporting evidence. Make a list of keywords that describe the topic and use them to search with.

Useful resources include:

• course material
• lecture notes
• library books
• journal articles

Engage in active reading and keep organised with effective note-taking. Once you've done your research, create a mind map. Carefully note the key theories, information and quotes that will help you to answer all components of the question. Consider grouping these into three or four main themes, including only the most significant points. You must be ruthless and exclude ideas that don't fit in seamlessly with your essay's focus.

Create an essay plan

'You can write an essay without planning, but I'm not sure you can write a good essay without planning,' says Katherine.

When you have an idea of the points you're going to address in your essay, and a rough idea of the order in which these will appear, you're ready to start planning. There are two main ways to do this:

• Linear plans  - useful for essays requiring a rigid structure. They provide a chronological breakdown of the key points you're going to address.
• Tabular plans  - best for comparative assignments. You'll be able to better visualise how the points you're contrasting differ across several aspects.

Scrutinise the notes you've already made - including those from your evaluation of relevant materials from your literature search - and ensure they're placed into a logical order.

There are different approaches to planning an essay. Some students might prefer a step-by-step, structured approach, while others might find it helpful to begin in a more fluid way - jotting down keywords and ideas that they later develop into a more structured working plan.   Essay planning can take several forms, 'for example, you might try a mind map, a collage, or use headings. You might prefer to plan in written form or online. You'll also turn ideas over in your head - just remember to jot down these insights,' adds Katherine.

'In my experience most students find it helpful to start by writing an essay skeleton - a bullet pointed structure of the essay,' says Dr Khusainova.

'I also advise taking an inverted pyramid approach to the storyline. This is where you start broad and slowly narrow down your focus to the specific essay question.'

Write clearly and concisely

Most university essays are set with a word count and deadline in place. It's therefore important that you don't waste time or words on waffle. You need to write clearly and concisely and ensure that every sentence and paragraph works towards answering the essay question.

Aim to write a first draft where you cover everything in your plan. You can then refine and edit this in your second draft.

'A successful essay is one that answers all parts of the essay question,' explains Dr Khusainova. 'Also consider elements such as the level of critical thinking and whether it's written in a suitable style.

'One of the most important (and coincidentally, the most challenging) elements of essay writing is ensuring your assignment has a logical storyline. Make sure no idea is coming out of the blue and that the discussion flows logically.'

Also consider your method of referencing. Some institutions specify a preferred citation style such as The Harvard System. Whatever referencing system you're using ensure that you're doing so correctly to avoid plagiarism. It should go without saying that your writing needs to be your own.

If you need help Katherine points out 'you can turn to your tutors and your peers. Perhaps you can you organise a study group and discuss one another's ideas? It's tempting with new and emerging artificial intelligence technology to turn to these resources but they are in their infancy and not particularly reliable. A number of universities advise you to avoid these resources altogether.'

Carefully consider the introduction and conclusion

Starting an essay and writing an impactful conclusion are often the trickiest parts.

It can be useful to outline your introduction during the early stages of writing your essay. You can then use this as a frame of reference for your writing. If you adopt this approach be aware that your ideas will likely develop or change as you write, so remember to revisit and review your introduction in later stages to ensure it reflects the content of your final essay.

While the conclusion may not be the first thing you write, it's still helpful to consider the end point of your essay early on, so that you develop a clear and consistent argument. The conclusion needs to do justice to your essay, as it will leave the greatest impression on your reader.

On the other hand, if you're unsure what shape your argument may take, it's best to leave both your introduction and conclusion until last.

Evaluate what you've written

Once you've written and edited your essay, leave it alone for a couple of days if possible. Return to it with fresh eyes and give it a final check.

'Reading an essay out loud works well for some students,' says Dr Khusainova. 'Swapping drafts with a classmate could also work on some modules.'

Don't skip this step, final checks are important. This is when you can pick up on formatting and spelling errors and correct any referencing mistakes.

• Check that your introduction provides a clear purpose for your essay.
• Ensure that the conclusion provides a clear response to the essay question, summarising your key findings/argument. 
• Check the structure of your paragraphs for clear topic and link sentences. Are the paragraphs in a logical order with a clear and consistent line of argument that a reader can follow?
• Read your essay slowly and carefully. Writing has a rhythm - does your writing flow and is it correctly punctuated?
• Remove unnecessary repetition.
• Review the examples and evidence you've used. Is there enough to support your argument?

'Receiving feedback can be an emotional experience - so be honest with yourself,' advises Katherine. 'What is the feedback telling you - what are your strengths? What areas could you improve?'

Find out more

• Struggling with your workload? Here are  5 ways to manage student stress .
• Discover  how to revise for exams .
• Take a look at 7 time management tips for students .

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Essay writing

• Introduction to essay writing
• Planning and structuring your essay
• Writing your essay
• Developing your essay writing

Useful links for writing essays

• Study Advice Helping students to achieve study success with guides, video tutorials, seminars and one-to-one advice sessions.
• Academic writing LibGuide Expert guidance on punctuation, grammar, writing style and proof-reading.
• Guide to citing references Includes guidance on why, when and how to use references correctly in your academic writing.
• Reading and notemaking LibGuide Expert guidance on managing your reading and making effective notes.
• Academic Phrasebank Use this site for examples of linking phrases and ways to refer to sources.
• Ten stages of assignment success (Prezi) Based upon Burns and Sinfield, Essential Study Skills.
• Critical Thinking A short video on Critical Thinking that the BBC have prepared in partnership with The Open University

Much of the work you will be asked to do at University is written. Written work is not only a way of communicating your understanding of a topic, but can also be a learning process in itself, prompting you to think about how to organise your knowledge and find new connections.

Essays are one of the most common ways you will be asked to communicate your learning at university. University essays are discursive and analytical. They need to be written in appropriate language and carefully referenced. You marker will be looking out for errors, so make sure you have plenty of time to check your work meticulously.

To write a great essay, you need to control your ideas to produce a critical discussion that is well-supported with evidence from your reading and focuses on the brief. The advice in this guide will help you to do that.

• Essay writing: an overview (video) Watch this brief video tutorial for more on the topic.
• Essay writing: an overview (transcript) Read along while watching the video tutorial.
• Next: Planning and structuring your essay >>
• Last Updated: Jan 29, 2024 11:27 AM
• URL: https://libguides.reading.ac.uk/essays

Skills for Learning : Essay Writing

An essay is a piece of academic writing that answers a question or explores one specific topic. Essays are the most common form of assessment in universities. You will be expected to build an argument based on evidence gathered from information sources. Essays tend to have three main parts: the introduction, main body and conclusion.

We run interactive workshops to help you develop your essay writing skills. Find out more on the Skills for Learning Workshops page.

We have online academic skills modules within MyBeckett for all levels of university study. These modules will help your academic development and support your success at LBU. You can work through the modules at your own pace, revisiting them as required. Find out more from our FAQ What academic skills modules are available?

How to approach your essay

• Research your question
• Organise your ideas
• Choose your thesis statement
• Plan your paragraphs
• Write your first draft
• Edit your work
• The final proofread

Use the question you’ve been set to help you develop a plan for literature searching. For most topics, there will be many books and journal articles available. When searching Discover and subject databases , focus on keywords from the question. Download the Evidence Matrix Worksheet to help you.

• Evidence Matrix Worksheet

Look for instruction words and phrases. These provide clues as to what the question is asking you to do. The key words in the question might include ‘What?’, ‘When?’ or ‘Why?’, in addition to topic-specific terms. Download the Essay Planning Worksheet and Understanding Assignment Questions Worksheets to help you.

• Essay Planning Worksheet
• Understanding Assignment Questions Worksheet

After doing some research, you can begin to organise your ideas. Making an essay plan will help you to formulate an answer. You should plan before you start to write so that your answer is clear and logical. Try making a detailed list of your ideas using bullet points. Download the Essay Planning Worksheet for helpful methods to organise your thoughts.

You need to paraphrase and summarise information from published sources. Download the Paraphrasing and Summarising Information Worksheet to help you develop this skill.

• Paraphrasing and Summarising Information

Comparing information from different sources will help you include critical thinking in your essays. Download our Synthesising Sources in Writing Worksheet to help you with this. 

• Synthesising Sources in Writing Worksheet

An academic essay is usually an argument, where you give evidence to make a case. A thesis statement is a summary of your main argument. It is usually expressed in one sentence in the first paragraph of your essay. The purpose is to tell your reader how you are going to answer the question. An example thesis statement might be: ‘Coffee is more effective at improving energy levels than tea because it contains a greater amount of caffeine’.

Your essay should provide evidence to show that your thesis statement is valid. Keep referring to your thesis statement throughout and be sure to maintain one central argument. This approach will allow you to remain focused as you write.

The structure of your essay is very important. Each paragraph should contain one key idea, and each idea should link to the next. The order of the paragraphs should be logical. Think about grouping similar ideas together – you might structure chronologically or by theme.

Each paragraph should contribute to your overall argument. The PEAL model  (which stands for ‘Point, Evidence, Analysis, Link’) provides a basic structure for your paragraphs. With this approach, each paragraph is built around one clear point backed up with evidence. Before moving on to the next paragraph, you must explain the relevance of the point. Finally, link back to your main argument or forward to the next paragraph. PEAL is especially useful if you struggle to structure your academic writing. Download the PEAL Paragraph Structure Worksheet to help you develop this skill. 

• PEAL Paragraph Structure Worksheet

Use reporting verbs to explain and comment on your evidence. Download the Reporting Verbs Worksheet to help you with using these.

• Reporting Verbs Worksheet

Your first draft does not have to be perfect. In fact, it may look very different from the finished essay. The first draft is about having a go at answering the question. Certainly, you should not see your first attempt as the final piece. You will always gain more marks by editing your work before you submit your assignment. Try making notes in the margins of your first draft to remind you of what to add or change.

This is your opportunity to check your work thoroughly. Examine the content and structure of the essay. Have you answered the question and fulfilled the assignment brief? Is your answer structured logically? Are there problems with grammar and spelling? Leave yourself plenty of time before the deadline to edit your work. You may want to put the essay aside for a day or so. When you return to it, you’re more likely to notice issues that need resolving.

Check the structure of your work by making a reverse outline. Download the Reverse Outlines Worksheet to help you with this. 

• Reverse Outlines Worksheet

Top tips! Keep referring to the question to see if each paragraph contributes to your overall answer. Take a look at our editing and proofreading advice to help with the editing process.

The final read-through is when you check for spelling, typographical and formatting errors. It’s also wise to check your referencing (both in-text citations and the reference list) is consistent and accurate. Take time and care over this stage. Your tutor is sure to notice if you skip this important step.

Top tips! Don’t leave proofreading until the last minute! If you rush, you’ll miss obvious problems and your work will be less polished.

Find out more about proofreading .

If you haven't already done so, this is a good time to review any feedback you have received on previous work. Download the Feedback Action Plan Worksheet to help you with this.

• Feedback Action Plan Worksheet

Main features of an essay

Introduction

This tells the reader how you are going to answer the question. Give your reader a clear summary of what you are going to argue (your thesis statement) and what points you will make. Additionally, outline any methodologies or theoretical frameworks you will use. In short, show what you’re aiming to achieve with the essay. The main body of the essay will expand on these aims.

This is the analytical part of the essay, where you will demonstrate your knowledge. You should use critical thinking skills to form your own argument. Each paragraph should make a different point and contribute to answering the overall question. The paragraphs should be presented in a logical order. You must give evidence from your reading to back up your argument. This is the longest part of the essay and your opportunity to show what you know!

The conclusion is where you summarise how you have answered the essay question. Return to the key points established in the introduction. Explain how the main body of the essay has examined these points to create your argument. In many essays, the conclusion can also be used to put forward your own ideas for future research.

Artificial intelligence tools

Before using any generative artificial intelligence or paraphrasing tools in your assessments, you should check if this is permitted on your course.

If their use is permitted on your course, you must  acknowledge any use of generative artificial intelligence tools  such as ChatGPT or paraphrasing tools (e.g., Grammarly, Quillbot, etc.), even if you have only used them to generate ideas for your assignment or for proofreading.

• Essay X-ray tool

You might be unsure how to get started with writing your essay. Try using our interactive Essay X-ray tool for some ideas.

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• Essay Writing
• Higher Education Student Handbook

Some assignments, and most examination answers, will be required to be presented in the form of an essay.

An essay is a continuous piece of writing in which ideas, propositions, research and justifications are put forward and analysed in the form of a series of paragraphs.

The structure is different from that of a written report (see Report Writing below), which is separated into sections by numbers and headings: in the absence of such guidance for the reader of an essay, it is vitally important that the essay structure is planned so that each paragraph follows logically from the other and is wrapped up in an introductory paragraph/s and concluding paragraph/s.

The reader (lecturer/marker) needs to understand clearly:

• What is being said
• How what is said is justified

How do you know you have achieved both? Below are some suggested means of checking.

1. Do you understand the essay question? What is the proposition/hypothesis put forward for discussion/analysis? If you can rephrase the question for yourself then, yes. If not, ask for help.

2. Is there a structure? An outline is essential: What are you going to say, and what evidence will you bring in to support it?

3. Research: Key texts/sources: have you found out who the key (acknowledged experts) authors are on the topic under discussion? If not, the reader is not going to be convinced by what you say, because you are clearly not in possession of the key facts. Your reader (lecturer) is an informed reader i.e. in possession of the key facts.

4. Research: Relevance: the research process will provide you with a wide range of material. Having decided what you are going to say, which pieces of information/others’ research will best support your response to the question posed?

Beware of generalisations

Look at the following essay question and the attempt at beginning to answer it:

"Outline the difficulties facing the tourist industry today.

Travel broadens the mind.  Without experience of people and places we would be much less informed about the world. From the earliest times travel was seen as dangerous and heroic…"

The writer is being too general and begins to offer some sociological evidence, which has not been asked for in the question. He/she is also being too imaginative and what is said is irrelevant. A better beginning to the question might have been:

There are a number of significant problems facing the tourist industry today (Pryer, 2004).  Some of the most worrying concern the potential danger to the environment politically, physically and culturally; the place of tourism in the economy of many countries is also an issue.

Question terminology

Analyse key verbs used i.e. assess, explain, analyse, describe, narrate.  These verbs give you some idea of the approach to use in your answer.

For example: Look at the following essay questions, all on the same subject:

a) ‘Tourism today is quite unlike tourism in 1900’.  Justify this statement.

b) ‘Tourism today is quite unlike tourism in 1900’. Outline the main stages of changes in tourism since 1900.

c) ‘Tourists today are quite unlike the tourists of 1900’. Diagnose the main causes of change in tourists’ expectations in this century.

The key verbs here, (justify, outline, evaluate, diagnose) need to be looked at carefully because they indicate the approach you are expected to take when you prepare and write the essay.  (A dictionary can prove an invaluable help here.)  The other words in the question can provide the key to the subject matter you will need to include in your answer (i.e. tourism, change).

How to get started

Generating ideas - there are various methods of doing this.

Different people have different methods. For example:

• Blank sheet – Take a blank sheet of paper and write whatever occurs to you, anywhere on the sheet, as you think about the question.
• List – List your ideas as they occur.
• Spider/pattern – Draw a diagram with the subject of the essay written in a central circle or box.
• Mind Map – sketch out all the ideas in your mind and then work out how they are related to each other.

Next you will need to ask yourself what you need to find out. Your idea-generating session should have given you some idea of the areas to follow.  Your sources are likely to be books, people, magazines, journals, electronic resources and the media.

Making notes

Some topics require you to research more, some to think and analyse more. Only collect information that will be useful – don’t waste time compiling masses of information that will not be used.

First, analyse the question and decide what it wants you to do. Next, re-write it in an easily understandable form. Your notes will vary according to you and your style – make any that seem relevant to the subject area, at any time – put the information into a box, or special essay file. This practice can help produce originality.

When you get to this point, you need to start to think about the reader of your essay. What you say must be clear and easy to follow, not a mass of unrelated points. Facts are important but not alone, they should be used in an organised way. You are now at the stage where you will begin to group your material. There are various ways of doing this. For example:

• Single pieces of paper for single points, allocated to group headings later.
• Group headings established.
• Tree diagram or form of pattern diagram.

Once groups have been established, it is important that the sequence of ideas is organised. In other words, in what order will your information or comments come in the essay?

Paragraphing

When the material and ideas have been organised in sequence you can begin to write the essay.  Each paragraph should contain a controlling idea, or topic sentence which links and anticipates. Support sentences will expand on the idea in this sentence, by giving examples or re-emphasising the point in some way, so that the reader grasps the main point of the paragraph. “Signposting” words and phrases can be useful in the linking process, for example: “Developing this further…” (looking ahead), or “Such developments…” (referring back).

Drafting (writing up)

Write (or word process) your rough copy. This can be done in sections or written up in its entirety from the organised notes. Each person has their own preference. One useful method is the half-page system which leaves space for annotation and possible alteration to the sequencing of points.

Introductions and conclusions

The introduction and conclusion should be written after the main body paragraphs have been written and organised. This ensures that what the essay says is supported at either end.

An introduction should outline the basis of your essay, giving the reader an indication of what you will be writing about or discussing. A relevant quotation from a key source could provide a gripping start. So could a positive statement such as: “History is bunk” (H. Ford 1934) provided that you then proceed to justify the statement.

Henry Ford did not, which is why he is given credibility as an expert on cars, not history. For a 1,000-word essay an introduction of approximately 50-100 words would be appropriate.

A conclusion should pull an essay together. A positive finish is also a good idea. You may summarise your arguments in the concluding paragraph, drawing together the threads of an argument but also reminding the reader that your essay (hopefully) has proved the points you set out to make. A final paragraph for a 1,000-word essay would be 50-100 words in length.

A verdict or judgement in answer to the question set should be considered.

Style and presentation

Academic writing must be objective in its approach; that is, students are not simply asked for opinions (subjective), but to analyse, judge and propose, using evidence. For this reason, the use of the personal pronouns (I, we, you…) should be avoided. If necessary, the term ‘the author’ may also be used. You may, however, give supported judgements which use references, including examples of data to offer perceptive comment.

Essays should be presented word processed as directed on A4 paper. You should use clear, simple English. Slang and jargon should not be used and long, rambling sentences should be avoided. A good dictionary is the writer’s friend – spell checks cannot always be relied on. Your grammar (sentence structure, use of vocabulary…) should be considered carefully, as should punctuation. Together with research and planning, these areas make an impression on the reader.

Appendices are not usually necessary for an essay. However, you should make your sources clear at the end of the essay.

Quotations – It is important to show, by the use of speech marks ('t' or “t” - be consistent), when you are quoting what someone else said or wrote. Lengthy quotations are not generally appropriate to the short (approximately 1,000 word) essay and it is better to quote a reference for the reader to follow up if she/he wishes. Shorter, succinct quotations relating to a particular point can be very effective.

A guide to essay writing, including a number of helpful videos, is available in the Assignment Lifecycle.

Anonymous marking

Most work is now required to be submitted anonymously. Please follow any specific guidelines given in your assignment brief.

Assessment fairness and marking

Presentation of submitted work

The following instructions give you the University standard for presenting your written work for assessment: it is strongly recommended you follow these instructions as you are assessed on presentation in written assignments. Should a lecturing team require you to present your work in any format and style other than these instructions, they will directly inform you of this.

These instructions aim to ensure that all work you submit will be presented in a professional and consistent manner. Unless you are specifically instructed otherwise, all submitted work should be word-processed. Where necessary, some diagrams may have to be drawn by hand, but the majority of work should be produced using appropriate software.

Think very carefully before adding decorative features like WordArt, page borders or Clip Art to any piece of academic work. Such additions are unlikely to improve the work, and often serve only as a distraction. Therefore, generally, these are best avoided.

The use of colour is permissible, and may be particularly useful if you are presenting charts or diagrams. However, monochrome printing should normally be adequate for any work you are required to present.

Use Times New Roman size 12 for general text.  Use Arial size 14 for main headings and Arial size 12 for sub-headings.

Alignment and spacing

• Apart from main headings, please left align all text.
• All work is to be 1.5 line spaced, except for leaving one line space between sub-headings and text.
• Paragraphs should be separated from each other and from indented quotations by twice as much white space as there is between lines.
• Wherever possible, no gaps should be left on the page unless a chart means you have to. Only main headings or new tasks should start on a new page – not subheadings.
• Tables, charts and graphs should be centred on the page wherever possible and should be of approximately the same size wherever possible.
• Bullet points and numbers can use the pre-given Microsoft Word settings.

Headings and sub-headings should be in Arial font. Major headings should be in bold and centred; type these in size 14 upper and lower case letters; sub-headings should be typed in upper and lowercase letters, size 12, aligned to the left margin and bold.

All margins are to be 2.5 cms both sides.

Headers (unless this is an anonymous submission)

Insert a header that contains your name as per your ID card and course only: put this header in upper and lower case size 9 font and left align it; do not underline or put it in bold.

Page numbering

Page numbers to be size 12 and placed on the bottom right-hand corner in a footer.

Numbering paragraphs

Please think very carefully before numbering headings and paragraphs in reports as these often become confusing and adversely affect presentation. If you decide to use a numbering style, please use the Microsoft Word numbering tools, as these will present the numbers in the most suitable manner.

Numbering and titling tables and charts

Please number each table – ‘table 1’, ‘table 2’ etc. – and number each chart or graph as ‘figure 1’, ‘figure 2’ etc. Centre these numbers directly above the table or figure. It is good practice to give each table or chart a title. This title should be in Arial, size 12 and centred directly below the chart or table.

If the quotation is less than one line, then it should be included in the main text enclosed in either single or double speech marks (be consistent) – do not italicise this or place it in bold. If the quotation is more than one line then:

• Separate it from the main text with a double hard return (‘enter’) top and bottom and indented by 1 cm each side.
• It should not be placed within speech marks.
• Place it in size 12 font.

Do not  italicise  quotes or place them in  bold lettering.   Direct quotes must be acknowledged using either single or double speech marks (be consistent) otherwise you are vulnerable to an accusation of attempting to pass off a source’s words as your own paraphrasing summary. This could be interpreted as plagiarism (see below).

• List of references

These are to be single line spaced and must follow the University Standard exactly in both procedure and presentation. The Referencing Guide is available on both the Assignment Life Cycle (on Canvas) and the Library portal site. It is also included in CASE's Getting Started booklet (available on the Assignment Life Cycle, but also as paper copies in the Academic Skills Centre, 6th Floor, Link building).

Appendices should be kept to a minimum. When used, they should be titled and presented in a professional and consistent manner. Title each one 'Appendix A’ (with a description of the content), B, C, etc., and place this title in bold, Arial font 12 and place on the left margin.

Paper and printing

Use only white A4 paper and print on both sides.

Care must be taken when using other people’s work in your own. Otherwise you could face the very serious charge of plagiarism - stealing someone else’s ideas. Please note:

• When you use a direct quotation you must use quotation marks.
• If you summarise another writer’s views, you must cite the source correctly.
• If you paraphrase someone else’s thoughts, you must document the source.

Plagiarism Guide

Final thoughts

The last thing you should do before handing in your essay is to proofread it. It is often useful to let someone else read it and listen to their comments, as well as reading it through out loud to yourself.

A final check for grammar and punctuation errors is always time well spent, since grading is influenced by the appropriate use of standard English. All students at UCB can set up a Grammarly Premium account free of charge. You are strongly recommended to set up an account in order to proofread your work.

Your assignment feedback will inform you of the grading criteria applied. You have access to these to build in the appropriate features of strong work.

Further details about the presentation of your work are available in the Assignment Life Cycle.

Report writing

Any report, regardless of style, is very different from an essay. Reports are designed to be selective in information given, and the correct compilation and layout of a report is arguably as important as the material it contains.

Reports can be read whole or in part. They are often used as the basis for further research. Report writing skills are widely used in industry and are therefore well worth acquiring.

Basic styles in report writing

A report is a style of writing that is both systematic and objective in its presentation of information to the reader.

Some or all of these approaches may be used:

• Informative – the result of research, and predominantly the presentation of fact.
• Persuasive – recommending a course of action or maybe a change of opinion, reinforcement of an idea or concept.
• Explanatory – to present possible reasons for problems and situations.
• Historical – to record an event or verbal agreement.

Stages in report writing

1. Decide the task to be undertaken

2. Compile a plan of action and prioritise set tasks

3. Collect evidence or material

4. Organise, evaluate and analyse material

5. Write the report

6. Review and proofread draft script

7. Make amendments

8. Make final evaluation

Preparation

Careful thought and preparation is the key to presenting successful reports. It is well worth taking some time to think about what you aim to achieve from your efforts and also who the reader may be.

Plan of action

Often with report writing there are many tasks to be done. In group work it may be appropriate to allocate tasks between group members.  Whatever the situation, try to think ahead and plan your strategy, bearing in mind the time limit that you have to work within.

Collecting evidence/material

Information for a report can come from a variety of sources: questionnaires, books/periodicals, journals, personal interviews, internet sources. Evidence may be divided into either primary or secondary information – primary evidence is evidence that you have collected yourself and is characterised by being new and original. This is sometimes referred to as empirical research; secondary evidence is already published information from books, articles, specialist magazines or Internet sources.

Organisation and evaluation of material

1. Identify the main purpose of the report and state clearly what you hope to achieve by the end.

2. Choose a title which is appropriate and relevant and is closely linked to the main purpose of the report.

3. Plan the layout of your material. All reports should have an introduction, main body, divided into sections, a conclusion and, sometimes, recommendations. Information which is not directly relevant to your discussion but worthy of inclusion for follow-up purposes should be placed in the appendices.

4. Use clear headings and subheadings. Make the report as easy and interesting to read as possible.

5. Consider the use of diagrams and illustrations to clarify points raised and to make the report more interesting to the reader.

Writing the report

Your report should be structured as follows:

• Title page – The title must say something about the work, showing for whom the report was written, by whom and when, and it should also arouse the reader’s interest.
• Table of contents – Detail each stage of the report with headings and subheadings as required. Include a table of any diagrams or illustrations used in the main text.
• Summary/terms of reference – Description of the scope and purpose of the report.
• Introduction – To include methodology
• Main body/findings
• Conclusion/discussion
• Recommendations (where applicable)
• Appendices – List the contents of this section on a separate sheet.

Additional notes for guidance

• Avoid the FIRST PERSON singular or plural i.e.: ‘I’ or ‘we’. Instead use the passive tense for example:- ‘Evidence suggests…’ or ‘On investigation…’ or ‘This report was researched…’
• Choose your wording carefully.  Avoid colloquial expressions, e.g. ‘due to the fact that’ when no factual evidence is provided, archaic or foreign words or indeed any phrases the reader may be unfamiliar with. Technical jargon, abbreviations, slang and clichés should also be omitted, unless appropriate technical language is essential to meaning.
• If the tables, diagrams and illustrations you wish to use are directly relevant to your discussion include them in the main text.  If not, use them as supporting evidence in your appendices.
• Some lecturers who set scientific or practical reports may require a slightly different format.  If you are in any doubt about what is required from you, please ask the module leader concerned.
• As you research or read for your report, keep a note of all the books, newspapers and magazines, websites or journal articles that have helped you.  You should record all your included sources when you come to prepare your references (see below).
• If you are in any doubt about any aspect of your report, CASE will be happy to offer advice on request.
• Begin your report in good time so that amendments can be made prior to submission.
• Keep to the given word limit.  Part of the skill in report writing is to know what to leave out as well as include. You may lose marks if your report is too long or too short.
• Avoid plagiarism.  Plagiarism is the act of using someone else’s words or ideas and passing them off as your own. See the section on plagiarism.

Further details about report writing are available in the Assignment Life Cycle.

Assignment Life Cycle

It is important that all UCB referencing conventions are followed. The UCB Referencing Guide is available on the HE Library Toolkit (on Canvas), and via the Library and CASE portal pages.

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Department of History

Essay writing and referencing, in this section:, essay writing checklist, referencing, presentation.

Here are some of the things you need to think about in preparing an essay. Few of them are iron rules. Good essays come in many forms, and a good essay writer will sometimes ignore some of these guidelines. But to become a good essay writer you would probably do well to start by following them.

Please remember that writing an essay involves skills of discussion and argument which differ from those that might be used in the informal setting of a seminar. In the first place, argument and analysis in essays will usually have to be more carefully structured than the comments you might make in a seminar or tutorial discussion. In essays, you should demonstrate awareness of more than one argument, acknowledge differences in the views of historians, and adopt a critical appreciation of evidence and its sources. You should also provide the necessary scholarly underpinning for your analysis by showing the sources of your information and arguments in bibliographies and footnotes.

On questions of presentation, footnoting, etc. you should follow the advice given from the department.

The Essay Question

• Have you really answered the question?
• Have you thought what might lie behind the question, e.g. if it asks 'Was the First World War the main cause of the Russian Revolution?', have you thought about what alternative explanations might be suggested?
• Is each paragraph clearly related to the overall question, raising a new topic and moving the argument forward?
• The ultimate test is that if you left the title off the top of your essay, could a friend guess the question from your answer?

Your Analysis

• Have you made an argument or is the essay simply relating what happened?
• Is your argument logical, coherent and clear?
• Are you contradicting yourself?
• Are you using appropriate evidence to back up each part of your argument?
• Are you aware of counter-arguments?
• Have you combined evidence and ideas from several different sources at each stage of the argument, or are you merely summarising what your sources say one by one?

Your Research

• Have you done enough reading? Six books/article/chapters is suggested for a short essay; ten or more for a long one.
• Are you up to date on the historical debate? Do not rely only on the older texts.
• Have you listed in the bibliography all the sources you used, and only those sources?

Why reference?

From reading academic articles and books, you should be familiar with the scholarly practice of making references in the text to other people's work and providing listings of relevant source material at the end of the text.

Why is this done?

• To enable someone reading the document to find the material you have referred to or consulted
• To demonstrate your width of reading and knowledge about a subject
• To support and/or develop points made in the text
• To avoid accusations of plagiarism: using somebody else's work without acknowledging the fact

Citation style

A citation style is a system for formatting references, whether in the main text of an essay, in the footnotes, or in the bibliography. It covers such things as the order of information in the citation style, the length of the citation, and the use of capitalisation and italics.

A common style used in the humanities is known as the MHRA style, so-called because it is administered by the Modern Humanities Research Association, a scholarly association based in the UK. Below are some examples of citations formatted in the MHRA style.

Tom McArthur, Worlds of Reference: Lexicography, Learning and Language from the Clay Tablet to the Computer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 59.

A chapter in an edited book:

Martin Elsky, ‘Words, Things, and Names: Jonson’s Poetry and Philosophical Grammar’, in Classic and Cavalier: Essays on Jonson and the Sons of Ben , ed. by Claude J. Summers and Ted-Larry Pebworth (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1982), pp. 31–55 (p. 41).

A journal article:

Robert F. Cook, ‘Baudouin de Sebourc: un poème édifiant?’, Olifant , 14 (1989), 115–35 (pp. 118–19).

These examples are taken from the MHRA Style Guide, the third (2013) edition of which is available here . For a short summary of the guide, see pages 3 to 8. For more detail on referencing, see pages 58 to 82.

Another citation style often used by historians is the one in the Chicago Manual of Style , published by the University of Chicago Press and currently in its seventeenth edition. This style is subtly different from the MHRA style, as you can see by comparing these citations with the ones above:

Tom McArthur, Worlds of Reference: Lexicography, Learning and Language from the Clay Tablet to the Computer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 59.

Martin Elsky, “Words, Things, and Names: Jonson’s Poetry and Philosophical Grammar,” in Classic and Cavalier: Essays on Jonson and the Sons of Ben , ed. Claude J. Summers and Ted-Larry Pebworth (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1982), 41.

Robert F. Cook, “Baudouin de Sebourc: un poème édifiant?”, Olifan t 14 (1989): 118–19.

Which citation style should you use? The History Department does not favour one particular style, but it does require that students:

• Use the same style throughout any given essay
• Use a recognised style for citations rather than inventing your own style – the MHRA and Chicago style guides are examples.
• Use footnotes for citations rather than in-text citations, such as the in-text citation style administered by the American Psychological Association (the APA style is widely used in the social sciences but rarely in the humanities)
• Include a bibliography at the end of each essay, ie. a list of the works you have cited in the course of the essay

The Department has no rules about how assessments should be presented and formatted. What is important is to ensure that your writing is clearly readable on a screen, which makes it easier for markers to focus on the merits of your argument and writing rather than be distracted by poor presentation. Please check with your tutor in case there are specific requirements for a particular module. If you aren’t sure where to begin, the following are suggested guidelines for how you might format and present your assessments:

• Your font should usually be font size 12 in a standard font (e.g., Arial, Calibri or Times New Roman).
• There should be standard margins (e.g., the default for Microsoft Word is 2.54cm) on all sides of the page.
• The line spacing for the text of your essay should be double-spaced.
• The line spacing for the footnotes should, however, be single-spaced.
• Work should be left aligned or justified, rather than centred or right aligned.
• Number each page of your essay.
• Title pages and/or coversheets are not required, but you should include the title or question at the beginning of the assessment.
• Numbers up to one hundred, when occurring in normal writing, should be written out in words rather than numerals.
• When there are many figures, it is better to use words only for numbers up to nine.
• Spell out 'per cent' rather than using the % sign in your text.
• Instead of (for example) '22nd of June 1941', the correct format for dates would be '22 June 1941'.

Essay writing: Introductions

• Introductions
• Conclusions
• Analysing questions
• Planning & drafting
• Revising & editing
• Proofreading
• Essay writing videos

Jump to content on this page:

“A relevant and coherent beginning is perhaps your best single guarantee that the essay as a whole will achieve its object.” Gordon Taylor, A Student's Writing Guide

Your introduction is the first thing your marker will read and should be approximately 10% of your word count. Within the first minute they should know if your essay is going to be a good one or not. An introduction has several components but the most important of these are the last two we give here. You need to show the reader what your position is and how you are going to argue the case to get there so that the essay becomes your answer to the question rather than just an answer.

What an introduction should include:

• A little basic background about the key subject area (just enough to put your essay into context, no more or you'll bore the reader).
• Explanation of how you are defining any key terms . Confusion on this could be your undoing.
• A road-map of how your essay will answer the question. What is your overall argument and how will you develop it?
• A confirmation of your position .

Background information

It is good to start with a statement that fixes your essay topic and focus in a wider context so that the reader is sure of where they are within the field. This is a very small part of the introduction though - do not fall into the trap of writing a whole paragraph that is nothing but background information.

Beware though, this only has to be a little bit wider, not completely universal. That is, do not start with something like "In the whole field of nursing...." or "Since man could write, he has always...". Instead, simply situate the area that you are writing about within a slightly bigger area. For example, you could start with a general statement about a topic, outlining some key issues but explain that your essay will focus on only one. Here is an example:

The ability to communicate effectively and compassionately is a key skill within nursing. Communication is about more than being able to speak confidently and clearly, it is about effective listening (Singh, 2019), the use of gesture, body language and tone (Adebe et al., 2016) and the ability to tailor language and messaging to particular situations (Smith & Jones, 2015). This essay will explore the importance of non-verbal communication ...

The example introduction at the bottom of this page also starts with similar, short background information.

Defining key terms

This does not mean quoting dictionary definitions - we all have access to dictionary.com with a click or two. There are many words we use in academic work that can have multiple or nuanced definitions. You have to write about how you are defining any potentially ambiguous terms in relation to  your  essay topic. This is really important for your reader, as it will inform them how you are using such words in the context of your essay and prevent confusion or misunderstanding.

Stating your case (road mapping)

The main thing an introduction will do is...introduce your essay! That means you need to tell the reader what your conclusion is and how you will get there.

There is no need to worry about *SPOILER ALERTS* - this is not a detective novel you can give away the ending! Sorry, but building up suspense is just going to irritate the reader rather than eventually satisfy. Simply outline how your main arguments (give them in order) lead to your conclusion. In American essay guides you will see something described as the ‘thesis statement’ - although we don't use this terminology in the UK, it is still necessary to state in your introduction what the over-arching argument of your essay will be. Think of it as the mega-argument , to distinguish it from the mini-arguments you make in each paragraph. Look at the example introduction at the bottom of this page which includes both of these elements.

Confirming your position

To some extent, this is covered in your roadmap (above), but it is so important, it deserves some additional attention here. Setting out your position is an essential component of all essays. Brick et al. (2016:143) even suggest

"The purpose of an essay is to present a clear position and defend it"

It is, however, very difficult to defend a position if you have not made it clear in the first place. This is where your introduction comes in. In stating your position, you are ultimately outlining the answer to the question. You can then make the rest of your essay about providing the evidence that supports your answer. As such, if you make your position clear, you will find all subsequent paragraphs in your essay easier to write and join together. As you have already told your reader where the essay is going, you can be explicit in how each paragraph contributes to your mega-argument.

In establishing your position and defending it, you are ultimately engaging in scholarly debate. This is because your positions are supported by academic evidence and analysis. It is in your analysis of the academic evidence that should lead your reader to understand your position. Once again - this is only possible if your introduction has explained your position in the first place.

An example introduction

(Essay title = Evaluate the role of stories as pedagogical tools in higher education)

Stories have been an essential communication technique for thousands of years and although teachers and parents still think they are important for educating younger children, they have been restricted to the role of entertainment for most of us since our teenage years. This essay will claim that stories make ideal pedagogical tools, whatever the age of the student, due to their unique position in cultural and cognitive development. To argue this, it will consider three main areas: firstly, the prevalence of stories across time and cultures and how the similarity of story structure suggests an inherent understanding of their form which could be of use to academics teaching multicultural cohorts when organising lecture material; secondly, the power of stories to enable listeners to personally relate to the content and how this increases the likelihood of changing thoughts, behaviours and decisions - a concept that has not gone unnoticed in some fields, both professional and academic; and finally, the way that different areas of the brain are activated when reading, listening to or watching a story unfold, which suggests that both understanding and ease of recall, two key components of learning, are both likely to be increased . Each of these alone could make a reasoned argument for including more stories within higher education teaching – taken together, this argument is even more compelling.

Key:   Background information (scene setting)   Stating the case (r oad map)    Confirming a position (in two places). Note in this introduction there was no need to define key terms.

Brick, J., Herke, M., and Wong, D., (2016) Academic Culture, A students guide to studying at university, 3rd edition. Victoria, Australia: Palgrave Macmillan.

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Academic writing

Advice and resources to support you with writing effectively at a postgraduate level.

Approaches to writing

Assignment writing is a process which involves planning, drafting and reviewing what you are going to say. You will find you need to review your initial plan and edit it as you go along. You should expect to have to redraft some sections of writing.

You should also check any guidance given to you as part of your course. The conventions observed do vary between subject areas.

One of the hardest things can be to get started writing an assignment. Sometimes this is a question of taking the time to reflect on what you are being asked to do in the assignment brief. 

Getting started with an assignment

Getting started suggests a way in which you can break down your task, think about aspects of it and commit some of your initial ideas to paper.  It also suggests ways you can start to adapt this method to suit you.  Alternatively you may prefer to use a prompt list to start to analyse your title.

Getting started  (pdf)        Getting started  (Word rtf)

Essay title prompts  (pdf)        Essay title prompts  (Word rtf)

You will want to respond to the assignments you have been set as well as you can. This means paying attention to key words in the question or assignment brief. These are sometimes known as command or directive words because they tell you what to do. The document Directive words provides definitions of some of the commonly used words.

Directive words  (pdf)        Directive words  (Word rtf)

Getting your ideas in order

In any written assignment you will be expected to organise and structure information from a range of sources. This can mean you end up with a lot of notes and bits of writing you need to link together. Sometimes it can be hard to know what to select and how to identify relationships between ideas and concepts.

There are suggestions in the 'Getting your ideas in order' pdf handout of practical ways in which you might reorganise your material in response to the task set. Playing around with the order can help you arrive at a line reasoning that will convince the reader. Aim to experiment and find out what works for you.

Getting your ideas in order  (pdf)            Getting your ideas in order  (Word rtf)

Essay parts and paragraphs

If you have been asked to write an academic essay, and you haven't done this before, you may be unsure of what is expected. Parts of an essay gives a brief introductory overview of the component parts of an essay.

Parts of an essay  (pdf)            Parts of an essay  (Word rtf)

Paragraphs are the building blocks of an essay and paragraphs are a way of organising your thinking and making the meaning clear in your writing. The handout Developing writing in paragraphs encourages you to think about the way you shape your paragraphs and when to move on to a new one.

Developing writing in paragraphs  (pdf)           Developing writing in paragraphs  (Word rtf) 

Build an argument as you go

You can develop your argument as you read and write by creating a working hypothesis or basic answer in response to the assignment brief.  

Building an argument as you go  (pdf)             Building an argument as you go  (Word rtf)

As you move through your studies lecturers will expect more from your written work. They will expect the accurate attribution of ideas from others (including academic and other authors, and the ideas of those who teach you). They will expect written pieces to be logically structured with fluid expression of thought, and with deeper and more critical engagement with the subjects and ideas you are reading and learning about. 

Aim to become familiar with the level of writing required by reading good quality examples.  At an advanced level you are aiming to write to the style you read in academic journals. 

As your written tasks become longer and more complex it can be helpful to reflect on your own writing process.

Reflect on your writing process  (pdf)             Reflect on your writing process  (Word rtf)

School-level support

Take advantage of any writing development sessions organised through or learning materials offered by your School, Deanery or course. These will help you develop the specific writing skills you need for your discipline or subject area.

Writing your own title

If you have to write your own title in response to the brief you have been set, you need to think about how to frame this.  The Formulating your own title handout suggests some aspects to consider.

Formulating your own title  (pdf)           Formulating your own title  (Word rtf)

If you are studying during a career break, or part-time while still working, you need to be aware that academic writing is different skill from workplace writing; for example, academic writing is usually more formal.

Your written work needs to be grounded in and backed up by appropriate and informed opinion and sources, rather than solely by personal opinion and experience.  Academic written work will also make fewer absolute statements. Language is often more tentative or cautious.

Tips from my first year - essay writing

This is the third of a three part series giving advice on the essay writing process, focusing in this case on essay writing.

Daniel is a first year BA History and Politics student at Magdalen College . He is a disabled student and the first in his immediate family to go to university. Daniel is also a Trustee of Potential Plus UK , a Founding Ambassador and Expert Panel Member for Zero Gravity , and a History Faculty Ambassador. Before coming to university, Daniel studied at a non-selective state school, and was a participant on the UNIQ , Sutton Trust , and Social Mobility Foundation APP Reach programmes, as well as being part of the inaugural Opportunity Oxford cohort. Daniel is passionate about outreach and social mobility and ensuring all students have the best opportunity to succeed.

History and its related disciplines mainly rely on essay writing with most term-time work centring on this, so it’s a good idea to be prepared. The blessing of the Oxford system though is you get plenty of opportunity to practice, and your tutors usually provide lots of feedback (both through comments on essays and in tutorials) to help you improve. Here are my tips from my first year as an Oxford Undergraduate:

• Plan for success – a good plan really sets your essay in a positive direction, so try to collect your thoughts if you can. I find a great way to start my planning process is to go outside for a walk as it helps to clear my head of the detail, it allows me to focus on the key themes, and it allows me to explore ideas without having to commit anything to paper. Do keep in mind your question throughout the reading and notetaking process, though equally look to the wider themes covered so that when you get to planning you are in the right frame of mind.
• Use what works for you – if you try to use a method you aren’t happy with, it won’t work. That doesn’t mean you shouldn’t experiment; to the contrary I highly encourage it as it can be good to change up methods and see what really helps you deliver a strong essay. However, don’t feel pressured into using one set method, as long as it is time-efficient and it gets you ready for the next stage of the essay process it is fine!
• Focus on the general ideas – summarise in a sentence what each author argues, see what links there are between authors and subject areas, and possibly group your ideas into core themes or paragraph headers. Choose the single piece of evidence you believe supports each point best.
• Make something revision-ready – try to make something which you can come back to in a few months’ time which makes sense and will really get your head back to when you were preparing for your essay.
• Consider what is most important – no doubt if you spoke about everything covered on the reading list you would have far more words than the average essay word count (which is usually advised around 1,500-2,000 words - it does depend on your tutor.) You have a limited amount of time, focus, and words, so choose what stands out to you as the most important issues for discussion. Focus on the important issues well rather than covering several points in a less-focused manner.
• Make it your voice – your tutors want to hear from you about what you think and what your argument is, not lots of quotes of what others have said. Therefore, when planning and writing consider what your opinion is and make sure to state it. Use authors to support your viewpoint, or to challenge it, but make sure you are doing the talking and driving the analysis. At the same time, avoid slang, and ensure the language you use is easy to digest.
• Make sure you can understand it - don’t feel you have to use big fancy words you don’t understand unless they happen to be relevant subject-specific terminology, and don’t swallow the Thesaurus. If you use a technical term, make sure to provide a definition. You most probably won’t have time to go into it fully, but if it is an important concept hint at the wider historical debate. State where you stand and why briefly you believe what you are stating before focusing on your main points. You need to treat the reader as both an alien from another planet, and a very intelligent person at the same time – make sure your sentences make sense, but equally make sure to pitch it right. As you can possibly tell, it is a fine balancing act so my advice is to read through your essay and ask yourself ‘why’ about every statement or argument you make. If you haven’t answered why, you likely require a little more explanation. Simple writing doesn’t mean a boring or basic argument, it just means every point you make lands and has impact on the reader, supporting them every step of the way.
• Keep introductions and conclusions short – there is no need for massive amounts of setting the scene in the introduction, or an exact repeat of every single thing you have said in the essay appearing in the conclusion. Instead, in the first sentence of your introduction provide a direct answer to the question. If the question is suitable, it is perfectly fine to say yes, no, or it is a little more complicated. Whatever the answer is, it should be simple enough to fit in one reasonable length sentence. The next three sentences should state what each of your three main body paragraphs are going to argue, and then dive straight into it. With your conclusion, pick up what you said about the key points. Suggest how they possibly link, maybe do some comparison between factors and see if you can leave us with a lasting thought which links to the question in your final sentence.
• Say what you are going to say, say it, say it again – this is a general essay structure; an introduction which clearly states your argument; a main body which explains why you believe that argument; and a conclusion which summarises the key points to be drawn from your essay. Keep your messaging clear as it is so important the reader can grasp everything you are trying to say to have maximum impact. This applies in paragraphs as well – each paragraph should in one sentence outline what is to be said, it should then be said, and in the final sentence summarise what you have just argued. Somebody should be able to quickly glance over your essay using the first and last sentences and be able to put together the core points.
• Make sure your main body paragraphs are focused – if you have come across PEE (Point, Evidence, Explain – in my case the acronym I could not avoid at secondary school!) before, then nothing has changed. Make your point in around a sentence, clearly stating your argument. Then use the best single piece of evidence available to support your point, trying to keep that to a sentence or two if you can. The vast majority of your words should be explaining why this is important, and how it supports your argument, or how it links to something else. You don’t need to ‘stack’ examples where you provide multiple instances of the same thing – if you have used one piece of evidence that is enough, you can move on and make a new point. Try to keep everything as short as possible while communicating your core messages, directly responding to the question. You also don’t need to cover every article or book you read, rather pick out the most convincing examples.
• It works, it doesn’t work, it is a little more complicated – this is a structure I developed for writing main body paragraphs, though it is worth noting it may not work for every question. It works; start your paragraph with a piece of evidence that supports your argument fully. It doesn’t work; see if there is an example which seems to contradict your argument, but suggest why you still believe your argument is correct. Then, and only if you can, see if there is an example which possibly doesn’t quite work fully with your argument, and suggest why possibly your argument cannot wholly explain this point or why your argument is incomplete but still has the most explanatory power. See each paragraph as a mini-debate, and ensure different viewpoints have an opportunity to be heard.
• Take your opponents at their best – essays are a form of rational dialogue, interacting with writing on this topic from the past, so if you are going to ‘win’ (or more likely just make a convincing argument as you don’t need to demolish all opposition in sight) then you need to treat your opponents fairly by choosing challenging examples, and by fairly characterising their arguments. It should not be a slinging match of personal insults or using incredibly weak examples, as this will undermine your argument. While I have never attacked historians personally (though you may find in a few readings they do attack each other!), I have sometimes chosen the easier arguments to try to tackle, and it is definitely better to try to include some arguments which are themselves convincing and contradictory to your view.
• Don’t stress about referencing – yes referencing is important, but it shouldn’t take too long. Unless your tutor specifies a method, choose a method which you find simple to use as well as being an efficient method. For example, when referencing books I usually only include the author, book title, and year of publication – the test I always use for referencing is to ask myself if I have enough information to buy the book from a retailer. While this wouldn’t suffice if you were writing for a journal, you aren’t writing for a journal so focus on your argument instead and ensure you are really developing your writing skills.
• Don’t be afraid of the first person – in my Sixth Form I was told not to use ‘I’ as it weakened my argument, however that isn’t the advice I have received at Oxford; in fact I have been encouraged to use it as it forces me to take a side. So if you struggle with making your argument clear, use phrases like ‘I believe’ and ‘I argue’.

I hope this will help as a toolkit to get you started, but my last piece of advice is don’t worry! As you get so much practice at Oxford you get plenty of opportunity to perfect your essay writing skills, so don’t think you need to be amazing at everything straight away. Take your first term to try new methods out and see what works for you – don’t put too much pressure on yourself. Good luck!