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One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

• Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
• Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
• How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
• How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
• How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

Current Events

• What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
• How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
• How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
• Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
• What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
• What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
• How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
• How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
• How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
• What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
• What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
• What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
• Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
• Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
• Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
• Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
• Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
• Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
• How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
• Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
• What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
• How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
• What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
• Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
• Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
• Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
• How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
• Should graduate students be able to form unions?

• What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
• How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
• Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
• Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
• How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
• How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
• Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
• Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
• Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
• Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
• Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
• Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
• Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
• Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
• Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
• How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
• How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
• What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
• What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
• Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
• What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
• What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
• Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
• Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
• How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
• Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
• What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
• How does stress affect the body?
• Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
• What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
• Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
• How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
• What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
• What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
• Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
• What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
• What were the causes of the Civil War?
• How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
• Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
• What caused Hitler's rise to power?
• Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
• What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
• How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
• What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

• Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
• Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
• How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
• How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
• What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
• What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
• How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

• How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
• How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
• Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
• Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
• How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
• How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
• What are the pros and cons of fracking?
• What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
• What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
• How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
• Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
• Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
• What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
• What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
• How are black holes created?
• Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
• How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
• Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
• How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
• Has social media made people more or less connected?
• What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
• Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
• What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
• How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
• When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
• Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

What's Next?

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Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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11.2 Steps in Developing a Research Proposal

Learning objectives.

• Identify the steps in developing a research proposal.
• Choose a topic and formulate a research question and working thesis.
• Develop a research proposal.

Writing a good research paper takes time, thought, and effort. Although this assignment is challenging, it is manageable. Focusing on one step at a time will help you develop a thoughtful, informative, well-supported research paper.

Your first step is to choose a topic and then to develop research questions, a working thesis, and a written research proposal. Set aside adequate time for this part of the process. Fully exploring ideas will help you build a solid foundation for your paper.

Choosing a Topic

When you choose a topic for a research paper, you are making a major commitment. Your choice will help determine whether you enjoy the lengthy process of research and writing—and whether your final paper fulfills the assignment requirements. If you choose your topic hastily, you may later find it difficult to work with your topic. By taking your time and choosing carefully, you can ensure that this assignment is not only challenging but also rewarding.

Writers understand the importance of choosing a topic that fulfills the assignment requirements and fits the assignment’s purpose and audience. (For more information about purpose and audience, see Chapter 6 “Writing Paragraphs: Separating Ideas and Shaping Content” .) Choosing a topic that interests you is also crucial. You instructor may provide a list of suggested topics or ask that you develop a topic on your own. In either case, try to identify topics that genuinely interest you.

After identifying potential topic ideas, you will need to evaluate your ideas and choose one topic to pursue. Will you be able to find enough information about the topic? Can you develop a paper about this topic that presents and supports your original ideas? Is the topic too broad or too narrow for the scope of the assignment? If so, can you modify it so it is more manageable? You will ask these questions during this preliminary phase of the research process.

Identifying Potential Topics

Sometimes, your instructor may provide a list of suggested topics. If so, you may benefit from identifying several possibilities before committing to one idea. It is important to know how to narrow down your ideas into a concise, manageable thesis. You may also use the list as a starting point to help you identify additional, related topics. Discussing your ideas with your instructor will help ensure that you choose a manageable topic that fits the requirements of the assignment.

In this chapter, you will follow a writer named Jorge, who is studying health care administration, as he prepares a research paper. You will also plan, research, and draft your own research paper.

Jorge was assigned to write a research paper on health and the media for an introductory course in health care. Although a general topic was selected for the students, Jorge had to decide which specific issues interested him. He brainstormed a list of possibilities.

If you are writing a research paper for a specialized course, look back through your notes and course activities. Identify reading assignments and class discussions that especially engaged you. Doing so can help you identify topics to pursue.

• Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs) in the news
• Sexual education programs
• Hollywood and eating disorders
• Americans’ access to public health information
• Media portrayal of health care reform bill
• Depictions of drugs on television
• The effect of the Internet on mental health
• Popularized diets (such as low-carbohydrate diets)
• Fear of pandemics (bird flu, HINI, SARS)
• Electronic entertainment and obesity
• Advertisements for prescription drugs
• Public education and disease prevention

Set a timer for five minutes. Use brainstorming or idea mapping to create a list of topics you would be interested in researching for a paper about the influence of the Internet on social networking. Do you closely follow the media coverage of a particular website, such as Twitter? Would you like to learn more about a certain industry, such as online dating? Which social networking sites do you and your friends use? List as many ideas related to this topic as you can.

Narrowing Your Topic

Once you have a list of potential topics, you will need to choose one as the focus of your essay. You will also need to narrow your topic. Most writers find that the topics they listed during brainstorming or idea mapping are broad—too broad for the scope of the assignment. Working with an overly broad topic, such as sexual education programs or popularized diets, can be frustrating and overwhelming. Each topic has so many facets that it would be impossible to cover them all in a college research paper. However, more specific choices, such as the pros and cons of sexual education in kids’ television programs or the physical effects of the South Beach diet, are specific enough to write about without being too narrow to sustain an entire research paper.

A good research paper provides focused, in-depth information and analysis. If your topic is too broad, you will find it difficult to do more than skim the surface when you research it and write about it. Narrowing your focus is essential to making your topic manageable. To narrow your focus, explore your topic in writing, conduct preliminary research, and discuss both the topic and the research with others.

Exploring Your Topic in Writing

“How am I supposed to narrow my topic when I haven’t even begun researching yet?” In fact, you may already know more than you realize. Review your list and identify your top two or three topics. Set aside some time to explore each one through freewriting. (For more information about freewriting, see Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” .) Simply taking the time to focus on your topic may yield fresh angles.

Jorge knew that he was especially interested in the topic of diet fads, but he also knew that it was much too broad for his assignment. He used freewriting to explore his thoughts so he could narrow his topic. Read Jorge’s ideas.

Conducting Preliminary Research

Another way writers may focus a topic is to conduct preliminary research . Like freewriting, exploratory reading can help you identify interesting angles. Surfing the web and browsing through newspaper and magazine articles are good ways to start. Find out what people are saying about your topic on blogs and online discussion groups. Discussing your topic with others can also inspire you. Talk about your ideas with your classmates, your friends, or your instructor.

Jorge’s freewriting exercise helped him realize that the assigned topic of health and the media intersected with a few of his interests—diet, nutrition, and obesity. Preliminary online research and discussions with his classmates strengthened his impression that many people are confused or misled by media coverage of these subjects.

Jorge decided to focus his paper on a topic that had garnered a great deal of media attention—low-carbohydrate diets. He wanted to find out whether low-carbohydrate diets were as effective as their proponents claimed.

Writing at Work

At work, you may need to research a topic quickly to find general information. This information can be useful in understanding trends in a given industry or generating competition. For example, a company may research a competitor’s prices and use the information when pricing their own product. You may find it useful to skim a variety of reliable sources and take notes on your findings.

The reliability of online sources varies greatly. In this exploratory phase of your research, you do not need to evaluate sources as closely as you will later. However, use common sense as you refine your paper topic. If you read a fascinating blog comment that gives you a new idea for your paper, be sure to check out other, more reliable sources as well to make sure the idea is worth pursuing.

Review the list of topics you created in Note 11.18 “Exercise 1” and identify two or three topics you would like to explore further. For each of these topics, spend five to ten minutes writing about the topic without stopping. Then review your writing to identify possible areas of focus.

Set aside time to conduct preliminary research about your potential topics. Then choose a topic to pursue for your research paper.

Collaboration

Please share your topic list with a classmate. Select one or two topics on his or her list that you would like to learn more about and return it to him or her. Discuss why you found the topics interesting, and learn which of your topics your classmate selected and why.

A Plan for Research

Your freewriting and preliminary research have helped you choose a focused, manageable topic for your research paper. To work with your topic successfully, you will need to determine what exactly you want to learn about it—and later, what you want to say about it. Before you begin conducting in-depth research, you will further define your focus by developing a research question , a working thesis, and a research proposal.

Formulating a Research Question

In forming a research question, you are setting a goal for your research. Your main research question should be substantial enough to form the guiding principle of your paper—but focused enough to guide your research. A strong research question requires you not only to find information but also to put together different pieces of information, interpret and analyze them, and figure out what you think. As you consider potential research questions, ask yourself whether they would be too hard or too easy to answer.

To determine your research question, review the freewriting you completed earlier. Skim through books, articles, and websites and list the questions you have. (You may wish to use the 5WH strategy to help you formulate questions. See Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” for more information about 5WH questions.) Include simple, factual questions and more complex questions that would require analysis and interpretation. Determine your main question—the primary focus of your paper—and several subquestions that you will need to research to answer your main question.

Here are the research questions Jorge will use to focus his research. Notice that his main research question has no obvious, straightforward answer. Jorge will need to research his subquestions, which address narrower topics, to answer his main question.

Using the topic you selected in Note 11.24 “Exercise 2” , write your main research question and at least four to five subquestions. Check that your main research question is appropriately complex for your assignment.

Constructing a Working ThesIs

A working thesis concisely states a writer’s initial answer to the main research question. It does not merely state a fact or present a subjective opinion. Instead, it expresses a debatable idea or claim that you hope to prove through additional research. Your working thesis is called a working thesis for a reason—it is subject to change. As you learn more about your topic, you may change your thinking in light of your research findings. Let your working thesis serve as a guide to your research, but do not be afraid to modify it based on what you learn.

Jorge began his research with a strong point of view based on his preliminary writing and research. Read his working thesis statement, which presents the point he will argue. Notice how it states Jorge’s tentative answer to his research question.

One way to determine your working thesis is to consider how you would complete sentences such as I believe or My opinion is . However, keep in mind that academic writing generally does not use first-person pronouns. These statements are useful starting points, but formal research papers use an objective voice.

Write a working thesis statement that presents your preliminary answer to the research question you wrote in Note 11.27 “Exercise 3” . Check that your working thesis statement presents an idea or claim that could be supported or refuted by evidence from research.

Creating a Research Proposal

A research proposal is a brief document—no more than one typed page—that summarizes the preliminary work you have completed. Your purpose in writing it is to formalize your plan for research and present it to your instructor for feedback. In your research proposal, you will present your main research question, related subquestions, and working thesis. You will also briefly discuss the value of researching this topic and indicate how you plan to gather information.

When Jorge began drafting his research proposal, he realized that he had already created most of the pieces he needed. However, he knew he also had to explain how his research would be relevant to other future health care professionals. In addition, he wanted to form a general plan for doing the research and identifying potentially useful sources. Read Jorge’s research proposal.

Before you begin a new project at work, you may have to develop a project summary document that states the purpose of the project, explains why it would be a wise use of company resources, and briefly outlines the steps involved in completing the project. This type of document is similar to a research proposal. Both documents define and limit a project, explain its value, discuss how to proceed, and identify what resources you will use.

Writing Your Own Research Proposal

Now you may write your own research proposal, if you have not done so already. Follow the guidelines provided in this lesson.

Key Takeaways

• Developing a research proposal involves the following preliminary steps: identifying potential ideas, choosing ideas to explore further, choosing and narrowing a topic, formulating a research question, and developing a working thesis.
• A good topic for a research paper interests the writer and fulfills the requirements of the assignment.
• Defining and narrowing a topic helps writers conduct focused, in-depth research.
• Writers conduct preliminary research to identify possible topics and research questions and to develop a working thesis.
• A good research question interests readers, is neither too broad nor too narrow, and has no obvious answer.
• A good working thesis expresses a debatable idea or claim that can be supported with evidence from research.
• Writers create a research proposal to present their topic, main research question, subquestions, and working thesis to an instructor for approval or feedback.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Psychosocial Development Research in Adolescence: a Scoping Review

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• Published: 01 February 2022
• Volume 30 , pages 640–669, ( 2022 )

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• Nuno Archer de Carvalho   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6620-0804 1 , 2 &
• Feliciano Henriques Veiga   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2977-6238 1 , 2  

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Erikson’s psychosocial development is a well-known and sound framework for adolescent development. However, despite its importance in scientific literature, the scarcity of literature reviews on Erikson’s theory on adolescence calls for an up-to-date systematization. Therefore, this study’s objectives are to understand the extent and nature of published research on Erikson’s psychosocial development in adolescence (10–19 years) in the last decade (2011–2020) and identify directions for meaningful research and intervention. A scoping review was conducted following Arksey and O’Malley’s framework, PRISMA-ScR guidelines, and a previous protocol, including a comprehensive search in eight databases. From 932 initial studies, 58 studies were selected. These studies highlighted the burgeoning research on Erikson’s approach, with a more significant representation of North American and European studies. The focus of most studies was on identity formation, presenting cross-cultural evidence of its importance in psychosocial development. Most of the studies used quantitative designs presenting a high number of different measures. Regarding topics and variables, studies emphasized the critical role of identity in adolescents’ development and well-being and the relevance of supporting settings in psychosocial development. However, shortcomings were found regarding the study of online and school as privileged developmental settings for adolescents. Suggestions included the need to consider the process of identity formation in the context of lifespan development and invest in supporting adolescents’ identity formation. Overall, conclusions point out Erikson’s relevance in understanding adolescents’ current challenges while offering valuable research and intervention directions to enhance adolescent growth potential.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank Conceição Martins and Filomena Covas for their help in assessing methodological options and text revision and Rita Fonseca and Sandra Torres for their advice regarding English accuracy.

This work was supported by the FCT — Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, IP, within the scope of the UIDEF — Unidade de Investigação e Desenvolvimento em Educação e Formação, under the reference UID/CED/04107/2020.

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de Carvalho, N.A., Veiga, F.H. Psychosocial Development Research in Adolescence: a Scoping Review. Trends in Psychol. 30 , 640–669 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43076-022-00143-0

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Developmental Psychology Topics

Topics for research, papers, and other projects

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

• Childhood Topics
• Adolescence Topics
• Adulthood Topics
• How to Choose
• Tips for Students

Are you looking for a developmental psychology topic for a psychology paper , experiment, or science fair project? Topics you might pick can range from prenatal development to health during the final stages of life.

Developmental psychology is a broad topic that involves studying how people grow and change throughout their whole lifetime. Topics don't just include physical growth but also the emotional, cognitive, and social development that people experience at different stages of their lives.

At a Glance

The following are just a few different topics that might help inspire you. Remember, these are just ideas to help you get started. You might opt to explore one of these areas, or you might think of a related question that interests you as well.

Developmental Psychology Topics on Childhood

• Could packaging nutritious foods in visually appealing ways encourage children to make healthier food choices?
• Do children who listen to music while studying perform better or worse on exams?
• Do students who eat breakfast perform better in school than those who do not eat breakfast?
• Does birth order have an impact on procrastination ? Are first-borns less likely to procrastinate? Are last-borns more likely to put off tasks until the last minute?
• Does teaching infants sign language help or hinder the language acquisition process?
• How do parenting styles impact a child's level of physical activity? Are children raised by parents with permissive or uninvolved parents less active than those raised by parents with authoritative or authoritarian styles?
• How does bullying impact student achievement? Are bullied students more likely to have worse grades than their non-bullied peers?
• Which type of reinforcement works best for getting students to complete their homework: a tangible reward (such as a piece of candy) or social reinforcement (such as offering praise when homework is completed on time)?

Developmental Psychology Topics on Adolescence

• What factors tend to influence the onset of depression in teens and young adults?
• How do peer relationships influence identity formation during adolescence and young adulthood?
• What impact do parent-child relationships have in predicting substance use among teens and young adults?
• How does early substance use during adolescence impact impulsivity and risk-taking during early adulthood?
• How does technology use during adolescence influence social and emotional development?
• How does social media use influence body image among teens?
• What factors contribute to success during the transition from the teen years to early adulthood?
• How do cultural differences impact different aspects of adolescent development?

Developmental Psychology Topics on Adulthood

• Are older adults who rate high in self-efficacy more likely to have a better memory than those with low self-efficacy?
• Do the limits of short-term memory change as we age? How do the limits of short-term memory compare at ages, 15, 25, 45, and 65?
• Do mental games such as word searches, Sudoku, and word matching help elderly adults keep their cognitive skills sharp?
• How do explanations for the behavior of others change as we age? Are younger adults more likely to blame internal factors for events and older adults more likely to blame external variables?

Choosing Developmental Psychology Topics

Developmental psychology is a huge and diverse subject, so picking a topic isn't always easy. Some tips that can help you choose a good developmental psychology topic include:

• Focus on a specific topic : Make sure that your topic isn't too broad to avoid getting overwhelmed by the amount of information available
• Have a clear question or hypothesis : Your research question should be focused and clearly defined
• Do some background research : Spend some time reviewing the existing literature to get a better idea about what you want to cover with your topic
• Consider developmental theories : You might consider analyzing your topic through the lens of a particular theory of developmental psychology
• Check out recent research : Use research databases to find the most recently published research on your topic

Before you start working on any paper, experiment, or science project, the first thing you need to do is understand the rules your instructor has established for the assignment.

Also, be sure to check the official guidelines given by your teacher. If you are not sure about these guidelines, ask your instructor if there are any specific requirements before you get started on your research .

If you are going to actually conduct an experiment , you need to present your idea to your instructor to gain their permission before going forward. In some cases, you might have to also present your plan to your school's Institutional Review Board.

Tips for Researching Developmental Psychology Topics

After you have gotten to move forward with your chosen topic, the next step is to do some background research. This step is essential! If you are writing a paper, the information you find will make up your literature review.

If you are performing an experiment, it will provide background information for the introduction of your lab report . For a psychology science project, this research will help you in your presentation and can help you decide how to best approach your own experiment.

What This Means For You

Choosing a topic for a developmental psychology experiment, paper, or project can be tough! The ideas above can be a great place to start, but you might also consider questions you've had about your own life. Once you have a general idea for your topic, narrow it down, do some background research and talk to your instructor.

Nielsen M, Haun D. Why developmental psychology is incomplete without comparative and cross-cultural perspectives .  Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci . 2016;371(1686):20150071. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0071

Leite DFB, Padilha MAS, Cecatti JG. Approaching literature review for academic purposes: The Literature Review Checklist .  Clinics (Sao Paulo) . 2019;74:e1403. Published 2019 Nov 25. doi:10.6061/clinics/2019/e1403

Grady C. Institutional review boards: Purpose and challenges .  Chest . 2015;148(5):1148-1155. doi:10.1378/chest.15-0706

Kim WO. Institutional review board (IRB) and ethical issues in clinical research . Korean Journal of Anesthesiology . 2012;62(1):3-12. doi:10.4097/kjae.2012.62.1.3

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Research and Development

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Latest Update 21 Jan, 2024

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What are research and Development?

What to consider, what are some types of research and development companies apply, applied research.

In the developing world of high competition, companies must find different ways of staying on top of the game. In a perfect market, firms would not struggle to gain to positions. There is a perfect flow of information with both consumers and producers well informed of everything happening within the markets. The interaction between consumers and manufacturers completes a market. When one makes a decision, it affects the other to a great extent. And this is why each participant must think carefully about the decisions they make.

One way of doing this is through   research. Economic growth does not take place where there is no proper understanding of how systems work. Companies are always looking for new opportunities, and they use the data from their markets and other markets to make this decision. These processes come down to research and   Development   (R & D). One of the main reasons people open up businesses is so that they can make a profit. And when there is a new venture for investing, they will grab the opportunity and use it to expand their territory. They use research and development approaches for this. The process relies heavily on the availability of data in the markets they operate in.

As a student of economics, research and Development is one of the main topics you will be covering. It comes under firm competition and strategy to help you understand how firms make decisions to improve their market standing and offer better services. Were markets operating under perfect competition, there would be much need for researching. This is because it is such a market; there is perfect information for both consumers and companies, which makes it easy for them to operate seamlessly. But since perfect competition is only theoretical, every company must use different strategies to achieve their goals.

Research is what companies and individuals before making decisions. Generally, human beings are regarded as rational decisional makers, though there are times when rational thinking does not have much help. In other words, they need to know the profits that come with taking a certain decision and leaving out the other. If they realize the decision does not have much profit or exposes them to the risk of loss, they avoid it. For instance, when a company wants to increase its products' prices, they need to consider several market factors first. They will often begin with competitor research, to know what the competition is doing, and how much the changes will affect them.

Research and Development are including the activities that firms undertake to innovate and introduce new products in the market. As stated above, firms need good information to make a development decision. R & D is often the first stage in the process of Development. As stated above, a company will not introduce a new product on the market just because they are getting more revenues, or because the market looks promising. They have gone through a proper background check of the market to determine whether or not the consumers are ready for the new product or service. Some of the questions they must answer regards how much of the product is already on the market. And since the idea for research and Development includes adding value to the company's bottom line, they must be careful with every decision they make.

R & D includes every step and strategies the specific firm takes to reach their goal. This main include, but is not limited to, marketing and advertisement techniques. It is like a trial for a new product to see how they will be received in the market. It is a great route to follow when these firms want to improve their existing offerings. In the case of price increment above, the company looks at how the current prices are performing, and how much the product is on the market. Doing this allows companies to stay ahead of their competition. This is the real essence of imperfect market competition. Those who have the right information stay ahead of others, and they do not easily share the same.

Companies in different industries conduct R & B using a different method. It does not really matter the sectors; the processes are almost the same. Those in pharmaceuticals, semiconductors, and technology field follows fairly the same procedures to get where they need to be. The application of different theories, like the consumer and producer theories, becomes a vital part of making the conclusions. Note that research and Development help companies to either invest in other areas or not to. Also, they do this to gain more market shares, or when they want to work with other companies.

The term R & D has been linked mostly to innovation in the corporate and government realm, as well as the private sector. Any company that wishes to stay relevant, on the modern market, and ahead of everyone else must stay ahead of their company. This means it is one of the most important aspects of a firm's general survival. Without research and Development, it becomes tough for them to survive. In any case, they may have to rely on other innovative ways, such as mergers and acquisitions or partnerships. R & D enables these companies to design new products and improve their existing offering.

Research and Development also help companies to know their future and prepare for conditions that would otherwise cause serious damage to the company in question. During the 2008/2009 financial markets failure that led to the Great Recession, many companies fell because they were not prepared for the uncertainty. It was one of the worst moments for them, and many did not know what to do in the first place. Even some bigger companies could not survive for the same reason of lacking a good strategy to shield themselves from such issues. This is one of the main aims of research and Development. By looking at previous economies, markets can prepare for uncertainties and take necessary measures to protect themselves from the harsh impacts of market failures.

Many people confuse R & D with operational activities performed by a corporation. Even though they seem similar and have the same goals in many cases, certain aspects make them different. For instance, the research and development process is followed, not with the expectation of immediate profit. Instead, the process is expected to contribute to the long-term profitability of the firm. The process may lead to patents, copyrights, and trademarks as companies make new discoveries and create new products. It focuses on the future of the company, not only for more revenue generation but also for its stability.

R & D is not, however, a cheap process. Companies that set up departments to handle R&D commit huge capital to the efforts. They have to estimate the risk-adjusted return on every investment they inject in the process. This inevitably involves the risk of capital, because it does not give immediate payoff, and there is a lot of uncertainty on its return on investment. The level of capital risk increases as more money is invested in research and Development. Other companies that may not have enough money to invest may choose to outsource their R & D for different reasons, including size and cost.

Companies in all sectors undergo activities related to research and Development. Firms and markets experience different growth levels through these processes, as well as the Development of new goods and services. Companies pharmaceuticals, semiconductors, and software/ technology industries tend to be the biggest investor in R & D. In the European market, research and Development are known as research and technical or technological Development. This term indicates the importance of the process and how crucial it is to the Development of the involved companies. The company does not only invest money but time and other resources in the activities.

Research and Development are some of the most important activities any company should get involved with. However, this does not mean the engage just because other companies are doing so. There are certain things to put in mind the success of this process.

Research and Development are beneficial to the company's bottom line, but it is a huge expense that many firms cannot afford. Nevertheless, they still have to somehow find a way around the process. After all, these firms spend huge amounts on research trying to create new products and services. Whenever a company wants to know how the market will receive their products, they must invest in proper research and data acquisition. And every penny spent is reported for accounting purposes. Any basic, and applies research costs must be recorded as used. The cost of Development can be carried forward since the profits are long term.

Many companies spend billions of dollars on R & D to make the newest, most desired products and services. In a recent survey by PriceWaterhouse Cooper, companies that spent the most on innovation and improvements in 2018 include Amazon, Alphabet, Volkswagen, Samsung, Microsoft, and Apple, among others. The largest spender user $22.6 billion, and the least used $11.6 billion.

If a company has to set its own department for R & D must set aside a proper budget. It means hiring new staff and having a long-term budget for them. Such money should be well accounted for, which is why proper accounting must be done.

There are various approaches to research and Development, which are required for every company to choose one this is more suitable. In one R & D model, a company may have a department staffed specifically by an engineer who develops new product ideas. This team usually has to go through extensive research. This model does not have any specific goal or application in mind. Research is just done for the sake of research. Yes, it may lead to the production of new products, but this is just one of the many goals of the process. This model is the most commonly applied for large companies and has money to invest.

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Another approach involves a department composed of industrial scientists or researchers. The team is tasked with applied research in technical, scientific, and industrial fields. Through this model, the company achieves proper Development of future products, or improvement of the current products and/or operating procedures. This model seeks to establish what makes more profit for the company and how it can be improved to create better products or revenues.

Another approach is the use of incubators and accelerators. In this case, corporates invest in startups and offer funding assistance as well as guidance to entrepreneurs in the hope that these new innovations can be used to their benefits. Many large corporations follow this method because it makes things very easy for them. They do not need to do a lot of work since the smaller company takes care of the ground research.

Business mergers and partnerships are other forms of R & D that companies use to understand the fundamental aspects of a concept or phenomenon.

Basic research aims to produce a fuller, more complete understanding of the underlying idea. Gaining the right understanding is the first step in R & D. These activities give companies a foundation of information, even without directed applications towards the products, policies, or operational process. Applied research, on the other hand, aims at acquiring knowledge with a specific goal in mind. The idea may be applied in determining and developing new products, policies, or operational processes. Basic research is a time-consuming process, while applied research is more of painstaking and more costly. It requires lots of detail to get through its complex nature.

Research and Development have been part of the business world for a long time. Firms need proper information to decide what new products are good for their market, and how to make the existing ones better. Entrepreneurs and businesses must learn the basic models of R & D and its importance in general economic growth and Development.

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Other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about writing an essay, an appeal to the senses: the development of the braille system in nineteenth-century france.

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

Lack of access to reading and writing put blind people at a serious disadvantage in nineteenth-century society. Text was one of the primary methods through which people engaged with culture, communicated with others, and accessed information; without a well-developed reading system that did not rely on sight, blind people were excluded from social participation (Weygand, 2009). While disabled people in general suffered from discrimination, blindness was widely viewed as the worst disability, and it was commonly believed that blind people were incapable of pursuing a profession or improving themselves through culture (Weygand, 2009). This demonstrates the importance of reading and writing to social status at the time: without access to text, it was considered impossible to fully participate in society. Blind people were excluded from the sighted world, but also entirely dependent on sighted people for information and education.

In France, debates about how to deal with disability led to the adoption of different strategies over time. While people with temporary difficulties were able to access public welfare, the most common response to people with long-term disabilities, such as hearing or vision loss, was to group them together in institutions (Tombs, 1996). At first, a joint institute for the blind and deaf was created, and although the partnership was motivated more by financial considerations than by the well-being of the residents, the institute aimed to help people develop skills valuable to society (Weygand, 2009). Eventually blind institutions were separated from deaf institutions, and the focus shifted towards education of the blind, as was the case for the Royal Institute for Blind Youth, which Louis Braille attended (Jimenez et al, 2009). The growing acknowledgement of the uniqueness of different disabilities led to more targeted education strategies, fostering an environment in which the benefits of a specifically blind education could be more widely recognized.

Several different systems of tactile reading can be seen as forerunners to the method Louis Braille developed, but these systems were all developed based on the sighted system. The Royal Institute for Blind Youth in Paris taught the students to read embossed roman letters, a method created by the school’s founder, Valentin Hauy (Jimenez et al., 2009). Reading this way proved to be a rather arduous task, as the letters were difficult to distinguish by touch. The embossed letter method was based on the reading system of sighted people, with minimal adaptation for those with vision loss. As a result, this method did not gain significant success among blind students.

Louis Braille was bound to be influenced by his school’s founder, but the most influential pre-Braille tactile reading system was Charles Barbier’s night writing. A soldier in Napoleon’s army, Barbier developed a system in 1819 that used 12 dots with a five line musical staff (Kersten, 1997). His intention was to develop a system that would allow the military to communicate at night without the need for light (Herron, 2009). The code developed by Barbier was phonetic (Jimenez et al., 2009); in other words, the code was designed for sighted people and was based on the sounds of words, not on an actual alphabet. Barbier discovered that variants of raised dots within a square were the easiest method of reading by touch (Jimenez et al., 2009). This system proved effective for the transmission of short messages between military personnel, but the symbols were too large for the fingertip, greatly reducing the speed at which a message could be read (Herron, 2009). For this reason, it was unsuitable for daily use and was not widely adopted in the blind community.

Nevertheless, Barbier’s military dot system was more efficient than Hauy’s embossed letters, and it provided the framework within which Louis Braille developed his method. Barbier’s system, with its dashes and dots, could form over 4000 combinations (Jimenez et al., 2009). Compared to the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, this was an absurdly high number. Braille kept the raised dot form, but developed a more manageable system that would reflect the sighted alphabet. He replaced Barbier’s dashes and dots with just six dots in a rectangular configuration (Jimenez et al., 2009). The result was that the blind population in France had a tactile reading system using dots (like Barbier’s) that was based on the structure of the sighted alphabet (like Hauy’s); crucially, this system was the first developed specifically for the purposes of the blind.

While the Braille system gained immediate popularity with the blind students at the Institute in Paris, it had to gain acceptance among the sighted before its adoption throughout France. This support was necessary because sighted teachers and leaders had ultimate control over the propagation of Braille resources. Many of the teachers at the Royal Institute for Blind Youth resisted learning Braille’s system because they found the tactile method of reading difficult to learn (Bullock & Galst, 2009). This resistance was symptomatic of the prevalent attitude that the blind population had to adapt to the sighted world rather than develop their own tools and methods. Over time, however, with the increasing impetus to make social contribution possible for all, teachers began to appreciate the usefulness of Braille’s system (Bullock & Galst, 2009), realizing that access to reading could help improve the productivity and integration of people with vision loss. It took approximately 30 years, but the French government eventually approved the Braille system, and it was established throughout the country (Bullock & Galst, 2009).

Although Blind people remained marginalized throughout the nineteenth century, the Braille system granted them growing opportunities for social participation. Most obviously, Braille allowed people with vision loss to read the same alphabet used by sighted people (Bullock & Galst, 2009), allowing them to participate in certain cultural experiences previously unavailable to them. Written works, such as books and poetry, had previously been inaccessible to the blind population without the aid of a reader, limiting their autonomy. As books began to be distributed in Braille, this barrier was reduced, enabling people with vision loss to access information autonomously. The closing of the gap between the abilities of blind and the sighted contributed to a gradual shift in blind people’s status, lessening the cultural perception of the blind as essentially different and facilitating greater social integration.

The Braille system also had important cultural effects beyond the sphere of written culture. Its invention later led to the development of a music notation system for the blind, although Louis Braille did not develop this system himself (Jimenez, et al., 2009). This development helped remove a cultural obstacle that had been introduced by the popularization of written musical notation in the early 1500s. While music had previously been an arena in which the blind could participate on equal footing, the transition from memory-based performance to notation-based performance meant that blind musicians were no longer able to compete with sighted musicians (Kersten, 1997). As a result, a tactile musical notation system became necessary for professional equality between blind and sighted musicians (Kersten, 1997).

Braille paved the way for dramatic cultural changes in the way blind people were treated and the opportunities available to them. Louis Braille’s innovation was to reimagine existing reading systems from a blind perspective, and the success of this invention required sighted teachers to adapt to their students’ reality instead of the other way around. In this sense, Braille helped drive broader social changes in the status of blindness. New accessibility tools provide practical advantages to those who need them, but they can also change the perspectives and attitudes of those who do not.

Bullock, J. D., & Galst, J. M. (2009). The Story of Louis Braille. Archives of Ophthalmology , 127(11), 1532. https://​doi.org/10.1001/​archophthalmol.2009.286.

Herron, M. (2009, May 6). Blind visionary. Retrieved from https://​eandt.theiet.org/​content/​articles/2009/05/​blind-visionary/.

Jiménez, J., Olea, J., Torres, J., Alonso, I., Harder, D., & Fischer, K. (2009). Biography of Louis Braille and Invention of the Braille Alphabet. Survey of Ophthalmology , 54(1), 142–149. https://​doi.org/10.1016/​j.survophthal.2008.10.006.

Kersten, F.G. (1997). The history and development of Braille music methodology. The Bulletin of Historical Research in Music Education , 18(2). Retrieved from https://​www.jstor.org/​stable/40214926.

Mellor, C.M. (2006). Louis Braille: A touch of genius . Boston: National Braille Press.

Tombs, R. (1996). France: 1814-1914 . London: Pearson Education Ltd.

Weygand, Z. (2009). The blind in French society from the Middle Ages to the century of Louis Braille . Stanford: Stanford University Press.

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75 Lifespan Development Essay Ideas & Examples

🏆 best lifespan development topics, 📌 simple lifespan development research paper topics, 👍 good lifespan psychology topics, ❓ lifespan development research topics & questions.

• The Significance of Lifespan Development in the Practice of Counseling Psychology The physical aspect of lifespan development is one of the important ones: it is related to the growth and development of the body and changes in the body and the brain.
• The Lifespan Development Perspective In addition, the impact of the interaction between genes and the environment on the process of human development is also discussed. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Lifespan development and the human servises This is the period when their attachment to parents decreases and they search for new relationships. This is also the period when adolescents find their selves and learn how to be a part of the […]
• Aspects of Lifespan Human Development Thus, I decided not to stop there and continue to build my life in a way that would make my grandmother proud of me.
• Areas That Tied to Lifespan Development Such important problems as health and well-being, parenting, education, socio-cultural context, and social policy are the cause for concern and reflection and are closely related to the development of the life cycle of individuals and […]
• Schizophrenia & Neurosis and Lifespan Development The learning objectives are to comprehend worrying conduct in the scope of the growth missions, series, and procedures that show human development.
• Lifespan Development: Adolescent Psychology Physical changes occur in the child during the period of adolescence as they hit puberty. It is known as the formal operational period and is the fourth stage in the life of the individual.
• Lifespan Development Psychology: Observation at Cosmo Park Finally, the paper will discern the parenting style that the parents were using on the subject being observed.”Life Span is the study of life from the womb to the tomb”.
• Lifespan Development and Learning Disabilities in Childhood Parents in this situation would most likely select the authoritative parenting style to manage children because they are left to make their own choices under a guided framework.
• Lifespan Development and Its Stages in Psychology The choice of this research method is preconditioned by the need to investigate the way cognitive processes among this age group occur and find out factors that result in the appearance of differences between participants.
• Exploring Lifespan Development: Child Perspectives Mesman, van Ijzendoorn, and Bakermans-Kranenburg are the authors of the article about parental sensitivity and its role in the establishment of family relationships and child development.
• Lifespan Perspectives on Human Development This makes it necessary for individuals to understand the human development process, a function that they can achieve using the human lifespan perspective. Finally, because the context of occurrence of different activities is important in […]
• Issues in Lifespan Development Although a strand of existing literature demonstrates that research on human growth and development is a relatively recent endeavor, particularly in reference to the fact that studies involving children did not begin until the late […]
• Lifespan Developmental Theories The article can be considered credible and serve as an illustration to the inappropriateness of contrasting nature and nurture, as the knowledge about the interaction between the hereditary factors and environmental influences is the key […]
• Lifespan Development and Personality Paper The traits that are visible includes; development of hair in the pubic and armpits, onset of menstruation, enlargement of breasts, endometrial development for females due to estrogen and penis enlargement for males and spermarche or […]
• Lifespan Development and Personality In the same way, the genes that a child gets from the parents also affects the way development of the mind.
• Lifespan Development and Its Theories This paper will discuss lifespan development perspective, theories of lifespan development, and the interaction between heredity and environment. Culture and the context in which the changes occur must be considered when analyzing the changes.
• Schizophrenia, Psychosis and Lifespan Development Schizophrenia is a complicated condition not only due to its nature but also due to the fact that it results from a wide range of factors.
• Lifespan Development of Howard Hughes
• Pupal Development And Adult Lifespan Of Different Beetles
• An Analysis of the Behavior Perspective of Lifespan Development Theories
• Development Across the Lifespan: Adulthood
• A Thematic Analysis on Lifespan Development of a Couple
• Personal and Occupational Development Throughout the Lifespan
• Child Observation During The Lifespan Development
• How Having An Understanding Of Lifespan Development Can Help Those Delivering Care To Different Client Groups
• Development in the Lifespan/Preschool & Elderly
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• Edgar Allan Poe’s Personality and Lifespan Development
• How Human Lifespan Develops During Emotional Development
• Human Lifespan and Development: The Nature of Children
• The Confusing Issues, Concepts, and Definitions of Development Theories in Essentials of Lifespan Development
• Lifespan Development: Examining Child and Adolescent Development Influence on Adulthood
• Motivational Theory Of Lifespan Development
• The Contribution Of Piaget On The Field Of Lifespan And Development
• Main Developmental Tasks and Milestones Associated with Each Stage in Human Development over the Lifespan
• Schizophrenia and Psychosis and Lifespan Development Matrix
• Adloph Hitler – Lifespan Development and Personality
• Theories Of Lifespan Development In Psychology
• Synthesis Of Principles Defining The Lifespan Development
• Human Development and Performance Throughout the Lifespan
• Schizophrenia and Disorder of Lifespan Development
• Human Development : The Importance Of Human And Lifespan
• How Does Human Behavior Affect Lifespan Development?
• Are the Lifespan Development and the Development of Communication Related?
• What Are the Psychological Theories of Lifespan Development?
• What Are the Issues Surrounding the Lifespan Development?
• What Is Physical Development in Lifespan Development?
• Which Best Describes the Concept of Lifespan Development?
• What Is the Outlook for Lifespan Development?
• What Are the Psychological Factors of Lifespan Development?
• What Are the Main Stages of Lifespan Development?
• How Does Schizophrenia Affect Lifespan Development?
• What Is Lifespan Perspective in Child Development?
• Should the Lifespan Development Be Explored?
• What Are the Concepts of Lifespan Development?
• Does Adverse Childhood Experience Affect Lifespan Development?
• What Were Stages of Erikson’s Theory of Lifespan Development?
• How Does Personality Affects Development Across Lifespan?
• Do Alzheimer’s Genes Impair the Lifespan Development?
• Does Lifelong Brain Plasticity Affect the Lifespan Development?
• Can Physical Activity Improve the Lifespan Development?
• What Is Freud’s Theory of Lifespan Development?
• How Does Bipolar Disorder Affect Lifespan Development?
• Why Is It Important to View Health From a Lifespan Developmental Perspective?
• Does Medicine Improve the Development of the Lifespan Development?
• How Does Transhumanist Technology Work to Increase the Lifespan Development?
• What Are the Main Tasks of the Lifespan Development?
• Why Is Lifespan Development Important to Mental Health Professionals?
• Do Multivitamins Affect Lifespan Development?
• What Are the Different Views of Lifespan Development?
• Does Exercise Improve Lifespan Development?
• What Are the Human Needs at Each Stage of the Lifespan Development?
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Brain Development and the Role of Experience in the Early Years

Adrienne l. tierney.

Harvard Graduate School of Education

Charles A. Nelson, III

Children’s Hospital Boston Harvard Medical School

Charles A. Nelson III, PhD, is a professor of pediatrics and neuroscience at Harvard Medical School and the Richard David Scott Chair in Pediatric Developmental Medicine Research at Children’s Hospital Boston. A developmental cognitive neuroscientist, Nelson’s interests lie broadly with how experience influences brain development, with a particular interest in the processing of faces and facial expressions. He has conducted research on typically developing infants and children and children who have experienced early biological and psychosocial adversity.

Research over the past several decades has provided insight into the processes that govern early brain development and how those processes contribute to behavior. In the following article, we provide an overview of early brain development beginning with a summary of the prenatal period. We then turn to postnatal development and examine how brain functions are built and how experience mediates this process. Specifically, we discuss findings from research on speech and on face processing. The results of this research highlight how the first few years of life are a particularly important period of development of the brain.

The past 30 years of research have provided a new and deeper understanding of the brain and its role in psychological functions. In particular, researchers now have a better sense of how brain development affects the development of behavior. Measurement techniques such as electroencephalogram (EEG) and event related potentials (ERP) can be used to study infants, children, and adults, and this flexibility has allowed researchers to investigate a variety of developmental processes.

Research using these measures on the developing brain has clarified several arguments about the nature of child development and informed debates such as those surrounding the state of the infant’s brain at birth (whether it is a “blank slate” or not), the identification of critical periods of development, and the relative importance of genes versus environment.

It is important to note that, although much of the research has been conducted on infants, it is a collaborative effort between infant and animal research that has uncovered the neurobiological principles that govern development in humans. Researchers have made use of the homology that exists among developing nervous systems of different species, and many of the cutting-edge ideas discussed in the developmental literature have their origins in animal research—but they have been tested and clarified in neurobehavioral experiments with infants and young children. In humans, researchers can investigate the neural correlates of behavior whereas in animals they can dig deeper into the mechanisms that drive the processes that these neural correlates reflect. To this end, much of human brain research in the past three decades has focused on the brain basis of behavior. A more recent a focus on experience has helped refine researchers’ understanding of how developmental processes are fueled.

In the following paragraphs, we will examine some of the essential ideas that have helped researchers understand the development of the human brain in the early years of life. We begin with an overview of the stages involved in the anatomical development of the brain. Subsequently, we examine three topics that research in brain development has uncovered, clarified, and elaborated: how development is hierarchically structured, such that later development depends on early development; how experience in the first year of life modulates the plasticity of the brain; and how early deprivation has strong and lasting effects on the brain.

Early Stages of Brain Development

An account of brain development in the early years of childhood is only complete if we first examine the origins of this process during the prenatal months. Brain development is a protracted process that begins about 2 weeks after conception and continues into young adulthood 20 years later. Brain development that occurs during the prenatal months is largely under genetic control, although clearly the environment can play a role; for example, it is well known that the lack of nutrition (e.g., folic acid) and the presence of toxins (e.g., alcohol) can both deleteriously influence the developing brain. In contrast, much of brain development that occurs postnatally is experience-dependent and defined by gene–environment interactions. Below we provide brief descriptions of the anatomical changes that characterize the early stages of brain development.

Neurulation

About 2 weeks after conception, the developing embryo has organized itself into a three-layered, spherical structure. In one area of this sphere, the cells thicken to form what is called the neural plate . This plate then folds over onto itself, forming a tube that gradually closes first at the bottom and then at the top, much like a zipper. This creates the neural tube, the inner cells of which will lead to the formation of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) while the outer cells will give rise to the autonomic nervous system (nerves outside the brain and spinal cord).

Once the neural tube is closed, it becomes a three-vesicle structure and shortly thereafter a five-vesicle structure. The different regions of tissue around the ventricles will become distinct brain structures. The anterior portion of the tube will become the forebrain , which includes the cerebral hemispheres; the diencephalon (the thalamus and the hypothalamus); and the basal ganglia. The cells around the middle vesicle will become the midbrain , a structure that connects the diencephalon to the hindbrain. The rear-most portion of the tube will give rise to the hindbrain , which will consist of the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum. Finally, the cells that remain will give rise to the spinal cord.

Proliferation

Once the general structure of the neural tube has been laid out, the cells that line the innermost part of the tube, called the ventricular zone , proliferate at a logarithmic rate. As these cells multiply, they form a second zone, the marginal zone , which will contain axons and dendrites. This proliferative stage continues for some time, with the consequence that the newborn brain will have many more neurons than the adult brain. The overproduction of neurons is eventually balanced by a process of apoptosis , or programmed cell death. Apoptosis is responsible for a decrease in the cell numbers to adult levels and is completely under genetic control.

Cell migration

After the cells are born, they travel to their final destinations. The cerebral cortex is composed of multilayered tissue several millimeters thick. It is formed by the movement of cells in an inside-out direction, beginning in the ventricular zone and migrating through the intermediate zone, with the cells eventually reaching their final destination on the outside of the developing brain. The earliest migrating cells occupy the deepest cortical layer, whereas the subsequent migrations pass through previously formed layers to form the outer layers. About 25 weeks after conception, all six layers of the cortex will have formed.

The inside-out pattern of migration described here is that of radial migration , which applies to about 70%–80% of migrating neurons, most of which are pyramidal neurons and glia. Pyramidal neurons are the large neurons in the cortex that are responsible for sending signals to different layers of the cortex and other parts of the brain. Glia are nonneuronal brain cells that are involved in the support of neuronal processes (such as producing myelin or removing debris, such as dead brain cells). In contrast, interneurons —relatively smaller neurons that are involved in communication between pyramidal cells within a particular layer of the cortex—follow a pattern of tangential migration.

Differentiation

Once a neuron has migrated to its target destination, it generally proceeds along one of two roads: It can differentiate into a mature neuron, complete with axons and dendrites, or it can be retracted through apoptosis. Current estimates suggest that the number of neurons that are retracted is between 40% and 60% (see Oppenheim & Johnson, 2003 ). The development of axons is facilitated by growth cones , small structures that form at the edge of an axon. The cellular processes that occur at the growth cone promote growth toward certain targets and away from others. Such processes are driven by molecular guidance cues as well as by anatomic structures at the tip of the growth cone.

Dendrite formation occurs by a slightly different process, one that is thought to be driven by genes controlling calcium-regulated transcription factors ( Aizawa et al., 2004 ). Early dendrites appear as thick strands with few spines (small protuberances) that extend from the cell body. As dendrites mature, the number and density of spines increases, which in turn increases the chances that a dendrite will make contact with a neighboring axon. Connections between dendrites and axons are the basis for synaptic connections between neurons, which, as we will describe below, is essential for brain function.

Synaptogenesis

A synapse is a point of contact between two brain cells, often two neurons and frequently a dendrite and an axon. The first synapses are generally observed by about the 23rd week of gestation ( Molliver, Kostovic, & Van der Loos, 1973 ), although the peak of production does not occur until some time in the first year of life. As is the case with neurons, massive overproduction of synapses is followed by a gradual reduction. This process of synapse reduction, or pruning , is highly dependent on experience and serves as the basis of much of the learning that occurs during the early years of life. It is important to note that the various structures of the brain reach their peak of synapse production at different points. In the visual cortex, for example, the peak is reached somewhere between the 4th and 8th postnatal month, but areas of the prefrontal cortex do not reach their peak until the 15th postnatal month. The difference in timing in peak synapse production is important because it affects the timing of the plasticity of these regions; the later the peak synapse production, the longer the region remains plastic.

Synapse pruning

The overproduction of synapses is followed by a pruning back of the unused and overabundance of synapses. Until the stage of synaptogenesis, the stages of brain development are largely gene driven. However, once the brain reaches the point where synapses are eliminated, the balance shifts; the process of pruning is largely experience driven. As with synapse production, the timing of synapse pruning is dependent on the area of the brain in which it occurs. In the parts of the cortex involved in visual and auditory perception, for example, pruning is complete between the 4th and 6th year of life. In contrast, pruning in areas involved in higher cognitive functions (such as inhibitory control and emotion regulation) continues through adolescence ( Huttenlocher & Dabholkar, 1997 ). The processes of overproduction of synapses and subsequent synaptic reduction are essential for the flexibility required for the adaptive capabilities of the developing mind. It allows the individual to respond to the unique environment in which he or she is born. Those pathways that are activated by the environment are strengthened while the ones that go unused are eliminated. In this way, the networks of neurons involved in the development of behavior are fine-tuned and modified as needed.

Myelination

The final process involved in the development of the brain is called myelination . In this process the axons of neurons are wrapped in fatty cells, which ultimately facilitates neuronal activity and communication because this insulation allows myelinated axons to transmit electrical signals faster than unmyelinated axons. The timing of myelination is dependent on the region of the brain in which it occurs. Regions of the brain in certain sensory and motor areas are myelinated earlier in a process that is complete around the preschool period. In contrast, regions involved in higher cognitive abilities, such as the prefrontal cortex, the process is not complete until adolescence or early adulthood (for recent reviews see Nelson, de Haan, & Thomas, 2006 ; Nelson & Jeste, 2008 ).

In general, brain development begins a few weeks after conception and is thought to be complete by early adulthood. The basic structure of the brain is laid down primarily during the prenatal period and early childhood, and the formation and refinement of neural networks continues over the long term. The brains’ many functions do not develop at the same time nor do their developmental patterns follow the same time frame. Although basic sensation and perception systems are fully developed by the time children reach kindergarten age, other systems such as those involved in memory, decision making, and emotion continue to develop well into childhood. The foundations of many of these abilities, however, are constructed during the early years.

The principles of anatomical change described above are essential to the maturation and development of the brain. These processes are in turn responsible for the development of a vast repertoire of behaviors that characterizes the early years of life. In terms of motor development, both synaptic pruning and myelination are responsible for the improved precision and speed of coordinated movement. In addition, they are important in the development of cognitive skills. Improved perception of speech sounds and face recognition, for example, are likely the result of synaptic reorganization, a process that is dependent on experience.

Although development continues into early adult years, early childhood represents a period particularly important to development of a healthy brain. The foundations of sensory and perceptual systems that are critical to language, social behavior, and emotion are formed in the early years and are strongly influenced by experiences during this time. This is not to say that later development cannot affect these behaviors—on the contrary, experiences later in life are also very important to the function of the brain. However, experiences in the early years of childhood affect the development of brain architecture in a way that later experiences do not. In the following pages we will elaborate on how experience affects development between birth and 3 years of age.

Brain Beginnings: Constructing a Foundation for the Future

The development of the brain is a life-long process. Indeed, recent research suggests that the brain is capable of changing throughout the lifespan ( Crawford , Pesch, & von Noorden, 1996 ; Jones, 2000 ; Keuroghlian & Knudsen, 2007 ), although perhaps not in all ways (e.g., humans do not “learn” to see or hear better as they age). However, the changes that take place during the early years are particularly important because they are the bedrock of what comes after. Higher level functions are dependent on lower level functions, the evidence for which is primarily in the basic cognitive processes and sensory perceptual systems. When infants are born, their brains are prepared for certain types of experience. For example, as discussed below, infants’ brains are tuned to the sounds of virtually all languages, but with experience, their brains become most tuned to their native language (see Kuhl, 2004 , for discussion). This perceptual bias is the basis for learning language; the brain is partially tuned to be sensitive to language sounds but not so broadly tuned as to be sensitive to all possible sounds.

Subsequent language development builds on this initial sensitivity. Within the first year of life, infants learn to discriminate among sounds that are specific to the language they are exposed to in their particular environment. Before the time they are 6 months old, infants can discriminate among sounds of almost any language. Between 6 and 12 months, the brain begins to specialize in discriminating sounds of the native language and loses the ability to discriminate sounds in nonnative languages ( Kuhl, Tsao, & Liu, 2003 ). This narrowing of perceptual sensitivity is important because it is related to later language ability in that better discrimination of native language sounds predicts better language skills later in life ( Kuhl, 2004 ).

Sensitive Period: Plasticity Is Affected by Experience

The brain is much more sensitive to experience in the first few years of life than in later years. The plasticity of the brain underlies much of the learning that occurs during this period. In the language example in the previous section, we noted that infants are sensitive to most language sounds in the first half-year of life but during the second half they begin to specialize in their native tongue at the expense of the broad sensitivity to nonnative language sounds. The period of heightened sensitivity to language exposure is not, however, a critical period in the sense that infants can no longer learn the sounds of another language once it is over. In fact, 12-month-old infants given additional experience with speech sounds from a nonnative language continue to be able to discriminate among sounds ( Kuhl, Tsao, & Liu, 2003 ).

Similarly, in the domain of face processing , an index of development of visual perception important to social behavior, 6-month-olds, 9-month-olds, and adults are all equally capable of discriminating between two human faces, whereas 6-month-olds alone can discriminate between two monkey faces ( Pascalis, de Haan, & Nelson, 2002 ). However, 6-month-olds given 3 months of experience viewing a range of monkey faces retain the recognition ability at 9 months ( Pascalis et al., 2005 ). Thus, the plasticity that characterizes brain processes during this time suggests that although the brain is particularly sensitive to experiences that occur, experience-dependent change is not limited to this short window. The sensitive period is effectively extended by specific experience.

A similar phenomenon exists in visual acuity, which is demonstrated by the natural occurrence of cataracts, rather than the laboratory manipulations discussed above. Maurer, Lewis, Brent, and Levin (1999) reported that for infants who are born with cataracts, a few moments of visual experience after the cataracts have been removed and replaced with new lenses leads to substantial improvements in visual acuity. This effect is stronger the sooner after birth this corrective procedure takes place. The longer the cataracts are left untreated, however, the lower the effect of experience on the outcome.

As demonstrated above, both speech and faces are initially processed by a broadly tuned window that then narrows with experience, yet the window can remain broader if experience includes a wide range of inputs. These studies suggest that the early period of life is characterized by sensitive periods that are dependent on the pattern of input from the environment. In response to certain input, the networks become biased, and future modifications become more difficult.

Deprivation: Environmental Effects on Brain Structure and Function

The effects of experience go beyond the simple modulation of plasticity. In fact, experience shapes the structure of the brain, a finding that has been demonstrated by the Bucharest Early Intervention Project (BEIP). This ongoing longitudinal study has found that institutionalization at a young age leads to severe consequences in the development of both brain and behavior. The study is following three groups of children: an Institutionalized group, children who have lived virtually all their lives in an institutional setting in Bucharest, Romania; a Foster Care group, which includes children who were institutionalized at birth and then placed in foster care ( at a mean age of placement of 22 months); and a Never Institutionalized group, which includes children living with their biological families in the Bucharest region (for details see Zeanah et al., 2003 ). As discussed above, for healthy development of brain circuits, the individual needs to have healthy experiences; the lack of these may lead to the underspecification and miswiring of brain circuits. Children raised in institutional settings in Romania lack experiences that stimulate healthy growth and thus we would expect to see consequent “errors” in brain development giving rise to a range of problems. Indeed this is the case; the institutionalized children show patterns of physical and cognitive growth that are stunted and delayed, and they have very different patterns of brain activity when compared to children who have never been institutionalized ( Marshall, Fox, & the BEIP Core Group, 2004 ). In addition, the effect of timing of experience is also important in preventing and amelioriating the effects of deprivation: children who were placed in foster care before they were 2 years old show patterns of brain activity that are more similar to never-institutionalized children than do those placed in foster care after they turn 2 ( Marshall et al., 2008 ). The same general trends are also observed for IQ ( Nelson et al., 2007 ) and language ( Windsor et al., 2007 ). These results support the idea that the lack of good quality experience has detrimental effects on brain function and that once the child is older than 2 years these effects tend to be worse.

An important distinction that must be made here is between deprivation and enrichment . The studies described earlier took place in the context of deprivation, in comparison to a baseline norm in which certain needs of the child are met, not enrichment beyond the norm, and they clearly showed that a child deprived of a certain quality of experience will have abnormal brain development. These findings do not indicate, however, whether environments that provide more than the baseline norm will produce brain development that is in some way superior. So although the BEIP studies do suggest that a lack of good quality experience is detrimental, they do not provide evidence for the effects of enriched experience.

Conclusions

In this article we have attempted to illustrate how the developmental neurosciences can shed light on early childhood development. Prenatal development is largely driven by genetic processes, many of which are sensitive to the biochemical makeup of the mother’s body but are under genetic regulation. In postnatal development, however, the environment plays a crucial role in fostering development, and the interactions between genetics and experiences account for most developmental outcomes. Brain research suggests that development is a hierarchical process of wiring the brain, in that higher level processes build on a foundation of lower level processes. For example, language development depends critically on sensory and perceptual development (e.g., discrimination of speech sounds). The types of stimuli infants and children are exposed to help shape the brain and behavior. Although the brain may come equipped with biases for certain perceptual information, such as for speech, language, or faces, it is the specific speech, language, and range of faces they are exposed to that drives subsequent development. Depriving young children of the kinds of experiences that are essential to later development—that is, the building blocks that create the scaffolding upon which development depends—leads to severe consequences in both brain structure and function. Studies of institutionalized children suggest that quality psychosocial experiences are necessary for the development of a healthy brain.

It is important to emphasize that the individual does not play a passive role in this process. By experience we do not mean events and circumstances that simply happen in an individual’s life; rather, we define experience as the interaction between the individual and his or her environment. The individual is an agent that can shape his or her experience ( Scarr & McCartney, 1983 ). For example, a child who appears happy in response to a caregiver singing a song may elicit more singing. This child consequently may have more experience with songs, which could affect his or her language development and the brain processes that underlie it.

Much of brain research is descriptive and simply tells us how the brain contributes to the development of behavior that is typical of young children (e.g., language and face processing). However, some of this research has implications on the decisions we make for young children. Research on deprivation can be used to make the case that environments that adversely affect infants and young children need to be remedied before they have long lasting consequences on both brain and behavior. Intervening in adverse circumstances is more successful if it occurs before brain processes become entrenched and in turn harder to rewire.

Contributor Information

Adrienne L. Tierney, Harvard Graduate School of Education.

Charles A. Nelson, III, Children’s Hospital Boston Harvard Medical School.

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Tau Unveils Groundbreaking Research in Logical Languages to Transform Software Development

TRIESEN, LIECHTENSTEIN, Apr 12, 2024 - (ACN Newswire) - This month, Tau has reached a pivotal milestone with the publication of Theories and Applications of Boolean Algebras, a research paper by Ohad Asor that lays the scientific groundwork for the innovative Tau Language.

Ohad Asor's Research: Breakthroughs in Logic and Computation

The recently published research paper by Ohad Asor, the founder and CTO of Tau, introduces significant advancements in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) with new logical languages, such as NSO and GSSOTC, designed to surpass currently widespread machine-learning methods by enabling formal proofs and reasoning over the entirety of any software developed using Tau Language. The capabilities of Tau Language are indispensable for a wide range of AI-based software, from complex and mission-critical systems to simple applications. Asor's work successfully overcomes some of the most complex problems in the field of logic and mathematics and provides efficient methods to employ logic-based AI to tackle some of the most prevalent challenges in software development.

The research covered in Theories and Applications of Boolean Algebras stands on four pillars:

- NSO language, addressing the long-standing challenge of self-referential logic.

- GSSOTC, a pioneering temporal logic.

- Decidable conservative extensions to Boolean Algebras' first-order theory.

- Related algorithms that enable complete transformation of software development processes.

Coming Up: Tau Language Alpha Release

The publication of Theories and Applications of Boolean Algebras precedes the upcoming Tau Language Alpha release which will introduce core capabilities of the Tau Language. The release will be the first step in applying the team's long-standing theoretical research in practice and will mark the beginning of the Alpha testing phase of Tau's solutions for software development, decentralized applications and more.

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Contact Information

Karolina Masilione

Marketing Manager, Tau

[email protected]

SOURCE: Tau

View the original press release on newswire.com.

Source: Tau

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