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Natural Disasters: Causes and Impacts

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Introduction, definition of natural disasters, causes of natural disasters, environmental effects of natural disasters, economic effects of natural disasters, social effects of natural disasters, mitigation and preparedness measures.

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Vos, F., Dykes, J., & Pierce, L. (2017). Flood Preparedness and Early-warning System Effectiveness in the Philippines. Disasters, 41(S1), S16-S37.

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Published: 28 June 2021

Scientific evidence for ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction

K. Sudmeier-Rieux ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0513-8968 1 ,
T. Arce-Mojica 2 ,
H. J. Boehmer 3 , 4 ,
N. Doswald 1 ,
L. Emerton 5 ,
D. A. Friess 6 ,
S. Galvin ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2235-1947 3 ,
M. Hagenlocher ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5254-6713 7 ,
H. James 7 ,
P. Laban 8 ,
C. Lacambra 9 ,
W. Lange 10 ,
B. G. McAdoo 11 , 12 ,
C. Moos 13 ,
J. Mysiak ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9341-7048 14 ,
L. Narvaez ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8822-4126 7 ,
U. Nehren ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6236-3542 2 ,
P. Peduzzi 1 , 15 ,
F. G. Renaud ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0830-1196 16 ,
S. Sandholz ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2894-1633 7 ,
L. Schreyers 17 ,
Z. Sebesvari 7 ,
T. Tom 18 ,
A. Triyanti ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5524-7551 19 ,
P. van Eijk 20 ,
M. van Staveren ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2225-4103 21 ,
M. Vicarelli 22 &
Y. Walz 7

Nature Sustainability volume 4 , pages 803–810 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Environmental impact
Natural hazards

Ecosystems play a potentially important role in sustainably reducing the risk of disaster events worldwide. Yet, to date, there are few comprehensive studies that summarize the state of knowledge of ecosystem services and functions for disaster risk reduction. This paper builds scientific evidence through a review of 529 English-language articles published between 2000 and 2019. It catalogues the extent of knowledge on, and confidence in, ecosystems in reducing disaster risk. The data demonstrate robust links and cost-effectiveness between certain ecosystems in reducing specific hazards, something that was revealed to be particularly true for the role of vegetation in the stabilization of steep slopes. However, the published research was limited in geographic distribution and scope, with a concentration on urban areas of the Global North, with insufficient relevant research on coastal, dryland and watershed areas, especially in the Global South. Many types of ecosystem can provide sustainable and multifunctional approaches to disaster risk reduction. Yet, if they are to play a greater role, more attention is needed to fill research gaps and develop performance standards.

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Realizing resilience for decision-making

R. Quentin Grafton, Luc Doyen, … Paul R. Wyrwoll

Future-proofing ecosystem restoration through enhancing adaptive capacity

Marina Frietsch, Jacqueline Loos, … Joern Fischer

Global no net loss of natural ecosystems

Martine Maron, Jeremy S. Simmonds, … Julia P. G. Jones

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request, mentioning any restrictions on availability.

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Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the many other people who made substantial contributions to this paper, including M. Estrella, H. Rossum, A. Gomez, M. Ford, T. Chareyre (UN Environment Programme, Crisis Management Branch, Switzerland), R. Lin (Institute for Environment and Human Security, United Nations University (UNU-EHS), Germany), I. Katrinnada, L. S. Ern (Yale-NUS College, Singapore), K. Compton (University of Massachusetts-Amherst, USA) and A. Casteller. We offer special thanks to Yale-NUS College, UNU-EHS and the University of Massachusetts-Amherst for funding research assistants who contributed to this article and M. Jaboyedoff (University of Lausanne, Switzerland) for funding the main author’s salary at the beginning of this research project.

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Contributions

Project administration : K.S.R. Funding acquisition: B.G.M., F.G.R. and M.V. Conceptualization: K.S.R., B.G.M. and U.N. Methodology: K.S.R., B.G.M., M.V., F.G.R., S.S., U.N., T.A.M., N.D. and P.P. Data curation: K.S.R., L.S., T.A.M., Y.W., B.G.M., F.G.R. and S.S. Formal analysis of the thematic category articles reviewed: urban: S.S., F.G.R., W.L., A.T., H.J. and L.N.; coastal: U.N., D.A.F. and C.L.; forests/vegetation: H.J.B. and S.G.; economics: M.V., L.E. and J.M.; rivers/wetlands: M.v.S., P.v.E., T.T. and L.N.; mountains: C.M. and T.A.M.; agroecosystems: P.L., Y.W. and M.H.; drylands: P.L. and Y.W.; multiple ecosystems: K.S.R., Z.S. and N.D.; out-of-scope thematic category articles reviewed: climate-related: K.S.R. and P.P.; geology: B.G.M. and T.A.M.; health: B.G.M. and T.A.M.; hydrology/pollution: Z.S., M.H. and K.S.R.; wildlife: S.G. and H.J.B. Writing—original draft preparation: K.S.R., U.N., S.S. and B.G.M. Writing—review and editing: K.S.R., S.G., H.J., U.N., D.A.F., M.H., P.P., B.G.M., C.L., F.G.R., S.S., M.V., L.E., C.M., H.J.B., N.D., J.M., Z.S., Y.W., P.L., T.A.M., L.S., M.v.S. and W.L. Visualization: L.S., P.P., U.N. and B.G.M.

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Sudmeier-Rieux, K., Arce-Mojica, T., Boehmer, H.J. et al. Scientific evidence for ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction. Nat Sustain 4 , 803–810 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00732-4

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The Influence of Climate Change on Extreme Environmental Events

Climate change affects global temperature and precipitation patterns. These effects, in turn, influence the intensity and, in some cases, the frequency of extreme environmental events, such as forest fires, hurricanes, heat waves, floods, droughts, and storms.

Climatology, Earth Science, Ecology

Boise National Forest Fire

Research shows human-caused climate change has worsened the risk of extreme weather events like the wildfires of the western United States, such as this forest fire in the Boise National Forest, Idaho.

Photograph by David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc./Science Source

Climate change caused by the emission of greenhouse gases from human activities affects global temperature and precipitation . Records from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change indicate that the global average temperature has increased by at least 0.4 degrees Celsius (0.72 degrees Fahrenheit) since the 1970s, and that by 2100, it could increase to around 4 degrees Celsius (7.2 degrees Fahrenheit) above preindustrial temperatures. While the global effects of climate change may seem too small to be noticed by people living around the world, we have already experienced the effects of climate change through severe weather events, including forest fires, hurricanes , droughts , heat waves, floods, and storms. Computer modelling of real data has shown that the frequency and intensity of these events are influenced by climate change. There is a distinction that needs to be made when it comes to the relationship between climate change and extreme environmental events: Climate change has not been proven to directly cause individual extreme environmental events, but it has been shown to make these events more destructive, and likely happen more frequently,than they normally would be. This drastic change is due to the increase in greenhouse gas emissions—primarily through the burning of fossil fuels for transportation, heat, and electricity—in the past 150 years. Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, trap heat within Earth’s atmosphere, making the planet warmer. A warmer atmosphere affects the water cycle because warmer air can hold more water vapor . In fact, the air’s capacity to hold water vapor increases by 7 percent with an increase in temperature of 1 degree Celsius (1.8 degrees Fahrenheit). This, along with warmer ocean temperatures, leads to heavier precipitation. Heavy precipitation can cause problems like flooding and landslides —where large amounts of soil or rock slide down a slope. An increase in intense precipitation comes with an increase in intense dry periods as well. Essentially, climate change causes wet places to become wetter and dry places to become drier by altering large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns. Warmer temperatures on land lead to reduced snowpack , earlier snowmelt , and evaporation of water from freshwater bodies. Extreme heat can lead to more frequent, severe, and prolonged heat waves and droughts and can make forest fires worse. On top of that, wildfires are harder to put out when air temperature is high and soil moisture is low. The number of heat waves, heavy rain events, and major hurricanes has increased in the United States. Hurricane Katrina of 2005 and Hurricane Sandy of 2012 are two of the most costly hurricanes in the history of the United States. The number of hurricanes that have occurred over recent years has not been linked to climate change, but their intensity has. The wind speed of tropical storms is increased by warmer sea-surface temperatures; by the end of the century, scientists predict maximum wind speed will increase by 2–11 percent. Coastal cities that are vulnerable to hurricanes will also be impacted by the sea level rise of around 0.3–1.2 meters (0.98–3.94 feet) in the next century, which will worsen coastal storms and flooding. Without preparing for climate change–induced environmental hazards , an increasing number of people worldwide will lose their homes and be forced into poverty. An average of around 22.5 million people have been displaced per year by climate or weather-related events since 2008. One way to prepare for extreme environmental events is by using current and past data and records to create computer models that show the frequency and intensity of these events. These models can also be used to predict when and where future events will occur and how destructive they will be. With this information, we can prepare for extreme weather events by warning people living in high-risk areas and sending disaster relief . The impact of climate change can also be observed in models by simulating the effects of different concentrations of greenhouse gases on variables, such as wind, rainfall, temperature, and air pressure. Past models used to prove that there is a relationship between climate change and extreme environmental events were not always reliable. This was due to a lack of data as well as flaws in climate models at the time. However, climate models have become more reliable, and a new field of science has developed to determine how climate change directly impacts extreme weather events: extreme event attribution. Since 2004, scientists have published more than 170 studies on the role of human-induced climate change on 190 extreme weather events. Research has found that climate change has increased the risk of wildfires in the western United States, extreme rainfall in China, and drought in South Africa. Continuous research and improvement in the field of extreme event attribution may help us figure out more precisely how climate change impacts extreme weather events–and how we might change this course.

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Dangers Of Development And Ecological Disasters (Essay Sample)

Dangers of development and ecological disasters.

Global development has continued ever since man began living on earth. People seek to continuously improve their lives and in so doing, they often overlook the role of the environment in man’s existence. The industrial revolution has, for instance, been hailed as a major breakthrough in human effort to achieve greater success and prosperity. However, this did not occur without significant ecological destruction. Development continuously poses a threat to ecological well-being, as discussed in this paper.

Nuclear energy is largely meant to help in the production of more electricity, a key component in man’s efforts to achieve greater development such as establishment of more industries and powering of homes. However, nuclear energy has been a major cause of ecological disaster. One of the most renowned ecological disasters ever reported in modern history is the Chernobyl accident in Ukraine in 1986.

The Chernobyl accident involved a nuclear leak in which a large amount of radioactive material was released into the air. Apparently, the nuclear station was manned by incompetent personnel. A thick cloud formed above the site of the accident, and this was carried to other countries through wind dispersion. Large land masses were affected by the spill, in Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus, thus affecting over 2 million inhabitants in those areas. It is said that over 30,000 people died as a result of radioactive rays emanating from the nuclear plant. Hundreds of thousands had to be moved elsewhere, from the surrounding areas. Other health effects associated with the accident include increased infant mortality, higher number of cancer cases, malformations, tumors, and genetic transmission of such effects. Food and harvests were also contaminated. Another effect was the destruction of marine environment from radioactive waste. When resultant radioactive waste was dumped into the ocean, millions of species of organisms were wiped out thus causing an imbalance in marine ecology.

Human efforts to develop have also caused an even greater number of forest fires. Each year, millions of hectares of forest and jungles are destroyed by fires, and this can be blamed squarely on human activities. First, in areas where man lives close to forests, some people seek to encroach on forest land. They cut down trees and burn vegetation in an effort to get more land for agriculture, or to build industries. Additionally, high temperatures as well as dry droughts associated with human destruction of the environment, including cutting down of forests thus causing limited rainfall, precipitate the occurrence of forest fires. Such fires destroy thousands of species of birds and other wildlife found in forests.

Petroleum spills have also been cited in many cases as a leading cause of ecological destruction. Petroleum spills are among the leading causes of oceanic contamination. Oil companies at times transport petroleum products for use in development projects, without exercising necessary caution and as such, accidents do occur. Oil spills in oceans result in major ecological destruction as fish and other organisms found in oceans lack oxygen and suffocate whenever huge quantities of oil spill in rivers, seas and oceans. Petroleum products are used all over the world in various industries ranging from automobiles to factories. In this regard, human development and ecological destruction seem to go hand in hand.

In conclusion, human development results in major destruction of the ecology. As outlined in this paper, such occurrences as petroleum spills, nuclear accidents, and forest fires are associated with significant environmental damage. As the human race has a tendency to continuously progress, destruction of the environment and ecology is unlikely to stop.

Natural Disasters Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on natural disasters.

A Natural disaster is an unforeseen occurrence of an event that causes harm to society. There are many Natural disasters that damage the environment and the people living in it. Some of them are earthquakes , cyclones, floods, Tsunami , landslides, volcanic eruption, and avalanches. Spatial extent measures the degree or severity of the disaster.

Levels of Disaster

The severity or degree of damage can be further divided into three categories:

Small Scale Disasters: Small scale disasters are those that extend from 50 Kms. to 100 Kms. So this kind of disasters does not cause much damage.

Medium-scale disasters: Medium Scale disasters extend from 100 Kms to 500 Kms. These cause more damage than a small scale disaster. Moreover, they can cause greater damage if they occur in colonial states.

Large Scale Disasters: These disasters cover an area of more than 1000 Kms. These cause the most severe damage to the environment. Furthermore, these disasters can even take over a country if the degree is high. For instance, the wiping out of the dinosaurs was because of a large scale natural disaster.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Types of Disasters

Causes: These can cause of releasing of the energy. This release is from the core of the earth. Furthermore, the release of energy causes seismic waves. Rupturing of geological faults causes earthquakes. But other events like volcanic eruptions, landslides mine blasts can also cause it.

Landslides: Landslides is the moving of big boulders of rocks or debris down a slope. As a result, landslides occur on mountains and hilly areas. Moreover, landslides can cause destruction to man-made things in many ways.

Causes: Gravitational pull, volcanic eruptions , earthquakes can cause landslides. Moreover, soil erosion due to deforestation is also a cause of landslides.

Avalanches: Avalanches are like landslides. But instead of rocks thousand tons of snow falls down the slope. Moreover, this causes extreme damage to anything that comes in its way. People who live in snowy mountains always have fear of it.

Causes: Avalanches takes places when there is a large accumulation of snow on the mountains. Moreover, they can also occur from earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Furthermore, the chances of surviving an avalanche are very less. This is because people die of hypothermia in it.

Tsunami: Tsunami is the production of very high waves in oceans and seas. Moreover, the displacement of the ground causes these high waves. A tsunami can cause floods if it occurs near shores. A Tsunami can consist of multiple waves. Moreover, these waves have a high current. Therefore it can reach coastlines within minutes. The main threat of a tsunami is if a person sees a Tsunami he cannot outrun it.

Causes: Tsunami is unlike normal eaves that occur due to the wind. But Tsunami is waves that occur by ground displacement. Thus earthquakes are the main causes of Tsunamis.

FAQs on Essay on natural disaster

Q1.What are natural disasters?

A1. Natural Disasters are unforeseen events that cause damage to the environment and the people.

Q2.Name some Natural disasters.

A2. Some Natural Disasters are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, Landslides, floods, Tsunami, avalanches. Natural disasters can cause great damage to human society. But preventive measures can be taken to reduce the damage from these disasters.

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Environmental Disaster Essay Examples

Many students are faced with the problem of finding ideas for writing their essays. This website contains a database with more than 50 000 essay examples, using which you can easily find inspiration for creating your own essay on Environmental Disaster.

Here you will find many different essay topics on Environmental Disaster. You will be able to confidently write your own paper on the influence of Environmental Disaster on various aspects of life, reflect on the importance of Environmental Disaster, and much more. Keep on reading!

Because most of us work in organisations, learning organisational behaviour is able to help us understand, predict and influence the behavious of others in organisational setting, and trends in organisational behaviour.One Australia hair-care company develop a range of hair products with refillable packaging in order to maximise brand loyalty and minimise the cost to […]

AP Environmental Science Silent Spring The book Silent Spring by Rachel Carson was one of the first books to truly spark the environmentalist movement. It describes in great detail the little things we as humans are doing to damage our planet and all of its life; particularly through the use of pesticides. Little did we […]

Plastic bags do not decompose like biodegradable materials when they are thrown in trash cans. To witness the transformation of plastic bags, simply dispose of them and observe their behavior for a few days. When plastic bags are scattered on the ground, they contribute to water pollution and may eventually enter bodies of water, causing […]

The Montreal Protocol, an extension of the Vienna Convention for Protecting the Ozone Layer, is designed to protect the ozone layer by stopping the production of various substances believed to be responsible for its degradation. This global treaty was opened for signatures on September 16, 1987 and came into force from January 1, 1989. The […]

In the realm of political writing, it is crucial to acknowledge the ever-changing landscape of social and economic viewpoints as well as the realities of politics. It would be impractical for a political author to expect their work to always remain entirely pertinent. However, specific principles and values they convey will consistently impact collective awareness […]

The disaster film epic, The Day After Tomorrow, depicts a world where global warming triggers an abrupt climate change, creating a worldwide superstorm that unleashes unimaginable global weather disasters. In the span of just a few days, tornados devastate Los Angeles, huge hail pounds Tokyo, and colossal tsunamis and blizzards whip New York. Could it […]

The growth and protection of trees are crucial for our environment. However, as our human population expands, we prioritize technology over forestry. This shift towards an agricultural lifestyle seems unattainable for our society, leading to a less eco-friendly world. If only we could adopt the mindset of Loran, the world would be a better place. […]

Residents of Herculaneum, a small town in Missouri, should be compensated for the poisoning that Doe Run’s lead smelting Company causes. This is because this company has some hazardous effects to these people. The government should protect the health of these people to ensure that these people have comfortable lives. Failure to do this will […]

Luxury tourism is a growing segment that appeals to conscientious wealthy consumers concerned about responsible travel. Despite the existence of high-end products that do not prioritize natural resource conservation, luxury tourism offers superior services, accommodations, aesthetics, activities, and amenities. The expectations of high-end travelers include fine dining, day spas, massages, and stylish excursions in small […]

The impact of climate change on politics and public perception is significant, leading to major changes in American politics. It has made it one of the top issues, even though some individuals choose to disregard it. The recent midterm elections have brought about a change in Congress, with new members showing increased interest in addressing […]

Last year in California, a significant amount of trees perished because of a prolonged drought and extensive land was devastated by twelve massive wildfires. Furthermore, California encountered fourteen out of the twenty largest wildfires solely (Worland 20). This surge in natural calamities in California is concerning and is attributed to climate change. As temperatures escalate, […]

Climate change has become increasingly important to the scientific community in recent decades. It is crucial for predicting the future and ensuring the survival of various species to study its impact on global ecosystems. Climate scientists and others are currently engaged in a worldwide conversation about the potential for reversing or managing climate change. The […]

Mass media discourse does not treat every policy issue facing a nation or the world equally. There are multitudes of warnings detailing exactly when and how climate change will affect the United States. Still, Americans have yet to produce any strong showing of collective action against this negative trend. Similarly, politicians receive the same information […]

A disease is a condition that affects a living organism. They are generally thought of as medical conditions that involve a pathological process associated with a specific set of symptoms. Contained diseases have an impact on specific parts of the body. Contagious diseases spread to other parts of the body. Systemic diseases affect the entire […]

“We won’t have a society if we destroy the environment” (Margaret Mead). Climate change effects many things including living things. It affects living things by changing the temperature which causes plants to die, animals to suffer, sea level rises, and other living things to get damaged. Climate change causes the oceans to get warmer which […]

Since its establishment in 1988, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has generated considerable interest from scientists and global policy makers concerning the potential consequences of climate change. As awareness increases about the role of human activities in contributing to and affecting climate change, there is a call for social scientists to improve our […]

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Cause & Effect Essay: Natural Disasters and Their Causes

Natural disasters happen all over the world, and they can be utterly devastating for people’s lives and the environments in which they live. Although natural disasters are caused by nature and there is nothing that we can do to prevent them happening, there are many different natural causes that lead to natural disasters, and being aware of these causes enables us to be better prepared when such disasters do arrive.

One common natural disaster is flooding, which occurs when a river bursts its banks and the water spills out onto the floodplain. This is far more likely to happen when there is a great deal of heavy rain, so during very wet periods, flood warnings are often put in place. There are other risk factors for flooding too: steep-sided channels cause fast surface run-off, while a lack of vegetation or woodland to both break the flow of water and drink the water means that there is little to slow the floodwater down. Drainage basins of impermeable rock also cause the water to run faster over the surface.

Earthquakes are another common natural disaster that can cause many fatalities. The movements of the plates in the earth’s crust cause them. These plates do not always move smoothly and can get stuck, causing a build-up of pressure. It is when this pressure is released that an earthquake occurs. In turn, an earthquake under the water can also cause a tsunami, as the quake causes great waves by pushing large volumes of water to the surface.

Tsunamis can also be caused by underwater volcanic eruptions. Volcanic eruptions are another natural disaster, and they are caused by magma escaping from inside the earth. An explosion takes place, releasing the magma from a confined space, which is why there are often also huge quantities of gas and dust released during a volcanic eruption. The magma travels up the inside of the volcano, and pours out over the surrounding area as lava.

One of the most common natural disasters, but also one of the most commonly forgotten, is wildfires. These take place in many different countries all over the world, particularly during the summer months, and can be caused by a range of different things. Some of the things that can start the wildfires can be totally natural, while others can be manmade, but the speed at which they spread is entirely down to nature. The two natural causes of wildfires are the sun’s heat and lightning strikes, while they can also be caused by campfires, smoking, fireworks and many other things. The reasons that they spread so quickly are prolonged hot, dry weather, where the vegetation dries out, which is why they often take place in woodland.

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Friday essay: eco-disaster films in the 21st century - helpful or harmful?

Lecturer in Communications and Media, University of Notre Dame Australia

Disclosure statement

Ari Mattes does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

The University of Notre Dame Australia provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU.

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It seems like every time we switch on the idiot box we are confronted with news footage of another disaster. Bushfires in Australia. A hurricane in North America. A tsunami in Indonesia.

Part of this, of course, is merely a reflection of the sensationalist rationale of commercial news in the first place – in order to sell advertising space, this news needs to be sufficiently engaging to keep people from switching the channel.

But the unfortunate reality of global warming means that natural disasters are becoming more frequent and more severe. And Hollywood cinema has kept pace, offering some recent spectacular depictions of natural disaster in the context of global warming.

Climate change is central to the narrative of the 2004 film The Day After Tomorrow directed by Roland Emmerich. In it, a changing climate leads to a series of extreme storms in a precursor to a cataclysmic shift into a new Ice Age.

The 2015 film San Andreas , meanwhile, looks at the effects of a massive earthquake throughout California.

Geostorm (2017) posits a scientific response to global warming - through the international development of a planetary network of satellites that can control the weather - and what happens when it becomes weaponised.

The latest in this genre of big budget, Hollywood eco-disaster movies is Moonfall slated to begin production in 2020. Emmerich will be directing the $150 million project, which follows a team attempting to stop the moon from colliding with earth after it has been struck by an asteroid.

The script has been co-written by Emmerich and his regular collaborator Harald Kloser - with whom Emmerich wrote the disaster epic 2012 , a 2009 film about the race to save the planet as the earth’s core heats up.

Emmerich has described Moonfall as a cross between 2012 and Independence Day (minus the extra-terrestrial element). It’s unclear whether global warming will feature directly in its plot, but given Emmerich’s record of making ecologically aware films, it seems likely.

How, then, do such films help and/or hinder us in managing our anxieties regarding the progressive deterioration of the planet? As natural disasters become more commonplace, is there a point at which we will become too distressed by the real to reproduce it as entertaining spectacle?

‘Bad stars’

The term disaster, with its etymology from ancient Greek for “bad star,” has always elicited cosmic allusions. Disaster suggests that the universe is awry; the planets are out of alignment, bad stars are causing chaos and disorder.

The secularisation of disaster in the modern era, through the notion of risk and insurance, attempts to sever this connection to the word’s planetary origins, envisioning it on the scale of the manageable “accident”, which can be insured against.

Yet, in the context of global warming, and following the large-scale atrocities of the 20th century such as the two world wars, the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the Holocaust, it’s clear that disasters are far from manageable. One of the ways we have sought to manage our anxieties about disaster is through popular film.

The Hollywood disaster film genre has undergone, roughly, two major cycles. The first was in the 1970s. It included blockbuster melodramas like The Towering Inferno, The Poseidon Adventure, and the Airport films (so brilliantly parodied in Flying High).

These cinematic disasters were often instigated by some kind of natural element – an earthquake, or a tidal wave. But they were also often structured around the malfunctioning of technologies in human-built environments (The China Syndrome being a prime example).

The heroes in these films were usually strong, hard-boiled men. Gene Hackman in The Poseidon Adventure , for example, leads, as though by sheer willpower alone, a group to safety following the capsizing of the eponymous ship. As viewers, we are awed by his grim determination in overcoming adversity amid often stark images of people dying.

The second cinematic cycle begins in the 1990s with ecologically sensitive films like Twister , which follows a group of meteorologists as they chase violent tornadoes across Oklahoma, and Dante’s Peak , about the disastrous effects of the eruption of a volcano on a small Washington town. Such films prefigure later, more explicit global warming eco-disaster films, like Emmerich’s masterful The Day After Tomorrow.

While the earlier disaster films were characterised by their ensemble casts and soap-opera like structures, these newer ones dedicate more energy towards showing the disasters (using elaborate CGI and high definition), and imagining social and governmental responses to them.

Affectively, they depend upon the pathos of groups working together to overcome adversity. As in a Christian vigil, the viewer of these films takes solace from participating in this community of suffering.

The pleasure of disaster on film

On one level, popular film as “entertainment” offers us reprieve from the petty banalities, inconsistencies and disappointments of everyday life, by giving us a vision of a world ordered into timely narrative. Events are tied together in a fundamentally meaningful fashion.

We are able to defer the concerns of the ordinary for a couple of hours, and participate in a viscerally stimulating and pathos-laden experience. The unwieldy disasters we see in the real world are thereby represented in a contained fashion, allowing us the illusion of conceptual and emotional mastery. But at the same time, this process pacifies us, numbing us to, and distracting us from, reality.

Similarly, our response to disaster films is ambivalent. On one hand, we enjoy watching the ultimately effective responses of the state to the disaster. In The Day After Tomorrow, for example, following some initial bumbling, the US government saves millions of Americans by organising a deal for US migration to Mexico(!)

On the other hand, epic images of full-scale disaster are the visual and visceral centrepieces of these films, and awe and terrify us. Indeed, our most intense pleasure in these films emerges from their sublime images of destruction.

The economics of disaster

Hollywood disaster films often feature antagonists who are stubborn bureaucrats and greedy capitalists, but also US presidents who are calm, compassionate and measured, taking an appropriate amount of time to decide how to act and then acting decisively.

In The Day After Tomorrow, this is firstly President Blake (Perry King), who makes cool-headed decisions about the future of America and dies when his motorcade is caught in a storm and destroyed. Later, President Becker (Kenneth Welsh) is magically transformed from a pig-headed obstructionist after he assumes the presidency.

This, of course, contrasts with real-life presidential responses to disaster. In 2017, following Hurricane Maria’s devastating effects on Puerto Rico, Donald Trump criticised Puerto Ricans for the economic burden Maria gifted the US government, while simultaneously implying the event wasn’t very bad – not a “real catastrophe” compared to Katrina . This was all while delivering his emergency address on Puerto Rican soil!

At a time in which solidarity and compassion were expected, Trump was criticised by many for making the issue about the US’s economic burden; and yet, like many things Trump does, this inadvertently raised some critical issues surrounding the economics of disaster in the modern era.

The imagination of disaster – its preempting, in a sense, its prediction – offers insurers (and the reinsurers who back them), following rapidly updated actuarial tables, a unique opportunity to capitalise on risk.

At the same time, disasters are a boon to some capitalist investors, who are able to buy into the development of new infrastructure for a profit.

Disaster in this way is a chief “innovator”, sucking up surplus capital, offering the most literal realisation of what conservative economist Joseph Schumpeter celebrated as one of the virtues of capitalism – its capacity for “ creative destruction ”.

Technology and disaster

French philosopher Paul Virilio has argued that the invention of every technology is simultaneously the invention of its accident . The invention of the car, for instance, invents the car crash. While the disaster film is acutely aware of these failures built into every technology, the genre’s relationship towards technology is more complex than outright critique.

Perhaps the most striking ambivalence of disaster films concerns the role – and virtues – of technology in facilitating and overcoming disaster. This is explicitly worked through in “man-made” disaster films like The China Syndrome, The Towering Inferno, and, more recently, Deepwater Horizon.

Read more: Friday essay: the Rise and Fall of oil in popular culture

Natural disaster films like The Day After Tomorrow and Geostorm envision global warming as the product of devastating technological practices, and offer technological solutions to this. In Geostorm, the network of satellites that control the weather malfunction, and rapidly become the cause of even greater disaster as the film progresses.

And yet, at a higher level, these films are entirely dependent on cutting edge visual and aural technologies to stage the awe inspiring disasters in the first place. They also require a great deal of investment - of capital, and human labour - and, therefore, create a great deal of waste.

Disaster cinema, in unconsciously teasing out the relationship between technophilia and technophobia, forces us to confront one of most pressing dilemmas of the age of the Anthropocene: should we reflect on and think through the causes of disaster, or use technology to act in the hope of preventing future disasters?

A discourse of technological “solutions” to climate change fits squarely into the logic critiqued by philosopher Timothy Morton in his book Dark Ecology .

Technology, in the first place, depends on the extraction of power from nature, and the conversion of the natural into waste-creating power. Suggesting that something can cohere with a technological “problem: solution” framework is thus perhaps part of the problem itself.

Indeed, the myth that there can be a “growth”-oriented solution to global warming is convincingly undone in one of the key academic works on global warming discourse, Anneleen Kevis and Matthias Lievens’ The Limits of the Green Economy .

By studying Hollywood’s mediations of disaster – its attempts at containment and emotional management – we can perhaps begin to learn something about the ongoing tensions and contradictions that define ecological existence in modernity.

The future of disaster

The sheer frequency of contemporary natural disasters raises the question - is there a point at which we will lose our appetite for watching them staged on film?

I suspect the answer is a resounding “no.” Following September 11, it was commonplace to hear people say the footage of the planes crashing into the World Trade Centre looked like it was from a movie. But what movie? The documentary photo-realism of the footage barely resembled Hollywood’s slick action and disaster spectacles.

More notably, Hollywood films began to adopt the September 11 style after the event itself, with the hand-held, found-footage style realism of films like Cloverfield becoming a cliche by the end of the first decade of the 21st century.

This, once again, exemplifies the comforting finitude popular film narratives offer viewers. The more frequent disasters become, the greater will be the need for emotional management by the corporations that produce popular news and entertainment.

The more desperate people become about global warming - and the emergence of grassroots activist groups like Extinction Rebellion suggests people are becoming increasingly desperate - the more popular media corporations will assuage our anxieties with carefully ordered, pacifying spectacles.

For the last week or so, people have been walking around Sydney with their heads down, eyes red from the smoke, wearing masks to filter the air.

This is like something from a disaster film - and similar scenes of the effects and aftermath of catastrophe are continuing to appear around the globe.

Yet, there is no evidence this will curb Hollywood’s appetite for disaster. In fact, cultures and societies - like individuals - have historically attempted to deal with collective trauma by replaying and restaging it in art, from the Chauvet cave paintings to The Longest Day . This may make people feel both better and more helpless at the same time.

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A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures

Kashif abbass.

1 School of Economics and Management, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210094 People’s Republic of China

Muhammad Zeeshan Qasim

2 Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Xiaolingwei 200, Nanjing, 210094 People’s Republic of China

Huaming Song

Muntasir murshed.

3 School of Business and Economics, North South University, Dhaka, 1229 Bangladesh

4 Department of Journalism, Media and Communications, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Haider Mahmood

5 Department of Finance, College of Business Administration, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, 173, Alkharj, 11942 Saudi Arabia

Ijaz Younis

Associated data.

Data sources and relevant links are provided in the paper to access data.

Climate change is a long-lasting change in the weather arrays across tropics to polls. It is a global threat that has embarked on to put stress on various sectors. This study is aimed to conceptually engineer how climate variability is deteriorating the sustainability of diverse sectors worldwide. Specifically, the agricultural sector’s vulnerability is a globally concerning scenario, as sufficient production and food supplies are threatened due to irreversible weather fluctuations. In turn, it is challenging the global feeding patterns, particularly in countries with agriculture as an integral part of their economy and total productivity. Climate change has also put the integrity and survival of many species at stake due to shifts in optimum temperature ranges, thereby accelerating biodiversity loss by progressively changing the ecosystem structures. Climate variations increase the likelihood of particular food and waterborne and vector-borne diseases, and a recent example is a coronavirus pandemic. Climate change also accelerates the enigma of antimicrobial resistance, another threat to human health due to the increasing incidence of resistant pathogenic infections. Besides, the global tourism industry is devastated as climate change impacts unfavorable tourism spots. The methodology investigates hypothetical scenarios of climate variability and attempts to describe the quality of evidence to facilitate readers’ careful, critical engagement. Secondary data is used to identify sustainability issues such as environmental, social, and economic viability. To better understand the problem, gathered the information in this report from various media outlets, research agencies, policy papers, newspapers, and other sources. This review is a sectorial assessment of climate change mitigation and adaptation approaches worldwide in the aforementioned sectors and the associated economic costs. According to the findings, government involvement is necessary for the country’s long-term development through strict accountability of resources and regulations implemented in the past to generate cutting-edge climate policy. Therefore, mitigating the impacts of climate change must be of the utmost importance, and hence, this global threat requires global commitment to address its dreadful implications to ensure global sustenance.

Introduction

Worldwide observed and anticipated climatic changes for the twenty-first century and global warming are significant global changes that have been encountered during the past 65 years. Climate change (CC) is an inter-governmental complex challenge globally with its influence over various components of the ecological, environmental, socio-political, and socio-economic disciplines (Adger et al. 2005 ; Leal Filho et al. 2021 ; Feliciano et al. 2022 ). Climate change involves heightened temperatures across numerous worlds (Battisti and Naylor 2009 ; Schuurmans 2021 ; Weisheimer and Palmer 2005 ; Yadav et al. 2015 ). With the onset of the industrial revolution, the problem of earth climate was amplified manifold (Leppänen et al. 2014 ). It is reported that the immediate attention and due steps might increase the probability of overcoming its devastating impacts. It is not plausible to interpret the exact consequences of climate change (CC) on a sectoral basis (Izaguirre et al. 2021 ; Jurgilevich et al. 2017 ), which is evident by the emerging level of recognition plus the inclusion of climatic uncertainties at both local and national level of policymaking (Ayers et al. 2014 ).

Climate change is characterized based on the comprehensive long-haul temperature and precipitation trends and other components such as pressure and humidity level in the surrounding environment. Besides, the irregular weather patterns, retreating of global ice sheets, and the corresponding elevated sea level rise are among the most renowned international and domestic effects of climate change (Lipczynska-Kochany 2018 ; Michel et al. 2021 ; Murshed and Dao 2020 ). Before the industrial revolution, natural sources, including volcanoes, forest fires, and seismic activities, were regarded as the distinct sources of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as CO 2 , CH 4 , N 2 O, and H 2 O into the atmosphere (Murshed et al. 2020 ; Hussain et al. 2020 ; Sovacool et al. 2021 ; Usman and Balsalobre-Lorente 2022 ; Murshed 2022 ). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) struck a major agreement to tackle climate change and accelerate and intensify the actions and investments required for a sustainable low-carbon future at Conference of the Parties (COP-21) in Paris on December 12, 2015. The Paris Agreement expands on the Convention by bringing all nations together for the first time in a single cause to undertake ambitious measures to prevent climate change and adapt to its impacts, with increased funding to assist developing countries in doing so. As so, it marks a turning point in the global climate fight. The core goal of the Paris Agreement is to improve the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping the global temperature rise this century well below 2 °C over pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5° C (Sharma et al. 2020 ; Sharif et al. 2020 ; Chien et al. 2021 .

Furthermore, the agreement aspires to strengthen nations’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and align financing flows with low GHG emissions and climate-resilient paths (Shahbaz et al. 2019 ; Anwar et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2022a ). To achieve these lofty goals, adequate financial resources must be mobilized and provided, as well as a new technology framework and expanded capacity building, allowing developing countries and the most vulnerable countries to act under their respective national objectives. The agreement also establishes a more transparent action and support mechanism. All Parties are required by the Paris Agreement to do their best through “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the coming years (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2020 ). It includes obligations that all Parties regularly report on their emissions and implementation activities. A global stock-take will be conducted every five years to review collective progress toward the agreement’s goal and inform the Parties’ future individual actions. The Paris Agreement became available for signature on April 22, 2016, Earth Day, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. On November 4, 2016, it went into effect 30 days after the so-called double threshold was met (ratification by 55 nations accounting for at least 55% of world emissions). More countries have ratified and continue to ratify the agreement since then, bringing 125 Parties in early 2017. To fully operationalize the Paris Agreement, a work program was initiated in Paris to define mechanisms, processes, and recommendations on a wide range of concerns (Murshed et al. 2021 ). Since 2016, Parties have collaborated in subsidiary bodies (APA, SBSTA, and SBI) and numerous formed entities. The Conference of the Parties functioning as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA) convened for the first time in November 2016 in Marrakesh in conjunction with COP22 and made its first two resolutions. The work plan is scheduled to be finished by 2018. Some mitigation and adaptation strategies to reduce the emission in the prospective of Paris agreement are following firstly, a long-term goal of keeping the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, secondly, to aim to limit the rise to 1.5 °C, since this would significantly reduce risks and the impacts of climate change, thirdly, on the need for global emissions to peak as soon as possible, recognizing that this will take longer for developing countries, lastly, to undertake rapid reductions after that under the best available science, to achieve a balance between emissions and removals in the second half of the century. On the other side, some adaptation strategies are; strengthening societies’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and to continue & expand international assistance for developing nations’ adaptation.

However, anthropogenic activities are currently regarded as most accountable for CC (Murshed et al. 2022 ). Apart from the industrial revolution, other anthropogenic activities include excessive agricultural operations, which further involve the high use of fuel-based mechanization, burning of agricultural residues, burning fossil fuels, deforestation, national and domestic transportation sectors, etc. (Huang et al. 2016 ). Consequently, these anthropogenic activities lead to climatic catastrophes, damaging local and global infrastructure, human health, and total productivity. Energy consumption has mounted GHGs levels concerning warming temperatures as most of the energy production in developing countries comes from fossil fuels (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2022 ; Usman et al. 2022b ; Abbass et al. 2021a ; Ishikawa-Ishiwata and Furuya 2022 ).

This review aims to highlight the effects of climate change in a socio-scientific aspect by analyzing the existing literature on various sectorial pieces of evidence globally that influence the environment. Although this review provides a thorough examination of climate change and its severe affected sectors that pose a grave danger for global agriculture, biodiversity, health, economy, forestry, and tourism, and to purpose some practical prophylactic measures and mitigation strategies to be adapted as sound substitutes to survive from climate change (CC) impacts. The societal implications of irregular weather patterns and other effects of climate changes are discussed in detail. Some numerous sustainable mitigation measures and adaptation practices and techniques at the global level are discussed in this review with an in-depth focus on its economic, social, and environmental aspects. Methods of data collection section are included in the supplementary information.

Review methodology

Related study and its objectives.

Today, we live an ordinary life in the beautiful digital, globalized world where climate change has a decisive role. What happens in one country has a massive influence on geographically far apart countries, which points to the current crisis known as COVID-19 (Sarkar et al. 2021 ). The most dangerous disease like COVID-19 has affected the world’s climate changes and economic conditions (Abbass et al. 2022 ; Pirasteh-Anosheh et al. 2021 ). The purpose of the present study is to review the status of research on the subject, which is based on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures” by systematically reviewing past published and unpublished research work. Furthermore, the current study seeks to comment on research on the same topic and suggest future research on the same topic. Specifically, the present study aims: The first one is, organize publications to make them easy and quick to find. Secondly, to explore issues in this area, propose an outline of research for future work. The third aim of the study is to synthesize the previous literature on climate change, various sectors, and their mitigation measurement. Lastly , classify the articles according to the different methods and procedures that have been adopted.

Review methodology for reviewers

This review-based article followed systematic literature review techniques that have proved the literature review as a rigorous framework (Benita 2021 ; Tranfield et al. 2003 ). Moreover, we illustrate in Fig. 1 the search method that we have started for this research. First, finalized the research theme to search literature (Cooper et al. 2018 ). Second, used numerous research databases to search related articles and download from the database (Web of Science, Google Scholar, Scopus Index Journals, Emerald, Elsevier Science Direct, Springer, and Sciverse). We focused on various articles, with research articles, feedback pieces, short notes, debates, and review articles published in scholarly journals. Reports used to search for multiple keywords such as “Climate Change,” “Mitigation and Adaptation,” “Department of Agriculture and Human Health,” “Department of Biodiversity and Forestry,” etc.; in summary, keyword list and full text have been made. Initially, the search for keywords yielded a large amount of literature.

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Methodology search for finalized articles for investigations.

Source : constructed by authors

Since 2020, it has been impossible to review all the articles found; some restrictions have been set for the literature exhibition. The study searched 95 articles on a different database mentioned above based on the nature of the study. It excluded 40 irrelevant papers due to copied from a previous search after readings tiles, abstract and full pieces. The criteria for inclusion were: (i) articles focused on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures,” and (ii) the search key terms related to study requirements. The complete procedure yielded 55 articles for our study. We repeat our search on the “Web of Science and Google Scholars” database to enhance the search results and check the referenced articles.

In this study, 55 articles are reviewed systematically and analyzed for research topics and other aspects, such as the methods, contexts, and theories used in these studies. Furthermore, this study analyzes closely related areas to provide unique research opportunities in the future. The study also discussed future direction opportunities and research questions by understanding the research findings climate changes and other affected sectors. The reviewed paper framework analysis process is outlined in Fig. 2 .

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Framework of the analysis Process.

Natural disasters and climate change’s socio-economic consequences

Natural and environmental disasters can be highly variable from year to year; some years pass with very few deaths before a significant disaster event claims many lives (Symanski et al. 2021 ). Approximately 60,000 people globally died from natural disasters each year on average over the past decade (Ritchie and Roser 2014 ; Wiranata and Simbolon 2021 ). So, according to the report, around 0.1% of global deaths. Annual variability in the number and share of deaths from natural disasters in recent decades are shown in Fig. 3 . The number of fatalities can be meager—sometimes less than 10,000, and as few as 0.01% of all deaths. But shock events have a devastating impact: the 1983–1985 famine and drought in Ethiopia; the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami; Cyclone Nargis, which struck Myanmar in 2008; and the 2010 Port-au-Prince earthquake in Haiti and now recent example is COVID-19 pandemic (Erman et al. 2021 ). These events pushed global disaster deaths to over 200,000—more than 0.4% of deaths in these years. Low-frequency, high-impact events such as earthquakes and tsunamis are not preventable, but such high losses of human life are. Historical evidence shows that earlier disaster detection, more robust infrastructure, emergency preparedness, and response programmers have substantially reduced disaster deaths worldwide. Low-income is also the most vulnerable to disasters; improving living conditions, facilities, and response services in these areas would be critical in reducing natural disaster deaths in the coming decades.

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Global deaths from natural disasters, 1978 to 2020.

Source EMDAT ( 2020 )

The interior regions of the continent are likely to be impacted by rising temperatures (Dimri et al. 2018 ; Goes et al. 2020 ; Mannig et al. 2018 ; Schuurmans 2021 ). Weather patterns change due to the shortage of natural resources (water), increase in glacier melting, and rising mercury are likely to cause extinction to many planted species (Gampe et al. 2016 ; Mihiretu et al. 2021 ; Shaffril et al. 2018 ).On the other hand, the coastal ecosystem is on the verge of devastation (Perera et al. 2018 ; Phillips 2018 ). The temperature rises, insect disease outbreaks, health-related problems, and seasonal and lifestyle changes are persistent, with a strong probability of these patterns continuing in the future (Abbass et al. 2021c ; Hussain et al. 2018 ). At the global level, a shortage of good infrastructure and insufficient adaptive capacity are hammering the most (IPCC 2013 ). In addition to the above concerns, a lack of environmental education and knowledge, outdated consumer behavior, a scarcity of incentives, a lack of legislation, and the government’s lack of commitment to climate change contribute to the general public’s concerns. By 2050, a 2 to 3% rise in mercury and a drastic shift in rainfall patterns may have serious consequences (Huang et al. 2022 ; Gorst et al. 2018 ). Natural and environmental calamities caused huge losses globally, such as decreased agriculture outputs, rehabilitation of the system, and rebuilding necessary technologies (Ali and Erenstein 2017 ; Ramankutty et al. 2018 ; Yu et al. 2021 ) (Table (Table1). 1 ). Furthermore, in the last 3 or 4 years, the world has been plagued by smog-related eye and skin diseases, as well as a rise in road accidents due to poor visibility.

Main natural danger statistics for 1985–2020 at the global level

Source: EM-DAT ( 2020 )

Climate change and agriculture

Global agriculture is the ultimate sector responsible for 30–40% of all greenhouse emissions, which makes it a leading industry predominantly contributing to climate warming and significantly impacted by it (Grieg; Mishra et al. 2021 ; Ortiz et al. 2021 ; Thornton and Lipper 2014 ). Numerous agro-environmental and climatic factors that have a dominant influence on agriculture productivity (Pautasso et al. 2012 ) are significantly impacted in response to precipitation extremes including floods, forest fires, and droughts (Huang 2004 ). Besides, the immense dependency on exhaustible resources also fuels the fire and leads global agriculture to become prone to devastation. Godfray et al. ( 2010 ) mentioned that decline in agriculture challenges the farmer’s quality of life and thus a significant factor to poverty as the food and water supplies are critically impacted by CC (Ortiz et al. 2021 ; Rosenzweig et al. 2014 ). As an essential part of the economic systems, especially in developing countries, agricultural systems affect the overall economy and potentially the well-being of households (Schlenker and Roberts 2009 ). According to the report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, i.e., CH 4, CO 2 , and N 2 O, are increased in the air to extraordinary levels over the last few centuries (Usman and Makhdum 2021 ; Stocker et al. 2013 ). Climate change is the composite outcome of two different factors. The first is the natural causes, and the second is the anthropogenic actions (Karami 2012 ). It is also forecasted that the world may experience a typical rise in temperature stretching from 1 to 3.7 °C at the end of this century (Pachauri et al. 2014 ). The world’s crop production is also highly vulnerable to these global temperature-changing trends as raised temperatures will pose severe negative impacts on crop growth (Reidsma et al. 2009 ). Some of the recent modeling about the fate of global agriculture is briefly described below.

Decline in cereal productivity

Crop productivity will also be affected dramatically in the next few decades due to variations in integral abiotic factors such as temperature, solar radiation, precipitation, and CO 2 . These all factors are included in various regulatory instruments like progress and growth, weather-tempted changes, pest invasions (Cammell and Knight 1992 ), accompanying disease snags (Fand et al. 2012 ), water supplies (Panda et al. 2003 ), high prices of agro-products in world’s agriculture industry, and preeminent quantity of fertilizer consumption. Lobell and field ( 2007 ) claimed that from 1962 to 2002, wheat crop output had condensed significantly due to rising temperatures. Therefore, during 1980–2011, the common wheat productivity trends endorsed extreme temperature events confirmed by Gourdji et al. ( 2013 ) around South Asia, South America, and Central Asia. Various other studies (Asseng, Cao, Zhang, and Ludwig 2009 ; Asseng et al. 2013 ; García et al. 2015 ; Ortiz et al. 2021 ) also proved that wheat output is negatively affected by the rising temperatures and also caused adverse effects on biomass productivity (Calderini et al. 1999 ; Sadras and Slafer 2012 ). Hereafter, the rice crop is also influenced by the high temperatures at night. These difficulties will worsen because the temperature will be rising further in the future owing to CC (Tebaldi et al. 2006 ). Another research conducted in China revealed that a 4.6% of rice production per 1 °C has happened connected with the advancement in night temperatures (Tao et al. 2006 ). Moreover, the average night temperature growth also affected rice indicia cultivar’s output pragmatically during 25 years in the Philippines (Peng et al. 2004 ). It is anticipated that the increase in world average temperature will also cause a substantial reduction in yield (Hatfield et al. 2011 ; Lobell and Gourdji 2012 ). In the southern hemisphere, Parry et al. ( 2007 ) noted a rise of 1–4 °C in average daily temperatures at the end of spring season unti the middle of summers, and this raised temperature reduced crop output by cutting down the time length for phenophases eventually reduce the yield (Hatfield and Prueger 2015 ; R. Ortiz 2008 ). Also, world climate models have recommended that humid and subtropical regions expect to be plentiful prey to the upcoming heat strokes (Battisti and Naylor 2009 ). Grain production is the amalgamation of two constituents: the average weight and the grain output/m 2 , however, in crop production. Crop output is mainly accredited to the grain quantity (Araus et al. 2008 ; Gambín and Borrás 2010 ). In the times of grain set, yield resources are mainly strewn between hitherto defined components, i.e., grain usual weight and grain output, which presents a trade-off between them (Gambín and Borrás 2010 ) beside disparities in per grain integration (B. L. Gambín et al. 2006 ). In addition to this, the maize crop is also susceptible to raised temperatures, principally in the flowering stage (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). In reality, the lower grain number is associated with insufficient acclimatization due to intense photosynthesis and higher respiration and the high-temperature effect on the reproduction phenomena (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). During the flowering phase, maize visible to heat (30–36 °C) seemed less anthesis-silking intermissions (Edreira et al. 2011 ). Another research by Dupuis and Dumas ( 1990 ) proved that a drop in spikelet when directly visible to high temperatures above 35 °C in vitro pollination. Abnormalities in kernel number claimed by Vega et al. ( 2001 ) is related to conceded plant development during a flowering phase that is linked with the active ear growth phase and categorized as a critical phase for approximation of kernel number during silking (Otegui and Bonhomme 1998 ).

The retort of rice output to high temperature presents disparities in flowering patterns, and seed set lessens and lessens grain weight (Qasim et al. 2020 ; Qasim, Hammad, Maqsood, Tariq, & Chawla). During the daytime, heat directly impacts flowers which lessens the thesis period and quickens the earlier peak flowering (Tao et al. 2006 ). Antagonistic effect of higher daytime temperature d on pollen sprouting proposed seed set decay, whereas, seed set was lengthily reduced than could be explicated by pollen growing at high temperatures 40◦C (Matsui et al. 2001 ).

The decline in wheat output is linked with higher temperatures, confirmed in numerous studies (Semenov 2009 ; Stone and Nicolas 1994 ). High temperatures fast-track the arrangements of plant expansion (Blum et al. 2001 ), diminution photosynthetic process (Salvucci and Crafts‐Brandner 2004 ), and also considerably affect the reproductive operations (Farooq et al. 2011 ).

The destructive impacts of CC induced weather extremes to deteriorate the integrity of crops (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ), e.g., Spartan cold and extreme fog cause falling and discoloration of betel leaves (Rosenzweig et al. 2001 ), giving them a somehow reddish appearance, squeezing of lemon leaves (Pautasso et al. 2012 ), as well as root rot of pineapple, have reported (Vedwan and Rhoades 2001 ). Henceforth, in tackling the disruptive effects of CC, several short-term and long-term management approaches are the crucial need of time (Fig. 4 ). Moreover, various studies (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ; Patz et al. 2005 ; Pautasso et al. 2012 ) have demonstrated adapting trends such as ameliorating crop diversity can yield better adaptability towards CC.

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Schematic description of potential impacts of climate change on the agriculture sector and the appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures to overcome its impact.

Climate change impacts on biodiversity

Global biodiversity is among the severe victims of CC because it is the fastest emerging cause of species loss. Studies demonstrated that the massive scale species dynamics are considerably associated with diverse climatic events (Abraham and Chain 1988 ; Manes et al. 2021 ; A. M. D. Ortiz et al. 2021 ). Both the pace and magnitude of CC are altering the compatible habitat ranges for living entities of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial regions. Alterations in general climate regimes influence the integrity of ecosystems in numerous ways, such as variation in the relative abundance of species, range shifts, changes in activity timing, and microhabitat use (Bates et al. 2014 ). The geographic distribution of any species often depends upon its ability to tolerate environmental stresses, biological interactions, and dispersal constraints. Hence, instead of the CC, the local species must only accept, adapt, move, or face extinction (Berg et al. 2010 ). So, the best performer species have a better survival capacity for adjusting to new ecosystems or a decreased perseverance to survive where they are already situated (Bates et al. 2014 ). An important aspect here is the inadequate habitat connectivity and access to microclimates, also crucial in raising the exposure to climate warming and extreme heatwave episodes. For example, the carbon sequestration rates are undergoing fluctuations due to climate-driven expansion in the range of global mangroves (Cavanaugh et al. 2014 ).

Similarly, the loss of kelp-forest ecosystems in various regions and its occupancy by the seaweed turfs has set the track for elevated herbivory by the high influx of tropical fish populations. Not only this, the increased water temperatures have exacerbated the conditions far away from the physiological tolerance level of the kelp communities (Vergés et al. 2016 ; Wernberg et al. 2016 ). Another pertinent danger is the devastation of keystone species, which even has more pervasive effects on the entire communities in that habitat (Zarnetske et al. 2012 ). It is particularly important as CC does not specify specific populations or communities. Eventually, this CC-induced redistribution of species may deteriorate carbon storage and the net ecosystem productivity (Weed et al. 2013 ). Among the typical disruptions, the prominent ones include impacts on marine and terrestrial productivity, marine community assembly, and the extended invasion of toxic cyanobacteria bloom (Fossheim et al. 2015 ).

The CC-impacted species extinction is widely reported in the literature (Beesley et al. 2019 ; Urban 2015 ), and the predictions of demise until the twenty-first century are dreadful (Abbass et al. 2019 ; Pereira et al. 2013 ). In a few cases, northward shifting of species may not be formidable as it allows mountain-dwelling species to find optimum climates. However, the migrant species may be trapped in isolated and incompatible habitats due to losing topography and range (Dullinger et al. 2012 ). For example, a study indicated that the American pika has been extirpated or intensely diminished in some regions, primarily attributed to the CC-impacted extinction or at least local extirpation (Stewart et al. 2015 ). Besides, the anticipation of persistent responses to the impacts of CC often requires data records of several decades to rigorously analyze the critical pre and post CC patterns at species and ecosystem levels (Manes et al. 2021 ; Testa et al. 2018 ).

Nonetheless, the availability of such long-term data records is rare; hence, attempts are needed to focus on these profound aspects. Biodiversity is also vulnerable to the other associated impacts of CC, such as rising temperatures, droughts, and certain invasive pest species. For instance, a study revealed the changes in the composition of plankton communities attributed to rising temperatures. Henceforth, alterations in such aquatic producer communities, i.e., diatoms and calcareous plants, can ultimately lead to variation in the recycling of biological carbon. Moreover, such changes are characterized as a potential contributor to CO 2 differences between the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods (Kohfeld et al. 2005 ).

Climate change implications on human health

It is an understood corporality that human health is a significant victim of CC (Costello et al. 2009 ). According to the WHO, CC might be responsible for 250,000 additional deaths per year during 2030–2050 (Watts et al. 2015 ). These deaths are attributed to extreme weather-induced mortality and morbidity and the global expansion of vector-borne diseases (Lemery et al. 2021; Yang and Usman 2021 ; Meierrieks 2021 ; UNEP 2017 ). Here, some of the emerging health issues pertinent to this global problem are briefly described.

Climate change and antimicrobial resistance with corresponding economic costs

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an up-surging complex global health challenge (Garner et al. 2019 ; Lemery et al. 2021 ). Health professionals across the globe are extremely worried due to this phenomenon that has critical potential to reverse almost all the progress that has been achieved so far in the health discipline (Gosling and Arnell 2016 ). A massive amount of antibiotics is produced by many pharmaceutical industries worldwide, and the pathogenic microorganisms are gradually developing resistance to them, which can be comprehended how strongly this aspect can shake the foundations of national and global economies (UNEP 2017 ). This statement is supported by the fact that AMR is not developing in a particular region or country. Instead, it is flourishing in every continent of the world (WHO 2018 ). This plague is heavily pushing humanity to the post-antibiotic era, in which currently antibiotic-susceptible pathogens will once again lead to certain endemics and pandemics after being resistant(WHO 2018 ). Undesirably, if this statement would become a factuality, there might emerge certain risks in undertaking sophisticated interventions such as chemotherapy, joint replacement cases, and organ transplantation (Su et al. 2018 ). Presently, the amplification of drug resistance cases has made common illnesses like pneumonia, post-surgical infections, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, etc., too difficult and costly to be treated or cure well (WHO 2018 ). From a simple example, it can be assumed how easily antibiotic-resistant strains can be transmitted from one person to another and ultimately travel across the boundaries (Berendonk et al. 2015 ). Talking about the second- and third-generation classes of antibiotics, e.g., most renowned generations of cephalosporin antibiotics that are more expensive, broad-spectrum, more toxic, and usually require more extended periods whenever prescribed to patients (Lemery et al. 2021 ; Pärnänen et al. 2019 ). This scenario has also revealed that the abundance of resistant strains of pathogens was also higher in the Southern part (WHO 2018 ). As southern parts are generally warmer than their counterparts, it is evident from this example how CC-induced global warming can augment the spread of antibiotic-resistant strains within the biosphere, eventually putting additional economic burden in the face of developing new and costlier antibiotics. The ARG exchange to susceptible bacteria through one of the potential mechanisms, transformation, transduction, and conjugation; Selection pressure can be caused by certain antibiotics, metals or pesticides, etc., as shown in Fig. 5 .

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A typical interaction between the susceptible and resistant strains.

Source: Elsayed et al. ( 2021 ); Karkman et al. ( 2018 )

Certain studies highlighted that conventional urban wastewater treatment plants are typical hotspots where most bacterial strains exchange genetic material through horizontal gene transfer (Fig. 5 ). Although at present, the extent of risks associated with the antibiotic resistance found in wastewater is complicated; environmental scientists and engineers have particular concerns about the potential impacts of these antibiotic resistance genes on human health (Ashbolt 2015 ). At most undesirable and worst case, these antibiotic-resistant genes containing bacteria can make their way to enter into the environment (Pruden et al. 2013 ), irrigation water used for crops and public water supplies and ultimately become a part of food chains and food webs (Ma et al. 2019 ; D. Wu et al. 2019 ). This problem has been reported manifold in several countries (Hendriksen et al. 2019 ), where wastewater as a means of irrigated water is quite common.

Climate change and vector borne-diseases

Temperature is a fundamental factor for the sustenance of living entities regardless of an ecosystem. So, a specific living being, especially a pathogen, requires a sophisticated temperature range to exist on earth. The second essential component of CC is precipitation, which also impacts numerous infectious agents’ transport and dissemination patterns. Global rising temperature is a significant cause of many species extinction. On the one hand, this changing environmental temperature may be causing species extinction, and on the other, this warming temperature might favor the thriving of some new organisms. Here, it was evident that some pathogens may also upraise once non-evident or reported (Patz et al. 2000 ). This concept can be exemplified through certain pathogenic strains of microorganisms that how the likelihood of various diseases increases in response to climate warming-induced environmental changes (Table (Table2 2 ).

Examples of how various environmental changes affect various infectious diseases in humans

Source: Aron and Patz ( 2001 )

A recent example is an outburst of coronavirus (COVID-19) in the Republic of China, causing pneumonia and severe acute respiratory complications (Cui et al. 2021 ; Song et al. 2021 ). The large family of viruses is harbored in numerous animals, bats, and snakes in particular (livescience.com) with the subsequent transfer into human beings. Hence, it is worth noting that the thriving of numerous vectors involved in spreading various diseases is influenced by Climate change (Ogden 2018 ; Santos et al. 2021 ).

Psychological impacts of climate change

Climate change (CC) is responsible for the rapid dissemination and exaggeration of certain epidemics and pandemics. In addition to the vast apparent impacts of climate change on health, forestry, agriculture, etc., it may also have psychological implications on vulnerable societies. It can be exemplified through the recent outburst of (COVID-19) in various countries around the world (Pal 2021 ). Besides, the victims of this viral infection have made healthy beings scarier and terrified. In the wake of such epidemics, people with common colds or fever are also frightened and must pass specific regulatory protocols. Living in such situations continuously terrifies the public and makes the stress familiar, which eventually makes them psychologically weak (npr.org).

CC boosts the extent of anxiety, distress, and other issues in public, pushing them to develop various mental-related problems. Besides, frequent exposure to extreme climatic catastrophes such as geological disasters also imprints post-traumatic disorder, and their ubiquitous occurrence paves the way to developing chronic psychological dysfunction. Moreover, repetitive listening from media also causes an increase in the person’s stress level (Association 2020 ). Similarly, communities living in flood-prone areas constantly live in extreme fear of drowning and die by floods. In addition to human lives, the flood-induced destruction of physical infrastructure is a specific reason for putting pressure on these communities (Ogden 2018 ). For instance, Ogden ( 2018 ) comprehensively denoted that Katrina’s Hurricane augmented the mental health issues in the victim communities.

Climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Forests are the global regulators of the world’s climate (FAO 2018 ) and have an indispensable role in regulating global carbon and nitrogen cycles (Rehman et al. 2021 ; Reichstein and Carvalhais 2019 ). Hence, disturbances in forest ecology affect the micro and macro-climates (Ellison et al. 2017 ). Climate warming, in return, has profound impacts on the growth and productivity of transboundary forests by influencing the temperature and precipitation patterns, etc. As CC induces specific changes in the typical structure and functions of ecosystems (Zhang et al. 2017 ) as well impacts forest health, climate change also has several devastating consequences such as forest fires, droughts, pest outbreaks (EPA 2018 ), and last but not the least is the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities. The rising frequency and intensity of another CC product, i.e., droughts, pose plenty of challenges to the well-being of global forests (Diffenbaugh et al. 2017 ), which is further projected to increase soon (Hartmann et al. 2018 ; Lehner et al. 2017 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ). Hence, CC induces storms, with more significant impacts also put extra pressure on the survival of the global forests (Martínez-Alvarado et al. 2018 ), significantly since their influences are augmented during higher winter precipitations with corresponding wetter soils causing weak root anchorage of trees (Brázdil et al. 2018 ). Surging temperature regimes causes alterations in usual precipitation patterns, which is a significant hurdle for the survival of temperate forests (Allen et al. 2010 ; Flannigan et al. 2013 ), letting them encounter severe stress and disturbances which adversely affects the local tree species (Hubbart et al. 2016 ; Millar and Stephenson 2015 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ).

Climate change impacts on forest-dependent communities

Forests are the fundamental livelihood resource for about 1.6 billion people worldwide; out of them, 350 million are distinguished with relatively higher reliance (Bank 2008 ). Agro-forestry-dependent communities comprise 1.2 billion, and 60 million indigenous people solely rely on forests and their products to sustain their lives (Sunderlin et al. 2005 ). For example, in the entire African continent, more than 2/3rd of inhabitants depend on forest resources and woodlands for their alimonies, e.g., food, fuelwood and grazing (Wasiq and Ahmad 2004 ). The livings of these people are more intensely affected by the climatic disruptions making their lives harder (Brown et al. 2014 ). On the one hand, forest communities are incredibly vulnerable to CC due to their livelihoods, cultural and spiritual ties as well as socio-ecological connections, and on the other, they are not familiar with the term “climate change.” (Rahman and Alam 2016 ). Among the destructive impacts of temperature and rainfall, disruption of the agroforestry crops with resultant downscale growth and yield (Macchi et al. 2008 ). Cruz ( 2015 ) ascribed that forest-dependent smallholder farmers in the Philippines face the enigma of delayed fruiting, more severe damages by insect and pest incidences due to unfavorable temperature regimes, and changed rainfall patterns.

Among these series of challenges to forest communities, their well-being is also distinctly vulnerable to CC. Though the detailed climate change impacts on human health have been comprehensively mentioned in the previous section, some studies have listed a few more devastating effects on the prosperity of forest-dependent communities. For instance, the Himalayan people have been experiencing frequent skin-borne diseases such as malaria and other skin diseases due to increasing mosquitoes, wild boar as well, and new wasps species, particularly in higher altitudes that were almost non-existent before last 5–10 years (Xu et al. 2008 ). Similarly, people living at high altitudes in Bangladesh have experienced frequent mosquito-borne calamities (Fardous; Sharma 2012 ). In addition, the pace of other waterborne diseases such as infectious diarrhea, cholera, pathogenic induced abdominal complications and dengue has also been boosted in other distinguished regions of Bangladesh (Cell 2009 ; Gunter et al. 2008 ).

Pest outbreak

Upscaling hotter climate may positively affect the mobile organisms with shorter generation times because they can scurry from harsh conditions than the immobile species (Fettig et al. 2013 ; Schoene and Bernier 2012 ) and are also relatively more capable of adapting to new environments (Jactel et al. 2019 ). It reveals that insects adapt quickly to global warming due to their mobility advantages. Due to past outbreaks, the trees (forests) are relatively more susceptible victims (Kurz et al. 2008 ). Before CC, the influence of factors mentioned earlier, i.e., droughts and storms, was existent and made the forests susceptible to insect pest interventions; however, the global forests remain steadfast, assiduous, and green (Jactel et al. 2019 ). The typical reasons could be the insect herbivores were regulated by several tree defenses and pressures of predation (Wilkinson and Sherratt 2016 ). As climate greatly influences these phenomena, the global forests cannot be so sedulous against such challenges (Jactel et al. 2019 ). Table Table3 3 demonstrates some of the particular considerations with practical examples that are essential while mitigating the impacts of CC in the forestry sector.

Essential considerations while mitigating the climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Source : Fischer ( 2019 )

Climate change impacts on tourism

Tourism is a commercial activity that has roots in multi-dimensions and an efficient tool with adequate job generation potential, revenue creation, earning of spectacular foreign exchange, enhancement in cross-cultural promulgation and cooperation, a business tool for entrepreneurs and eventually for the country’s national development (Arshad et al. 2018 ; Scott 2021 ). Among a plethora of other disciplines, the tourism industry is also a distinct victim of climate warming (Gössling et al. 2012 ; Hall et al. 2015 ) as the climate is among the essential resources that enable tourism in particular regions as most preferred locations. Different places at different times of the year attract tourists both within and across the countries depending upon the feasibility and compatibility of particular weather patterns. Hence, the massive variations in these weather patterns resulting from CC will eventually lead to monumental challenges to the local economy in that specific area’s particular and national economy (Bujosa et al. 2015 ). For instance, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report demonstrated that the global tourism industry had faced a considerable decline in the duration of ski season, including the loss of some ski areas and the dramatic shifts in tourist destinations’ climate warming.

Furthermore, different studies (Neuvonen et al. 2015 ; Scott et al. 2004 ) indicated that various currently perfect tourist spots, e.g., coastal areas, splendid islands, and ski resorts, will suffer consequences of CC. It is also worth noting that the quality and potential of administrative management potential to cope with the influence of CC on the tourism industry is of crucial significance, which renders specific strengths of resiliency to numerous destinations to withstand against it (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). Similarly, in the partial or complete absence of adequate socio-economic and socio-political capital, the high-demanding tourist sites scurry towards the verge of vulnerability. The susceptibility of tourism is based on different components such as the extent of exposure, sensitivity, life-supporting sectors, and capacity assessment factors (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). It is obvious corporality that sectors such as health, food, ecosystems, human habitat, infrastructure, water availability, and the accessibility of a particular region are prone to CC. Henceforth, the sensitivity of these critical sectors to CC and, in return, the adaptive measures are a hallmark in determining the composite vulnerability of climate warming (Ionescu et al. 2009 ).

Moreover, the dependence on imported food items, poor hygienic conditions, and inadequate health professionals are dominant aspects affecting the local terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. Meanwhile, the greater dependency on ecosystem services and its products also makes a destination more fragile to become a prey of CC (Rizvi et al. 2015 ). Some significant non-climatic factors are important indicators of a particular ecosystem’s typical health and functioning, e.g., resource richness and abundance portray the picture of ecosystem stability. Similarly, the species abundance is also a productive tool that ensures that the ecosystem has a higher buffering capacity, which is terrific in terms of resiliency (Roscher et al. 2013 ).

Climate change impacts on the economic sector

Climate plays a significant role in overall productivity and economic growth. Due to its increasingly global existence and its effect on economic growth, CC has become one of the major concerns of both local and international environmental policymakers (Ferreira et al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Abbass et al. 2021b ; Lamperti et al. 2021 ). The adverse effects of CC on the overall productivity factor of the agricultural sector are therefore significant for understanding the creation of local adaptation policies and the composition of productive climate policy contracts. Previous studies on CC in the world have already forecasted its effects on the agricultural sector. Researchers have found that global CC will impact the agricultural sector in different world regions. The study of the impacts of CC on various agrarian activities in other demographic areas and the development of relative strategies to respond to effects has become a focal point for researchers (Chandioet al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Mosavi et al. 2020 ).

With the rapid growth of global warming since the 1980s, the temperature has started increasing globally, which resulted in the incredible transformation of rain and evaporation in the countries. The agricultural development of many countries has been reliant, delicate, and susceptible to CC for a long time, and it is on the development of agriculture total factor productivity (ATFP) influence different crops and yields of farmers (Alhassan 2021 ; Wu 2020 ).

Food security and natural disasters are increasing rapidly in the world. Several major climatic/natural disasters have impacted local crop production in the countries concerned. The effects of these natural disasters have been poorly controlled by the development of the economies and populations and may affect human life as well. One example is China, which is among the world’s most affected countries, vulnerable to natural disasters due to its large population, harsh environmental conditions, rapid CC, low environmental stability, and disaster power. According to the January 2016 statistical survey, China experienced an economic loss of 298.3 billion Yuan, and about 137 million Chinese people were severely affected by various natural disasters (Xie et al. 2018 ).

Mitigation and adaptation strategies of climate changes

Adaptation and mitigation are the crucial factors to address the response to CC (Jahanzad et al. 2020 ). Researchers define mitigation on climate changes, and on the other hand, adaptation directly impacts climate changes like floods. To some extent, mitigation reduces or moderates greenhouse gas emission, and it becomes a critical issue both economically and environmentally (Botzen et al. 2021 ; Jahanzad et al. 2020 ; Kongsager 2018 ; Smit et al. 2000 ; Vale et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2021 ; Verheyen 2005 ).

Researchers have deep concern about the adaptation and mitigation methodologies in sectoral and geographical contexts. Agriculture, industry, forestry, transport, and land use are the main sectors to adapt and mitigate policies(Kärkkäinen et al. 2020 ; Waheed et al. 2021 ). Adaptation and mitigation require particular concern both at the national and international levels. The world has faced a significant problem of climate change in the last decades, and adaptation to these effects is compulsory for economic and social development. To adapt and mitigate against CC, one should develop policies and strategies at the international level (Hussain et al. 2020 ). Figure 6 depicts the list of current studies on sectoral impacts of CC with adaptation and mitigation measures globally.

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Sectoral impacts of climate change with adaptation and mitigation measures.

Conclusion and future perspectives

Specific socio-agricultural, socio-economic, and physical systems are the cornerstone of psychological well-being, and the alteration in these systems by CC will have disastrous impacts. Climate variability, alongside other anthropogenic and natural stressors, influences human and environmental health sustainability. Food security is another concerning scenario that may lead to compromised food quality, higher food prices, and inadequate food distribution systems. Global forests are challenged by different climatic factors such as storms, droughts, flash floods, and intense precipitation. On the other hand, their anthropogenic wiping is aggrandizing their existence. Undoubtedly, the vulnerability scale of the world’s regions differs; however, appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures can aid the decision-making bodies in developing effective policies to tackle its impacts. Presently, modern life on earth has tailored to consistent climatic patterns, and accordingly, adapting to such considerable variations is of paramount importance. Because the faster changes in climate will make it harder to survive and adjust, this globally-raising enigma calls for immediate attention at every scale ranging from elementary community level to international level. Still, much effort, research, and dedication are required, which is the most critical time. Some policy implications can help us to mitigate the consequences of climate change, especially the most affected sectors like the agriculture sector;

Warming might lengthen the season in frost-prone growing regions (temperate and arctic zones), allowing for longer-maturing seasonal cultivars with better yields (Pfadenhauer 2020 ; Bonacci 2019 ). Extending the planting season may allow additional crops each year; when warming leads to frequent warmer months highs over critical thresholds, a split season with a brief summer fallow may be conceivable for short-period crops such as wheat barley, cereals, and many other vegetable crops. The capacity to prolong the planting season in tropical and subtropical places where the harvest season is constrained by precipitation or agriculture farming occurs after the year may be more limited and dependent on how precipitation patterns vary (Wu et al. 2017 ).

The genetic component is comprehensive for many yields, but it is restricted like kiwi fruit for a few. Ali et al. ( 2017 ) investigated how new crops will react to climatic changes (also stated in Mall et al. 2017 ). Hot temperature, drought, insect resistance; salt tolerance; and overall crop production and product quality increases would all be advantageous (Akkari 2016 ). Genetic mapping and engineering can introduce a greater spectrum of features. The adoption of genetically altered cultivars has been slowed, particularly in the early forecasts owing to the complexity in ensuring features are expediently expressed throughout the entire plant, customer concerns, economic profitability, and regulatory impediments (Wirehn 2018 ; Davidson et al. 2016 ).

To get the full benefit of the CO 2 would certainly require additional nitrogen and other fertilizers. Nitrogen not consumed by the plants may be excreted into groundwater, discharged into water surface, or emitted from the land, soil nitrous oxide when large doses of fertilizer are sprayed. Increased nitrogen levels in groundwater sources have been related to human chronic illnesses and impact marine ecosystems. Cultivation, grain drying, and other field activities have all been examined in depth in the studies (Barua et al. 2018 ).

The technological and socio-economic adaptation

The policy consequence of the causative conclusion is that as a source of alternative energy, biofuel production is one of the routes that explain oil price volatility separate from international macroeconomic factors. Even though biofuel production has just begun in a few sample nations, there is still a tremendous worldwide need for feedstock to satisfy industrial expansion in China and the USA, which explains the food price relationship to the global oil price. Essentially, oil-exporting countries may create incentives in their economies to increase food production. It may accomplish by giving farmers financing, seedlings, fertilizers, and farming equipment. Because of the declining global oil price and, as a result, their earnings from oil export, oil-producing nations may be unable to subsidize food imports even in the near term. As a result, these countries can boost the agricultural value chain for export. It may be accomplished through R&D and adding value to their food products to increase income by correcting exchange rate misalignment and adverse trade terms. These nations may also diversify their economies away from oil, as dependence on oil exports alone is no longer economically viable given the extreme volatility of global oil prices. Finally, resource-rich and oil-exporting countries can convert to non-food renewable energy sources such as solar, hydro, coal, wind, wave, and tidal energy. By doing so, both world food and oil supplies would be maintained rather than harmed.

IRENA’s modeling work shows that, if a comprehensive policy framework is in place, efforts toward decarbonizing the energy future will benefit economic activity, jobs (outweighing losses in the fossil fuel industry), and welfare. Countries with weak domestic supply chains and a large reliance on fossil fuel income, in particular, must undertake structural reforms to capitalize on the opportunities inherent in the energy transition. Governments continue to give major policy assistance to extract fossil fuels, including tax incentives, financing, direct infrastructure expenditures, exemptions from environmental regulations, and other measures. The majority of major oil and gas producing countries intend to increase output. Some countries intend to cut coal output, while others plan to maintain or expand it. While some nations are beginning to explore and execute policies aimed at a just and equitable transition away from fossil fuel production, these efforts have yet to impact major producing countries’ plans and goals. Verifiable and comparable data on fossil fuel output and assistance from governments and industries are critical to closing the production gap. Governments could increase openness by declaring their production intentions in their climate obligations under the Paris Agreement.

It is firmly believed that achieving the Paris Agreement commitments is doubtlful without undergoing renewable energy transition across the globe (Murshed 2020 ; Zhao et al. 2022 ). Policy instruments play the most important role in determining the degree of investment in renewable energy technology. This study examines the efficacy of various policy strategies in the renewable energy industry of multiple nations. Although its impact is more visible in established renewable energy markets, a renewable portfolio standard is also a useful policy instrument. The cost of producing renewable energy is still greater than other traditional energy sources. Furthermore, government incentives in the R&D sector can foster innovation in this field, resulting in cost reductions in the renewable energy industry. These nations may export their technologies and share their policy experiences by forming networks among their renewable energy-focused organizations. All policy measures aim to reduce production costs while increasing the proportion of renewables to a country’s energy system. Meanwhile, long-term contracts with renewable energy providers, government commitment and control, and the establishment of long-term goals can assist developing nations in deploying renewable energy technology in their energy sector.

Author contribution

KA: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Study design, Formal analysis, Visualization, Revised draft, Writing-review, and editing. MZQ: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Writing-review, and editing. HS: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision, literature review, Revised drapt, and writing review and editing. MM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. HM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. IY: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, literature review, and writing review and editing.

Availability of data and material

Declarations.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Contributor Information

Kashif Abbass, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@ssabbafihsak .

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Essay on Environment

Environmental Disasters Essay

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Environment , World , Climate Change , Human , Climate , Life , Development , Environmental Issues

Words: 1600

Published: 02/22/2020

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The two essays by Michael Pollan and Curtis white talk about climate change in regards to the relationship between the environment and human beings. Although the two essays share the same topic, they take the subject and engage the readers in totally different points of views. Pollan’s essay talks about global and ecological responsibility being a personal virtue while Curtis discusses the socio-economic or political issues underlying sustainability (Pollan; White). These two essays are very different in terms of voice; however these pieces of writing are both important for people all over the world to read. Climate change and environmental disasters are a real issue. Just this year, there have been more storms, cyclones, earthquakes and typhoons all over the world. One cannot look at the state of many developing counties where the majority of the population is exposed and vulnerable to the effects of climate change. This issue on developing a viable solution for the problem of anthropogenic gases and global warming is long from being found. Not only this, many people do not want to hear about this issue since they do not think it is real. Unless people have tangible proof that their cars, thermostats and aerosol cans are contributing to climate change, they are not going to give up their lifestyles. By synthesizing the two essays, one can see that there is a need for change and that it is not an issue which should be dealt with in terms of ecological factors or even personal virtue. The social, economic and political factors affecting this problem and the move towards real sustainability should also be a topic that will raise awareness. Pollan’s essay addresses a question most people would ask themselves. Why should anyone bother with responsible eco-living when no else seems to care about sustainability? How could one person make a change when billions of other people around the world don’t seem to be doing their part? The problem is that too many people care too much about their comfort to even try. A little change can go a long way, even if it is just a little drop in the bucket (Pollan). Too many people think that if they can only make a small difference, they shouldn’t even bother and that’s the reason why there is not a lot of effort seen in terms of reducing carbon footprints. It’s sad to think that it takes a large scale disaster for people to actually do something about their contribution to climate change. It’s not only a matter of personal virtue, it’s an issue of responsibility. When will people learn that their lifestyle choices affects everything in the world, not just issues that revolve around the human population, but also things that can gravely affect animals and the earth. Climate change and global warming are not the only results of carbon gas emissions. Studies show that the ocean absorbs up to 30% of all the carbon dioxide humans produce. This means that all the harmful CO2 gases are seeping in the ocean. This results in a drop in the pH level of the earth’s water, which could upset the balance of the ocean’s ecological system, and ultimately affect humans (Pollan). Thinking about the effects of all these emissions as an individual is the problem. People should learn how to view the issue on a larger scale, and see what kind of real effects CO2 and greenhouse gases take. It’s not only about scaring them into being more responsible, as Pollan suggested and what the documentary “An Inconvenient Truth” did with its audience. People shouldn’t even ask themselves why they should bother, the question they should ask is “what can I do to help?” because humans are the only living species who are able to make a change (Pollan). The essay by White addresses a different issue, but it is also linked with what Pollan is saying. The reason why people ask “why bother?” when it comes to environmental issues is because they are not affected, and they want to keep living their comfortable lives. During the ages of industrial revolution, humans have contributed so much anthropogenic gases that have crept into the ocean and affected the atmosphere that natural disasters are occurring more frequently and are becomingly more devastating. Just last month, the islands of the Philippines were hit by the super typhoon Haiyan which left the country in shambles (MacKenzie 6). The Philippines is a developing country, and only days after the storm, a Filipino delegate addressed the United Nations with an emotional appeal regarding climate change and how it is a real issue that cannot be taken lightly. The official negotiator from the Philippines, Naderv Sano urged the United Nations to push with their negotiations. However, there are a number of scientists who say that one event cannot be entirely linked to global warming (MacKenzie 7). However, the link between man-made CO2 and climate change is already realized. The world cannot wait for more natural disasters like this before it decides to do something about it. There are too many people living in first-world countries that are comfortable with their lifestyle (White). They cannot see and cannot begin to imagine the devastation that climate change brings upon developing countries. The truth is that climate change is a reality, and even if many individuals do not think that a small change can make a difference, even just adjusting one’s mindset or habits can spark a light. The ecological and environmental impact of climate change also has socio-economic factors which are closely tied with political concerns. If extreme weather conditions continue, the ecological system of the environment, in terms of wildlife will become unbalanced. Not just that, the agricultural industry as well as fisheries all over the world will be hit by the devastating effects of climate change. If the issue is really about lifestyle and comfort, then people should know about the effects of climate change and how it can take a toll on their personal lives. Again, instead of thinking about it as an individual, people should learn how to see the issue of global warming as a bigger picture in order to really grasp the reality of the situation (White). The Kyoto Protocol is a project by the United Nations which bring together developed countries. The countries involved in this treaty sign a pledge to reduce their carbon emissions. Although developing countries are not part of this treaty, they also promise to reduce their emissions of anthropogenic gases. This kind of effort, although very minimal is a start in taking global responsibility. Although the countries that are involved with this protocol only make up a small percentage of global carbon dioxide emissions, it can still make a big change. If we continue to live carelessly, not caring about the detrimental effects of climate change and global warming, the environment around us will take a toll (Pollan). Human beings cannot sit around and simply wait for things to get worse before they start acting. There is a direct relationship between our actions and the state of the environment. Human activity is definitely responsible for the increase in global temperate, and it is speculated that if we continue to emit the same amount of carbon dioxide into the sea and in the atmosphere, we will not see past the year 2050. People are too busy waiting for extreme reactions from the environment before they stop and think of what their acts are actually doing (White). This is something that should be addressed. As human beings, people should become more aware of what is happening to the environment and make it a point to do something about it, no matter how “small” their efforts are. As human beings, we share planet that we live on with other people, animals and living beings. All our actions reflect on what is happening to the earth. This means that we cannot just keep doing what we want to do simply because we wish to preserve our lifestyle. Our relationship with the planet is one way (White). We are users and abusers who take everything that the ground offers and we do not give back. Sure, some people consider planting a tree once in a while, but they take their large fuel powered SUV home even though their house is right around the block. If our actions are seen in how the earth is responding in terms of climate change, then that means that our efforts to reverse or limit the effects of global warming will also make a difference (Pollan). We are the ones who create this issue through industrialization. Therefore, we should also be the beings who will find viable solutions. The essay of White addresses the issue on lifestyle change and socio-economic factors. This means that people should know how climate change can affect their personal lives so that they don’t need to ask themselves “why bother?” The earth is billions of years old, and humans only realized the power of fossil fuels in the last century. Knowing what we are doing to the environment should be enough for people to take a stand and reduce their carbon emissions. It’s not just a matter of awareness, it’s about letting people know why they should care on a personal level and on a larger scale. Climate change is real, and most of it is because of human activity.

Works Cited

MacKenzie, Debora. "Aftermath of a typhoon." New Scientist 220.2943 (2013): 6-7. Pollan, Michael. "Why bother?." New York Times Magazine (2008). White, Curtis. The barbaric heart: faith, money, and the crisis of nature. Polipoint Press, 2009.

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Essay on Environmental Disasters

Environmental disasters have become an increasing concern for communities globally. These disasters come in various forms, including natural disasters such as earthquakes and hurricanes and man-made disasters such as oil spills and chemical accidents. The frequency and severity of environmental disasters have risen in recent years, making it crucial to understand their causes and consequences. This paper reviews six articles that examine different aspects of environmental disasters, including their causes, impacts, and responses. The articles provide a comprehensive view of the challenges faced by communities and the strategies that can be implemented to mitigate the effects of these disasters. Through thoroughly analyzing these articles, the reader gains a deeper understanding of the complexities of environmental disasters and their potential impacts on future generations.

Furedi, F. (2007). The changing meaning of disaster. Area , 39 (4), 482-489.

In the article, Furedi (2007) explores the evolution of the concept of disaster and its impact on society. The author argues that the meaning of disaster has changed over time and is now more expansive, encompassing a wide range of events and circumstances. This change is attributed to the impact of media and technology, which have increased public awareness of disasters, and the role of fear and anxiety in shaping public perception. The author also highlights the growing cultural significance of disasters and the implications for disaster response and management.

One of the key points made by Furedi (2007) is that media and technology have significantly impacted the meaning of disaster. The rapid dissemination of information and images about disasters and the increasing use of social media has brought disasters to the forefront of public consciousness. This has led to heightened awareness and concern about the potential for future disasters and their risks. Furthermore, the author argues that fear and anxiety are crucial in shaping public perception of disasters. The media can amplify these feelings by emphasizing the potential for future disasters and the associated risks, leading to increased public concern and a heightened sense of urgency to address the issue.

In addition to the impact of media and technology, the author also highlights the growing cultural significance of disasters. Disasters are now seen as a central aspect of contemporary life and are increasingly viewed as a critical concern regarding environmental and social risks. This growing cultural significance has essential implications for disaster response and management, including the need for more effective communication and information-sharing and a greater emphasis on risk assessment and preparedness.

In conclusion, Furedi’s (2007) article provides valuable insight into the changing meaning of disaster and its impact on society. The author argues that the definition of disaster has expanded over time and that this is due, in part, to the impact of media and technology, as well as the role of fear and anxiety. The article also highlights the growing cultural significance of disasters and the implications for disaster response and management, making it a valuable resource for those interested in understanding the changing landscape of disaster and its impact on society.

Vallero, D. A. (2012). Unraveling environmental disasters . Newnes.

Chapter 1 of this book by Vallero (2012) provides a comprehensive overview of the concept of failure in the context of environmental disasters. The author defines failure as the inability to prevent or manage an environmental disaster, which can significantly harm the environment, human health, and the economy. The author discusses different types of failure, including technical, institutional, and cultural, and examines the factors that contribute to failure, including inadequate regulations, poor planning and management, lack of public awareness, and complacency.

One of the critical insights of the chapter is the importance of understanding the consequences of failure in environmental disasters. The author argues that failure in these events can significantly harm the environment and human health and have long-term impacts on the economy. For example, failing to prevent or manage an environmental disaster can result in widespread environmental degradation, loss of human life, and economic damage.

The chapter concludes by emphasizing the importance of preventing and managing failure in environmental disasters. The author argues that effective management requires a comprehensive and integrated approach that considers the complex and interrelated factors contributing to failure. This approach should also consider the consequences of failure and strive to minimize their impact on the environment, human health, and the economy.

Conclusively, Chapter 1 of “Unraveling Environmental Disasters” provides valuable insights into the concept of failure in the context of environmental disasters. The author’s comprehensive and integrated approach to understanding and preventing failure is fundamental in today’s world, where the risks posed by environmental disasters are increasing. By highlighting the causes, consequences, and management of failure in ecological disasters, the author provides a valuable framework for scholars, policymakers, and practitioners working in environmental science, sustainability, and emergency management.

Marshall, B. K., & Picou, J. S. (2008). Postnormal science, precautionary principle, and worst cases: The challenge of twenty-first-century catastrophes. Sociological Inquiry , 78 (2), 230-247.

In their article, Marshall and Picou critically examine the concept of Postnormal Science and its potential applications in the face of contemporary catastrophes. The authors argue that Postnormal Science represents a response to the challenges posed by these catastrophic events, which are characterized by high levels of uncertainty, ambiguity, and conflicting values. In particular, they focus on the importance of the Precautionary Principle as a critical component in addressing the risks posed by these events and highlight the criteria that need to be met to apply it effectively.

One of the key arguments made in the article is that Postnormal Science offers a framework for dealing with the complex and interconnected risks posed by twenty-first-century catastrophes. The authors note that these events often involve multiple scientific disciplines, multiple stakeholders, and a variety of conflicting values and interests. In this context, traditional science and risk management approaches may need to be revised. There is a need for interdisciplinary collaboration and the incorporation of stakeholder perspectives to address these risks effectively.

The authors also emphasize the importance of considering the Worst Cases in applying Postnormal Science and the Precautionary Principle. They argue that Worst Cases provide a framework for assessing and mitigating the potential consequences of catastrophes and can help ensure that effective risk management strategies are implemented. This is particularly important in the context of global environmental challenges such as climate change, where the consequences of inaction can be severe and long-lasting.

Despite the potential benefits of Postnormal Science, the authors acknowledge several challenges associated with its application. These include the need for interdisciplinary collaboration, the difficulty of dealing with complex and interconnected risks, and the need to incorporate stakeholder perspectives in decision-making processes. These challenges can be addressed by developing new interdisciplinary approaches to science and risk management and creating new institutional structures that allow for effective collaboration between scientific experts and stakeholders.

The authors also argue that Postnormal Science and the Precautionary Principle offer essential insights for future research and policy, particularly in climate change and other global environmental challenges. They suggest that these approaches provide a foundation for more effective risk management and policy-making in the face of uncertainty and ambiguity and that they have the potential to help us more effectively address the challenges posed by twenty-first-century catastrophes.

In conclusion, the article provides a valuable contribution to the literature on Postnormal Science and its potential applications in the context of recent catastrophes. It highlights the importance of the Precautionary Principle and Worst Cases as critical components in addressing these risks and outlines the challenges that must be overcome to apply Postnormal Science effectively. The authors’ arguments have significant implications for future research and policy, and their insights will likely interest scholars and policymakers working in environmental science, risk management, and policy-making.

Smart, B. (2019). An Unsustainable Modernity: democracy, the global climate emergency and environmental ethics. Journal ISSN , 1467 , 0437.

In his article Smart (2019) provides a valuable contribution to the literature on environmental ethics, democracy, and sustainability. The author argues that modernity is unsustainable in the face of the global climate emergency and that existing environmental policies are insufficient to address the challenge. One of the key themes in the article is the role of democracy in addressing the global climate emergency. The author suggests that democracy is an essential factor in shaping public attitudes and policies towards sustainability and that democratic processes can help to promote transparency, accountability, and public participation in decision-making. This is particularly important given the complex and multifaceted nature of the global climate emergency, which requires collective action from governments, communities, and individuals.

Another critical theme in the article is the importance of environmental ethics in shaping our responses to the global climate emergency. The author argues that environmental ethics can help promote a sense of moral responsibility towards the environment and provide a basis for developing sustainable practices and policies. This is particularly important given the cultural and ethical dimensions of sustainability, which are often overlooked in existing environmental policies.

The author also highlights the limitations of existing environmental policies, which are limited by their narrow focus on economic and technological solutions. The author suggests that more comprehensive and holistic approaches are needed, considering sustainability’s ethical and cultural dimensions. This is particularly important given the global and intergenerational nature of the climate emergency, which requires collective action across borders and over time. Finally, the author argues that further research is needed to understand better the relationships between democracy, environmental ethics, and sustainability and that this research should inform future policy-making. The author suggests we effectively address the global climate emergency and secure a sustainable future through a deeper engagement with environmental ethics and a commitment to sustainable development.

In conclusion, the article contributes to the literature on environmental ethics, democracy, and sustainability. The author’s argument that modernity is unsustainable in the face of the global climate emergency highlights the need for a more comprehensive and holistic approach to environmental policy. The author’s emphasis on environmental ethics and democratic processes provides essential insights for future research and policy. It will likely interest scholars and policymakers working in environmental science, sustainability, and ethics.

Tierney, K. J. (2007). From the margins to the mainstream? Disaster research at the crossroads. Annu. Rev. Sociol. , 33 , 503-525.

In “From the Margins to the Mainstream? ” Disaster Research at the Crossroads,” Tierney (2007) provides a comprehensive overview of disaster research challenges and opportunities. The author examines the field’s evolution and argues that while it has grown significantly, it still faces significant challenges in interdisciplinary collaboration, integrating different perspectives, and public engagement.

One of the critical challenges to interdisciplinary collaboration in disaster research is the differences in epistemologies and methods between different disciplines. This can result in a lack of common language and understanding, impeding collaboration and integration. To address these challenges, the author emphasizes the importance of a holistic approach to disaster research that considers disasters’ social, economic, political, and environmental dimensions. This approach should consider how different groups are affected by disasters and how they respond.

The author also discusses the role of technology in disaster response and argues that it has the potential to enhance disaster response efforts significantly. However, using technology in disaster response raises essential ethical and privacy concerns, which must be considered and addressed. Moreover, the author highlights the importance of public engagement in disaster research and argues that the perspectives of affected communities should be central to the research process. Researchers must engage with affected communities, understand their perspectives, and incorporate their views into disaster research and response efforts. This public engagement can ensure that disaster research is relevant and responsive to the needs of affected communities.

In conclusion, Tierney’s (2007) article provides a valuable perspective on disaster research challenges and opportunities. The author’s emphasis on the importance of a holistic approach, the role of technology in disaster response, and public engagement highlight the need for continued growth and innovation in the field. By addressing these challenges, disaster research can continue to evolve and make meaningful contributions to our understanding of disasters and how to respond to them.

Freudenburg, W. R. (1997). Contamination, corrosion and the social order: An overview. Current Sociology , 45 (3), 19-39.

The article provides an insightful overview of the relationship between contamination, corrosion, and social order. The article argues that contamination and corrosion can have far-reaching impacts on the social order, undermining trust, stability, and security. Contamination is the spread of something unwanted, such as pollution, into the environment, while corrosion is defined as the gradual destruction of something, such as the decline of social order. The author argues that contamination and corrosion can cause significant harm to the social order by creating public health problems, economic costs, and loss of social capital.

In addition to the harmful impacts of contamination and corrosion, Freudenburg (1997). also discusses how the meanings and interpretations of these issues are socially constructed and shaped by cultural, political, and economic factors. This highlights the importance of taking a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach when addressing contamination and corrosion. The author argues that addressing these issues requires a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach that considers contamination and corrosion’s social, economic, and cultural dimensions. This may include policy interventions, community-based efforts, and educational initiatives. Policy interventions could consist of regulations and laws aimed at reducing the release of pollutants into the environment and promoting the use of environmentally-friendly technologies. Community-based efforts could involve local groups working together to address contamination and corrosion issues in their communities, such as through cleanup efforts and advocacy campaigns. Finally, educational initiatives could raise public awareness about the impacts of contamination and corrosion and encourage individuals to take action to reduce their adverse effects.

In conclusion, the article provides a valuable contribution to understanding the relationship between contamination, corrosion, and social order. It highlights the far-reaching impacts of these issues and the importance of taking a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach to addressing them. The article provides valuable insights for policymakers, researchers, and community leaders as they work to create a more sustainable and equitable future.

Vallero, D. A. (2012). Unravelling environmental disasters . Newnes.

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In Indonesia, deforestation is intensifying disasters from severe weather and climate change

A woman walks near logs swept into a neighborhood affected by a flash flood in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Wednesday, March 13, 2024. In Indonesia, environmental groups continue to point to deforestation and environmental degradation worsening the effects of natural disasters such as floods, landslides, drought and forest fires. (AP Photo/Mavendra JR)

JAKARTA, Indonesia — Roads turned to murky brown rivers, homes were swept away by strong currents and bodies were pulled from mud during deadly flash floods and landslides after torrential rains hit West Sumatra in early March, marking one of the latest deadly natural disasters in Indonesia.

Government officials blamed the floods on heavy rainfall, but environmental groups have cited the disaster as the latest example of deforestation and environmental degradation intensifying the effects of severe weather across Indonesia.

“This disaster occurred not only because of extreme weather factors, but because of the ecological crisis,” Indonesian environmental rights group Indonesian Forum for the Environment wrote in a statement. “If the environment continues to be ignored, then we will continue to reap ecological disasters.”

A vast tropical archipelago stretching across the equator, Indonesia is home to the world’s third-largest rainforest, with a variety of endangered wildlife and plants, including orangutans, elephants, giant and blooming forest flowers. Some live nowhere else.

For generations the forests have also provided livelihoods, food, and medicine while playing a central role in cultural practices for millions of Indigenous residents in Indonesia.

Since 1950, more than 74 million hectares (285,715 square miles) of Indonesian rainforest — an area twice the size of Germany — have been logged, burned or degraded for development of palm oil, paper and rubber plantations, mining and other commodities according to Global Forest Watch.

Indonesia is the biggest producer of palm oil, one of the largest exporters of coal and a top producer of pulp for paper. It also exports oil and gas, rubber, tin and other resources. And it also has the world’s largest reserves of nickel — a critical material for electric vehicles, solar panels and other goods needed for the green energy transition.

Indonesia has consistently ranked as one of the largest global emitters of plant-warming greenhouse gases, with its emissions stemming from the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation and peatland fires, according to the Global Carbon Project.

It’s also highly vulnerable to climate change impacts, including extreme events such as floods and droughts, long-term changes from sea level rise, shifts in rainfall patterns and increasing temperatures, according to the World Bank. In recent decades the country has already seen the effects of climate change: More intense rains, landslides and floods during rainy season, and more fires during a longer dry season.

But forests can help play a vital role in reducing the impact of some extreme weather events, said Aida Greenbury, a sustainability expert focusing on Indonesia.

Flooding can be slowed by trees and vegetation soaking up rainwater and reducing erosion. In dry season, forests release moisture that helps mitigate the effects of droughts, including fires.

But when forests diminish, those benefits do as well.

A deforested hill is visible near an area affected by a flash flood in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Thursday, March 14, 2024. In Indonesia, environmental groups continue to point to deforestation and environmental degradation worsening the effects of natural disasters such as floods, landslides, drought and forest fires. (AP Photo/Sutan Malik Kayo)

Homes damaged by a flash flood sit in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Wednesday, March 13, 2024. In Indonesia, environmental groups continue to point to deforestation and environmental degradation worsening the effects of natural disasters such as floods, landslides, drought and forest fires. (AP Photo/Sutan Malik Kayo)

A 2017 study reported that forest conversion and deforestation expose bare soil to rainfall, causing soil erosion. Frequent harvesting activities — such as done on palm oil plantations — and the removal of ground vegetation leads to further soil compaction, causing rain to run off the surface instead of entering groundwater reservoirs. Downstream erosion also increases sediment in rivers, making rivers shallower and increasing flood risks, according to the research.

After the deadly floods in Sumatra in early March, West Sumatra Gov. Mahyeldi Ansharullah said there were strong indications of illegal logging around locations affected by floods and landslides. That, coupled with extreme rainfall, inadequate drainage systems and improper housing development contributed to the disaster, he said.

Experts and environmental activists have pointed to deforestation worsening disasters in other regions of Indonesia as well: In 2021 environmental activists partially blamed deadly floods in Kalimantan on environmental degradation caused by large-scale mining and palm oil operations. In Papua, deforestation was partially blamed for floods and landslides that killed over a hundred people in 2019.

There have been some signs of progress: In 2018 Indonesian President Joko Widodo put a three-year freeze on new permits for palm oil plantations. And the rate of deforestation slowed between 2021-2022, according to government data.

But experts warn that it’s unlikely deforestation in Indonesia will stop anytime soon as the government continues to move forward with new mining and infrastructure projects such as new nickel smelters and cement factories.

“A lot of land use and land-based investment permits have already been given to businesses, and a lot of these areas are already prone to disasters,” said Arie Rompas, an Indonesia-based forestry expert at Greenpeace.

President-elect Prabowo Subianto, who is scheduled to take office in October, has promised to continue Widodo’s policy of development, include large-scale food estates, mining and other infrastructure development that are all linked to deforestation.

Environmental watchdogs also warn that environmental protections in Indonesia are weakening, including the passing of the controversial Omnibus Law, which eliminated an article of the Forestry Law regarding the minimum area of forest that must be maintained at development projects.

“The removal of that article makes us very worried (about deforestation) for the years to come,” said Rompas.

While experts and activists recognize that development is essential for Indonesia’s economy to continue to go, they argue that it should be done in a way that considers the environment and incorporates better land planning.

“We can’t continue down the same path we’ve been on,” said sustainability expert Greenbury. “We need to make sure that the soil, the land in the forest doesn’t become extinct.”

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Ecodisaster Imaginaries in India

Essays in critical perspectives, edited by scott slovic; joyjit ghosh and samit kumar maiti - contributions by joyjit ghosh; samit kumar maiti; scott slovic; tajuddin ahmed; sk tarik ali; sharada allamneni; risha baruah; shreya bhattacharji; debajyoti biswas; sonalika chaturvedi; renu bhadola dangwal; shruti das; joydip ghosh; samrat laskar; debabrata modak; dheeraj pandey; richa joshi pandey; ashwarya samkaria; devapriya sanyal; tarakeshwar senapati; roshan raj singh; dona soman and goutam buddha sural.

Ecodisaster Imaginaries in India: Essays in Critical Perspectives is a volume of critical essays that discuss and debate the literary and cultural representations of ecological/environmental disaster in India from the perspectives that are integral to postcolonial disaster studies and the environmental humanities. The essays offer theoretically informed readings of environmental fiction, nonfiction, and poetry among other contemporary literary genres that open our eyes to today’s burning issues of global warming, climate change, pollution of air and water bodies, deforestation, and species extinction. The volume addresses the staunch ecological consciousness reflected in Rabindranath Tagore’s writings from the early twentieth century, indigenous responses to ecodisaster, and the portrayal of ecodisaster in selected Indian movies which raise questions of human rights violations in the face of manmade disaster and environmental crisis.

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In Indonesia, deforestation is intensifying disasters from severe weather and climate change

A woman walks near logs swept into a neighborhood affected by a flash flood in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Wednesday, March 13, 2024. In Indonesia, environmental groups continue to point to deforestation and environmental degradation worsening the effects of natural disasters such as floods, landslides, drought and forest fires. (AP Photo/Mavendra JR)

A woman walks near logs swept into a neighborhood affected by a flash flood in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Wednesday, March 13, 2024. (AP Photo/Mavendra JR)

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A boy crawls on logs swept into a neighborhood affected by a flash flood in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Wednesday, March 13, 2024. In Indonesia, environmental groups continue to point to deforestation and environmental degradation worsening the effects of natural disasters such as floods, landslides, drought and forest fires. (AP Photo/Mavendra JR)

Logs that were swept into a village after a flash flood are visible in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Wednesday, March 13, 2024. In Indonesia, environmental groups continue to point to deforestation and environmental degradation worsening the effects of natural disasters such as floods, landslides, drought and forest fires. (AP Photo/Sutan Malik Kayo)

A man walks past a log swept into a neighborhood affected by a flash flood in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Sunday, March 10, 2024. In Indonesia, environmental groups continue to point to deforestation and environmental degradation worsening the effects of natural disasters such as floods, landslides, drought and forest fires. (AP Photo/Mavendra JR)

JAKARTA, Indonesia (AP) — Roads turned to murky brown rivers, homes were swept away by strong currents and bodies were pulled from mud during deadly flash floods and landslides after torrential rains hit West Sumatra in early March, marking one of the latest deadly natural disasters in Indonesia.

A deforested hill is visible near an area affected by a flash flood in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Thursday, March 14, 2024. In Indonesia, environmental groups continue to point to deforestation and environmental degradation worsening the effects of natural disasters such as floods, landslides, drought and forest fires. (AP Photo/Sutan Malik Kayo)

A deforested hill is visible near an area affected by a flash flood in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Thursday, March 14, 2024. (AP Photo/Sutan Malik Kayo)

For generations the forests have also provided livelihoods, food, and medicine while playing a central role in cultural practices for millions of Indigenous residents in Indonesia.

Nguyen Thi Thuy, a vendor who sells steamed buns on a floating market, paddles her boat in Can Tho, Vietnam, Wednesday, Jan. 17, 2024. On good days she makes about $4 — hardly enough to put food on the table. (AP Photo/Jae C. Hong)

A boy crawls on logs swept into a neighborhood affected by a flash flood in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Wednesday, March 13, 2024. In Indonesia, environmental groups continue to point to deforestation and environmental degradation worsening the effects of natural disasters such as floods, landslides, drought and forest fires. (AP Photo/Mavendra JR)

A boy crawls on logs swept into a neighborhood affected by a flash flood in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Wednesday, March 13, 2024. (AP Photo/Mavendra JR)

But forests can help play a vital role in reducing the impact of some extreme weather events, said Aida Greenbury, a sustainability expert focusing on Indonesia.

Flooding can be slowed by trees and vegetation soaking up rainwater and reducing erosion. In dry season, forests release moisture that helps mitigate the effects of droughts, including fires.

But when forests diminish, those benefits do as well.

Logs that were swept into a village after a flash flood are visible in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Wednesday, March 13, 2024. In Indonesia, environmental groups continue to point to deforestation and environmental degradation worsening the effects of natural disasters such as floods, landslides, drought and forest fires. (AP Photo/Sutan Malik Kayo)

Logs that were swept into a village after a flash flood are visible in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Wednesday, March 13, 2024. (AP Photo/Sutan Malik Kayo)

A man walks past a log swept into a neighborhood affected by a flash flood in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Sunday, March 10, 2024. In Indonesia, environmental groups continue to point to deforestation and environmental degradation worsening the effects of natural disasters such as floods, landslides, drought and forest fires. (AP Photo/Mavendra JR)

A man walks past a log swept into a neighborhood affected by a flash flood in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Sunday, March 10, 2024. (AP Photo/Mavendra JR)

President-elect Prabowo Subianto , who is scheduled to take office in October, has promised to continue Widodo’s policy of development, include large-scale food estates, mining and other infrastructure development that are all linked to deforestation.

“The removal of that article makes us very worried (about deforestation) for the years to come,” said Rompas.

Homes damaged by a flash flood sit in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Wednesday, March 13, 2024. In Indonesia, environmental groups continue to point to deforestation and environmental degradation worsening the effects of natural disasters such as floods, landslides, drought and forest fires. (AP Photo/Sutan Malik Kayo)

Homes damaged by a flash flood sit in Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Indonesia, Wednesday, March 13, 2024. (AP Photo/Sutan Malik Kayo)

“We can’t continue down the same path we’ve been on,” said sustainability expert Greenbury. “We need to make sure that the soil, the land in the forest doesn’t become extinct.”

Associated Press climate and environmental coverage receives support from several private foundations. See more about AP’s climate initiative here . The AP is solely responsible for all content.

In Indonesia, deforestation is intensifying disasters from severe weather, climate change

A woman walks near logs swept into a neighborhood by a flash flood in West Sumatra, Indonesia.

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Roads turned to murky brown rivers, homes were swept away by strong currents and bodies were pulled from mud during deadly flash floods and landslides after torrential rains hit West Sumatra in early March, marking one of the latest deadly natural disasters in Indonesia.

For generations the forests have also provided livelihoods, food and medicine while playing a central role in cultural practices for millions of Indigenous residents in Indonesia.

Since 1950, more than 285,700 square miles of Indonesian rainforest — an area twice the size of Germany — have been logged, burned or degraded for development of palm oil, paper and rubber plantations, mining and other commodities, according to Global Forest Watch.

Indonesia is the biggest producer of palm oil, one of the largest exporters of coal and a top producer of pulp for paper. It also exports oil and gas, rubber, tin and other resources. And it also has the world’s largest reserves of nickel — a crucial material for electric vehicles, solar panels and other goods needed for the green energy transition.

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It’s also highly vulnerable to climate change impacts, including extreme events such as floods and droughts, long-term changes from sea level rise, shifts in rainfall patterns and increasing temperatures, according to the World Bank. In recent decades the country has already seen the effects of climate change: more intense rains, landslides and floods during rainy season, and more fires during a longer dry season.

But forests can help play a vital role in reducing the impact of some extreme weather events, said Aida Greenbury, a sustainability expert focusing on Indonesia.

Flooding can be slowed by trees and vegetation soaking up rainwater and reducing erosion. In dry season, forests release moisture that helps mitigate the effects of droughts, including fires.

But when forests diminish, those benefits do as well.

A 2017 study reported that forest conversion and deforestation expose bare soil to rainfall, causing soil erosion. Frequent harvesting activities — such as done on palm oil plantations — and the removal of ground vegetation lead to further soil compaction, causing rain to run off the surface instead of entering groundwater reservoirs. Downstream erosion also increases sediment in rivers, making them shallower and increasing flood risks, according to the research.

After the deadly floods in Sumatra in early March, West Sumatra Gov. Mahyeldi Ansharullah said there were strong indications of illegal logging around locations affected by floods and landslides. That, combined with extreme rainfall, inadequate drainage systems and improper housing development, contributed to the disaster, he said.

There have been some signs of progress: In 2018 Indonesian President Joko Widodo, known as Jokowi, put a three-year freeze on new permits for palm oil plantations. And the rate of deforestation slowed in 2021-22, according to government data.

President-elect Prabowo Subianto , who is scheduled to take office in October , has promised to continue Jokowi’s policy of development, include large-scale food estates, mining and other infrastructure development that are all linked to deforestation.

“The removal of that article makes us very worried [about deforestation] for the years to come,” Rompas said.

“We can’t continue down the same path we’ve been on,” said Greenbury, the sustainability expert. “We need to make sure that the soil, the land in the forest doesn’t become extinct.”

Milko writes for the Associated Press.

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Global warming is the rise in the average temperature of Earth’s atmosphere and oceans since the late 19th century and its projected continuation. Since the early 20th century, Earth’s mean surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 °C. It is primarily caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane produced by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue throughout the 21st century and beyond.…

Global Warming: Is It to Late to Save Our Earth

Global warming occurs mainly due to a concept called “Green House Effect”. There are certain gases like water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane that are called “Greenhouse gases”. These gases trap the energy from the sun, especially the infra-red rays and in turn warm up the earth’s surface. Without these gases, heat would have escaped back into space and the earth would have been colder by around 60 degrees Fahrenheit. The warming of the earth’s surface and the oceans is directly proportionate to the concentration of these greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In the last one hundred years, the concentration of these gases has increased tremendously due to large scale burning of fossil fuels and rapid industrialization. This has accelerated global warming, which in the future will lead to the submergence of land masses into the sea, extinction of certain vegetation and wildlife, and the…

Glbal Warming

Global warming is the gradual rise of the earth’s temperature which is caused by extra green house gases. For example, other gases are released by aerosols and deforestation, which is cutting down trees, lead to less carbon dioxide being removed from the air. Increases of green house gases trap more heat from the sun within the Earth’s atmosphere. When this happens, the Earth tends to stay warm. This causes the ice caps and glaciers to melt and the sea levels to rise. This will cause more storms, flood, and droughts and plants, people and animals will die.…

natural disasters

A natural calamities is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth; examples include floods, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geologic processes. It can cause loss of life or property damage, and typically leaves some economic damage in its wake, the severity of which depends on the affected population's resilience, or ability to recover. The earth’s wrath destroys everything in its stride. Usually it is at peace but once it unleashes its fury, it destroys anything and everything that comes in its way. Natural calamities affect thousands of lives, and leave the survivors to deal with its aftereffects.…

What we know and don’t know about pollution from the Key Bridge collapse

Containers carrying hazardous materials were damaged. there is a sheen in the water. recovery work runs the risk of stirring up toxic sediments..

Less than a week after a container ship rammed into the Francis Scott Key Bridge — causing the Baltimore bridge to collapse and topple partly onto the ship — officials are still working to identify and contain environmental pollutants that may be leaking into the Patapsco River.

So far, officials have released little information about the 764 tons of hazardous materials onboard the container ship Dali or the source of a sheen seen on the surface of the water near the crash site.

“Any time there’s a catastrophic event like this, there’s a potential for water pollution,” said Leda Huta, executive director of Waterkeepers Chesapeake, a nonprofit water quality watchdog for the Chesapeake Bay. “There are more than a million people living in that watershed, and it’s been a longtime struggle to ensure that the community has clean water that’s swimmable, fishable and drinkable.”

Here’s what to know about the potential environmental impacts of the crash.

What hazardous materials were on the ship?

The Dali was carrying 56 containers holding 764 tons of hazardous materials, mostly corrosive and flammable liquids and lithium ion batteries, according to the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). Officials said 14 hazardous containers are damaged.

Flammable and corrosive liquids typically travel in steel drums and tanks or industrial “totes” designed to safely transport hazardous materials. “While the [shipping] containers may be damaged from the bridge falling on them, those [drums and totes] are extremely strong and they can hold up very well,” said James Bell, president of ADCO Environmental Services, a Chicago-based company that does hazardous material cleanups.

Video released by the NTSB shows inspectors taking stock of the hazardous materials onboard the ship. Some frames appear to show ruptured steel drums. An NTSB spokesperson declined to detail what’s inside the hazardous containers. An initial report listed soap, perfume and unspecified resins among the contents.

The status of the containers with lithium ion batteries — which are made of toxic metals such as cobalt, nickel, and manganese — was not immediately clear.

What’s causing the sheen on the Patapsco River?

First responders reported a sheen on the Patapsco River, which appears to be pollution from the Dali. But officials haven’t figured out the exact source. At a news conference Friday, Petty Officer Kimberly Reaves, a spokeswoman for the U.S. Coast Guard, said a police helicopter was monitoring the sheen. “We are assessing the scene so our first responders can work safely,” Reaves said.

Adam Ortiz, the Environmental Protection Agency’s Mid-Atlantic regional administrator, said there is “no indication of active releases” from the Dali, but monitoring was ongoing.

What are officials doing to contain leaks?

Officials have placed 2,400 feet of sorbent boom, a floating material that can absorb oil spills, around the crash site to contain pollution. Sorbent booms are made from a material similar to disposable diapers and can’t contain oil for very long, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

Officials also placed 2,400 feet of hard containment boom around the ship. These plastic booms also float at the surface, but they have a weighted skirt that hangs underwater to stop oil from spreading.

Investigators from the NTSB and the Coast Guard have boarded the Dali to inspect the hazardous materials on the ship, but they have not detailed their findings publicly.

Could the local fishery be affected?

To some degree. Maryland’s crab fishing season starts on April 1, and parts of the Patapsco near the Key bridge have long been popular with those who use trotlines — lines strung with bait — to catch blue crabs. Boating restrictions near the salvage site will prevent recreational fishermen from getting near the bridge for an indefinite period.

CJ Canby, a captain who has been crabbing in the area for 23 years, said he wasn’t worried about the environmental impacts of the crash. He’s more worried about the impacts of wastewater treatment plants on the Patapsco Rivero and nearby Cox Creek, which he blames for algal blooms and fish kills.

“Even if fuel oil spilled, it would still be nothing compared to what the sewage treatment plants are doing every single day,” said Canby.

How does pollution figure in the area’s history?

The Key Bridge collapsed amid a decades-long effort to clean up industrial pollution in the Chesapeake Bay and the Patapsco River.

“This watershed and Baltimore’s waterways have been plagued with pollution for a long time,” said Huta. “That’s been trash. It’s been toxins and forever chemicals. It’s sewage and polluted stormwater. So it is a watershed that really has been taking a beating and can’t really afford new sources of pollution.”

The bridge collapsed near the Sparrows Point Terminal superfund site , which was once the site of a steel plant that dumped toxic waste into the Patapsco River and nearby Bear Creek. Before the bridge collapsed, officials had been planning to clean up toxic sediments at the bottom of the creek and river.

In a blog post, the nonprofit Chesapeake Bay Foundation raised concerns that cleanup efforts might stir up these toxic sediments , harming water quality and potentially sending the pollutants to wash up onshore in nearby residential areas, such as Turner Station, a predominantly Black community that faces frequent flooding.

That was before several thousand tons of bridge debris fell into the Patapsco River. Officials will now have to remove the wreckage from the riverbed.

“Front-line communities in the bigger Chesapeake Bay watershed have been bearing the burden of pollution and toxins disproportionately,” said Huta, “so it’s especially important that we put all of our efforts into righting that historic wrong.”

Could there be other environmental impacts?

Yes. With the Port of Baltimore shut down, cargo normally going through the port will have to be rerouted by truck, potentially increasing diesel emissions in areas that don’t experience that pollution. In addition, trucks that previously crossed the Key bridge — including those that carry hazardous material — will have to find other routes.

Justin Moyer contributed to this report.

More on climate change

Understanding our climate: Global warming is a real phenomenon , and weather disasters are undeniably linked to it . As temperatures rise, heat waves are more often sweeping the globe — and parts of the world are becoming too hot to survive .

What can be done? The Post is tracking a variety of climate solutions , as well as the Biden administration’s actions on environmental issues . It can feel overwhelming facing the impacts of climate change, but there are ways to cope with climate anxiety .

Inventive solutions: Some people have built off-the-grid homes from trash to stand up to a changing climate. As seas rise, others are exploring how to harness marine energy .

What about your role in climate change? Our climate coach Michael J. Coren is answering questions about environmental choices in our everyday lives. Submit yours here. You can also sign up for our Climate Coach newsletter .

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Crushed shipping containers are seen on the bow of the Dali after it struck the Francis Scott Key Bridge, on 29 March 2024 in Baltimore, Maryland.

As Baltimore bridge cleanup begins, fear of environmental contamination looms

Responders have currently found ‘no immediate threat’, but 14 of at least 56 containers carrying contaminants were destroyed

As authorities clean up the wreckage left behind by Tuesday’s deadly collapse of Baltimore’s Francis Scott Key Bridge , they are also looking for signs of potential environmental contamination.

Responders have currently found “no immediate threat to the environment”. But for environmental experts, concerns still loom.

“We definitely hope that it comes true that there’s no risk to the public,” said Jennifer Kunze, the Maryland organizing director for conservation group Clean Water Action. “But we can never take anything for granted, and it’s too early for everything to be analyzed and for me to say anything for sure.”

The massive container vessel that struck the bridge on its way out of the Baltimore harbor was carrying at least 56 containers of hazardous material, collectively containing 764 tons of corrosives, flammables and other contaminants, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) said on Thursday.

Fourteen of those containers were destroyed during the crash, officials said, but they detected no immediate cause for concern – at least not yet.

“As far as we know there is no immediate threat to the environment,” a partnership among the federal and state agencies and emergency management consultants responding to the bridge collapse – known as a unified command – wrote in an email.

So far, it seems Baltimore may have averted a number of worst-case scenarios, said Gary Belan, a senior director at the national conservation organization American Rivers. For one, the 14 destroyed containers were primarily full of essential oils, soaps and perfumes. These can be damaging – but “in small enough quantities, they’re not overtly harmful”, Belan said.

“You typically see some level in urban rivers of soaps or perfumes,” he said, noting those materials can enter waterways through sewage overflows or stormwater runoff amid heavy rains.

Also, since the Key Bridge sat on the wide mouth of the Patapsco River, it’s likely that those contaminants would be quickly dispersed, he said.

If the hull of the cargo ship had breached and leaked fuel oil into the water, that would have also spelled disaster. But so far, it appears the hull is intact. Though the collapse response’s unified command did detect a sheen on the water, Belan said that could have come from vehicles on the bridge that plunged into the water.

“Fuel oil is toxic substance, particularly for any sort of wildlife in the water like the fish and birds,” he said. “Any time there’s a container ship issue that’s a big concern.”

Another positive sign: in a statement, the unified command also said no volatile organic compounds or flammable vapors were observed in the air in or around the ship. “That’s a big relief,” Belan said.

But the ship could still pose risks. Responders must still untangle the ship from the remaining collision-related debris and then remove it from the water safely – a process that could take weeks.

In the meantime, more containers could fall into the water, including ones the NTSB says contain corrosive chemicals and lithium-ion batteries – materials that could leak toxic heavy metals into the water. And as long as the ship remains in the water, the possibility of the ship’s fuel container rupturing remains.

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“It seems like right now we are in a good spot, but I think it’s still ‘wait and see’ because they still need to get the ship off the water,” Belan said.

The Key Bridge sat over the Patapsco River at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. Its collapse came amid more than a decade of efforts to foster clean enough conditions in the harbor to swim.

Home to a wide variety of marine life on which crabbers and fishers rely, the Patapsco River has in recent years become the focus of conservation programs, including efforts by national and state agencies and American Rivers to remove dams along the waterways to open up more passages for migratory fish.

The local conservation organization Blue Water Baltimore said it has been in contact with the state department of the environment about potential environmental concerns in the wake of the disaster. It is calling on locals to report anything unusual they see on the water.

“We need your help. Please keep an eye out for any changes in the water and report anything you might notice – strange odors, discoloration, dead fish – to Blue Water Baltimore’s pollution reporting hotline ,” the group wrote in a statement .

Past experiences have eroded some Baltimore residents’ trust in officials, said Kunze, of Clean Water Action. For instance, residents in the majority-minority neighborhood of Curtis Bay – not far from the fallen bridge – complained for years that coal dust from a nearby coal terminal was plaguing their neighborhood. But the state did not officially acknowledge the problem until late last year.

That will make ongoing testing and community engagement about the bridge cleanup particularly important, Kunze said.

She added: “I think people in the city are really going to want updates and transparency and frequent communication.”

Baltimore bridge collapse

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Fears of environmental disaster rise as ship sinks after Houthi attack

A cargo ship sank in the Red Sea after an attack by Houthi militants, taking about 21,000 metric tons of fertilizer down with it, posing a significant environmental risk to one of the world’s busiest waterways and the home of many coral reefs.

The Rubymar was struck by an anti-ship ballistic missile fired by the Iranian-backed Houthis on Feb. 18 and sank early Saturday after “slowly taking on water” since the attack, U.S. Central Command said on social media early Sunday local time.

“The approximately 21,000 metric tons of ammonium phosphate sulfate fertilizer that the vessel was carrying presents an environmental risk in the Red Sea,” Centcom said, adding that the ship “also presents a subsurface impact risk to other ships transiting the busy shipping lanes of the waterway.”

The ship’s sinking “will cause an environmental disaster,” the Yemeni government said in a separate statement.

The Houthi attack last month caused an 18-mile oil slick and forced the crew to abandon the ship. The Djibouti Ports and Free Zones Authority, which coordinated the rescue of the Rubymar’s crew members, said the fertilizer onboard was classified as “very dangerous.”

It is believed to be the first time a vessel has been completely taken out by a Houthi strike. For months, the Houthis have been using missiles and drones to attack commercial and naval vessels traversing the Red Sea in protest of Israel’s war in Gaza.

“Yemen will continue to sink more British ships, and any repercussions or other damages will be added to Britain’s bill,” the Houthis’ deputy foreign minister, Hussein El-Ezzi, wrote Sunday on X.

However, a spokesperson with Britain’s Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office said the Rubymar was not a British ship, but was operated by a Lebanese company, flagged to Belize and owned by a company registered in the Marshall Islands.

“We have been clear that any attacks on commercial shipping are completely unacceptable, and that the UK and our allies reserve the right to respond appropriately,” said the spokesperson, who also noted a high level of concern about the potential environment effects of the sinking.

Julien Jreissati, the program director at Greenpeace Middle East and North Africa, called for emergency response teams to be given “immediate access” to the site.

“As well as any further leaks of fuel oil from the engines, the sinking of the vessel could further breach the hull, allowing water to contact with the thousands of tons of fertilizer, which could then be released into the Red Sea and disrupt the balance of the marine ecosystems, triggering cascading effects throughout the food web,” Jreissati said.

“This disruption could have far-reaching consequences, affecting various species that depend on these ecosystems and, in turn, potentially impacting the very livelihoods of coastal communities.”

The Associated Press cited Ian Ralby, founder of maritime security firm I.R. Consilium, as saying that there were “many ways” the Red Sea could be harmed by the ship’s sinking and noted that if the ship remains intact underwater, the impact will be a slow trickle instead of a massive release.

Ralby noted that the sea has a circular water pattern, adding: “What spills in the Red Sea, stays in the Red Sea.”

The Rubymar was heading to Belarus from the United Arab Emirates when it was targeted, the Washington Post reported at the time. The British military’s United Kingdom Maritime Trade Operations confirmed in an update Saturday that “the vessel has dragged anchor … and is down by the stern.”

The Houthis have said that ships linked to Israel or heading to its ports are legitimate targets, and the United States and Britain have launched several strikes against the group in an attempt to end the attacks – which do not appear to have stopped. On Saturday, Senior Houthi official Mohammed Ali al-Houthi slammed U.K. Prime Minister Rishi Sunak for Britain’s support of Israel and said Sunak was “responsible” for the ship’s fate.

He also demanded that more humanitarian relief be allowed into Gaza.

Many large ships – which carry about 12% of all world trade – have altered their routes to avoid the Red Sea amid the Houthi threat, opting to travel the long way around southern Africa instead.

Such detours could add as much as a month in transit time, delaying the delivery of goods and further disrupting international commerce – a sector already grappling with the aftermath of the coronavirus pandemic, rising inflation and disruptions caused by Russia’s war in Ukraine.

“With fewer and fewer container ships to target, the odds of another spill with massive environmental impact has increased enormously,” Ralby told the AP.

Victoria Bisset, Helier Cheung, Mohamad El Chamaa and Bryan Pietsch contributed to this report.

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Lawmakers rush to stop 'catastrophic-level event' at Texas oil fields: 'We are going to have complete and utter ecological devastation'

There is increasing alarm about West Texas oil fields that continue to produce toxic water leaks.

What's happening

The latest event was detected in Crane County in early December, when brine water poured out of the earth and over ranchland, Marfa Public Radio reported. The well wasn't plugged until Jan. 29, and the remediation project cost $2.5 million.

The water contained 154,000 chloride parts per million and at times flowed at 330 barrels, or 13,860 gallons, per hour, "creating a marsh-like scene," Mitch Borden reported. It was not always clear where it was coming from.

It took nine days to identify two wells and multiple other sources of the water. The Railroad Commission of Texas, which regulates the oil and gas industry in the Lone Star State, dug and lined 20 containment pits and had vacuum trucks remove the water.

"There was a big crack," said Sarah Stogner, an area attorney, rancher, and critic of the RRC. "You could hear the water flowing underneath your feet, and you could see bubbles. It was like being at the beach."

Why is this concerning?

The problem — perhaps caused by the injection of oil and gas wastewater underground and resulting increases in subsurface pressure — is so prevalent and productive that one leak has spawned a 60-acre body of water, Lake Boehmer . In addition to water, that abandoned wildcat well emits deadly hydrogen sulfide gas. These "zombie wells" are causing other issues too, including sinkholes.

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"The worst thing about this one is that it's toxic [and] radioactive produced water that is going into the groundwater," said Bill Burch, who was defeated in the Democratic primary for a seat on the RRC on March 5. "That is a horrendous, worst-case scenario, catastrophic-level event to occur in oil and gas in West Texas."

"This is now definitive unquestionable proof that the future of usable groundwater in Texas is at risk due to the salt water disposal issue," he added.

The commission said it protected "any threat to freshwater" and that area water remained uncontaminated, noting the brine water stopped flowing Jan. 21 and that the well had been cased and cemented.

"Although there is no evidence to suggest that this is an orphan oil and gas well," the commission stated in a news release , "the RRC acted quickly to remediate the water flow in Crane County because the RRC will make every effort possible to protect freshwater in Texas."

What can be done?

In February, Colorado landowners sued an oil company for abandoning wells. In January, Texas received $80 million in federal funding to plug orphan wells.

"[TRC and Bureau of Economic Geology researchers] have what you call a war room to try to figure out what's going on in this area. It has unusual geology and unusual water flows," RRC deputy executive director Danny Sorrells said . "We want to get to the bottom of this and stop it."

Crane County is in the middle of the Permian Basin, which covers 75,000 square miles in Texas, New Mexico, and Mexico. The county is hundreds of miles from El Paso and San Antonio. Fourteen miles to the north in neighboring Ector County is Odessa, of "Friday Night Lights" fame.

"If we don't stop this now we are going to have complete and utter ecological devastation anywhere we've had historic oil and gas wells," Stogner said.

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Lawmakers rush to stop 'catastrophic-level event' at Texas oil fields: 'We are going to have complete and utter ecological devastation' first appeared on The Cool Down .

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