what is school culture essay

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School Culture

The term school culture generally refers to the beliefs, perceptions, relationships, attitudes, and written and unwritten rules that shape and influence every aspect of how a school functions, but the term also encompasses more concrete issues such as the physical and emotional safety of students, the orderliness of classrooms and public spaces, or the degree to which a school embraces and celebrates racial, ethnic, linguistic, or cultural diversity.

Like the larger social culture, a school culture results from both conscious and unconscious perspectives, values, interactions, and practices, and it is heavily shaped by a school’s particular institutional history. Students, parents, teachers, administrators, and other staff members all contribute to their school’s culture, as do other influences such as the community in which the school is located, the policies that govern how it operates, or the principles upon which the school was founded.

Generally speaking, school cultures can be divided into two basic forms: positive cultures and negative cultures . Numerous researchers, educators, and writers have attempted to define the major features of positive and negative school cultures, and an abundance of studies, articles, and books are available on the topic. In addition, many educational organizations, such as the National School Climate Center , have produced detailed descriptions of positive school cultures and developed strategies for improving them (given the complexity of the topic, however, it is not possible to describe all the distinctions here).

Broadly defined, positive school cultures are conducive to professional satisfaction, morale, and effectiveness, as well as to student learning, fulfillment, and well-being. The following list is a representative selection of a few characteristics commonly associated with positive school cultures:

The individual successes of teachers and students are recognized and celebrated.
Relationships and interactions are characterized by openness, trust, respect, and appreciation.
Staff relationships are collegial, collaborative, and productive, and all staff members are held to high professional standards.
Students and staff members feel emotionally and physical safe, and the school’s policies and facilities promote student safety.
School leaders, teachers, and staff members model positive, healthy behaviors for students.
Mistakes not punished as failures, but they are seen as opportunities to learn and grow for both students and educators.
Students are consistently held to high academic expectations , and a majority of students meet or exceed those expectations.
Important leadership decisions are made collaboratively with input from staff members, students, and parents.
Criticism, when voiced, is constructive and well-intentioned, not antagonistic or self-serving.
Educational resources and learning opportunities are equitably distributed , and all students, including minorities and students with disabilities.
All students have access to the academic support and services they may need to succeed.

School culture has become a central concept in many efforts to change how schools operate and improve educational results. While a school culture is heavily influenced by its institutional history, culture also shapes social patterns, habits, and dynamics that influence future behaviors, which could become an obstacle to reform and improvement. For example, if a faculty culture is generally dysfunctional—i.e., if interpersonal tensions and distrust are common, problems are rarely addressed or resolved, or staff members tend to argue more than they collaborate or engage in productive professional discussions—it is likely that these cultural factors will significantly complicate or hinder any attempt to change how the school operates. This simple example illustrates why school culture has become the object of so many research studies and reform efforts—without a school culture that is conducive to improvement, reform becomes exponentially more difficult.

The following describe a few representative examples of common ways that schools may attempt to improve their culture:

Establishing professional learning communities that encourages teachers to communicate, share expertise, and work together more collegially and productively.
Providing presentations, seminars, and learning experiences designed to educate staff and students about bullying and reduce instances of bullying.
Creating events and educational experiences that honor and celebrate the racial, ethnic, and linguistic diversity of the student body, such as hosting cultural events and festivals, exhibiting culturally relevant materials throughout the school, inviting local cultural leaders to present to students, or making explicit connections between the diverse cultural backgrounds of students and what is being taught in history, social studies, and literature courses. For related discussions, see multicultural education and voice .
Establishing an advisory program that pairs groups of students with adult advisor to strengthen adult-student relationships and ensure that students are well known and supported by at least one adult in the school.
Surveying students, parents, and teachers about their experiences in the school, and hosting community forums that invite participants to share their opinions about and recommendations for the school and its programs.
Creating a leadership team comprising a representative cross-section of school administrators, teachers, students, parents, and community members that oversees and leads a school-improvement initiative.

Since most members of a school community will benefit from a more positive culture, and cultural factors tend to contribute significantly to emotional states such as happiness and unhappiness or fulfillment and dissatisfaction, the concept of a more positive school culture is rarely, in itself, controversial. For this reason, debates tend to arise (if they arise at all) in response to specific reform proposals, rather than to the general goal of improving a school culture. Yet given that organizational dysfunction is, by nature, an entrenched pattern of often unconscious behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs that tend to obstruct organizational change and improvement—and because human beings can become deeply attached to emotions and behaviors that may make them less happy, fulfilled, productive, or successful—attempts to reform school cultures may be more likely encounter resistance, criticism, or controversy in schools that are most in need of cultural reforms. In recent years, problems related to school culture are being cited as reasons for why schools should be closed or why a significant percentage of the teaching faculty should be fired. In these cases, “school culture” may become a flashpoint in larger debates about specific school-reform policies and strategies.

Because all school cultures are unique, it is important to investigate and develop an understanding of the underlying causes of any debates, including the preexisting cultural conditions that may be contributing to the debates. To adapt Tolstoy’s famous opening line in Anna Karenina : All positive school cultures share common features, but each negative school culture is negative in its own way.

Alphabetical Search

School Culture: Examples, Types, Definition

School culture refers to the policies, interpersonal dynamics, attitudes, customs, and formal and informal rules of behavior within a school. School culture involves administrators, teachers, staff, and students. It has a tremendous impact on the functioning and effectiveness of the school.

In many ways, the informal rules of behavior and the interpersonal dynamics of a school are more important than the official policies.

Moreover, a school’s culture is affected by a wide range of factors such as the school’s history, the community it serves, education stakeholders , and the dynamic between staff.

Nevertheless, school leadership is often tasked with influencing, changing, and directing the school’s culture – and leadership can, indeed, affect the culture of the school.

Types of School Culture

According to Hargreaves (1995) there are several types of school culture, listed below.

1. Collaborative Culture

Teachers work together, share the same educational values, and are committed to improving their teaching and the school as a whole.

2. Comfortable-Collaborative Culture

The school atmosphere is professional and although teachers are aware of the efforts of their colleagues, there is not a great deal of professional reflection.

3. Contrived-Collegial

The tone of the school is determined by leadership, which supports teachers’ growth but on a superficial level which often undermines motivation.

4. Balkanized

The atmosphere is dominated by cliques of teachers that compete for resources and control. An “us versus them” attitude can develop between the teachers and administration.

5. Fragmented

Teachers all function independently and there is very little collaborative effort to improve the school. Meetings are uninspired and lack involvement of the staff.

How to set a Positive School Culture

1. nurture high expectations.

School leadership sets the tone of high expectations . Instilling a drive and motivation for teachers to excel in the classroom involves creating a supportive environment.

This can be accomplished by highlighting best practices. Showing the entire teaching staff examples of outstanding instructional approaches can help motivate others on the team.

Holding award ceremonies and honoring teachers that are exceptionally dedicated to the profession not only shows respect for teachers as a group, but also helps the rewarded teachers feel appreciated.

This creates an atmosphere in the school that values the efforts of its teachers and recognizes their dedication.

2. Create Cohesion

Creating an environment where everyone feels respected and valued helps people feel part of the team.

This is accomplished by accepting and tolerating differences of opinion, differences in cultural backgrounds, and differences in pedagogical approaches.

Performance evaluations are handled in a positive manner and leadership focuses on identifying best practices rather than trying to find fault.

See More: Cohesion Examples

3. Maintain the Physical Environment

All people respond to the esthetics of their surroundings. Working in a visually pleasing environment puts teachers and students in a positive mood, which then effects nearly every aspect of the school day.

The exterior and interior environments should be clean and display a cheerful color scheme. Natural light and bright interiors foster positive attitudes.

Equipment that is broken should be repaired quickly and thoroughly.

4. Decentralized Decision-Making

Leadership should recognize the value of listening to experienced professionals. Great ideas can come from anyone.

Allowing teachers to have a say in decisions that impact their efforts will foster a sense of being listened to and respected.

This can be accomplished by forming committees that are tasked with making important decisions and implementing key action plans.

Those decisions should not be rejected by the administration to make it clear that teachers have a role in school operations.

5. Participate in Fun Activities

Teachers can feel a lot of pressure from parents, administrators, and society. Participating in school activities that are fun can help release a lot of tension and stress.

When colleagues engage in activities that are enjoyable, it helps build positive emotional bonds. This will make it easier for people to accept differences and foster greater collaboration in the future.

Students get to see their teachers from a different perspective, which will diminish negativity that has developed between both parties.

6. Let Students Know They Are Valued

Establishing a caring environment creates a sense of security in students that are at a fundamental level, just developing human beings. Youth and the teenage years can be full of personal doubt and struggles.

Letting students realize that the school genuinely cares about their growth is essential to creating a positive school culture. This can be accomplished through instructional approaches that are student-centered , interesting and practical.

Teachers should use a positive and respectful tone of voice when interacting with students and avoid punitive tactics to maintain discipline.

7. Professional Development

Providing teachers with the resources they need to excel is essential to creating a positive school culture.

There is nothing more frustrating for teachers than leadership having high expectations, but always saying no when teachers request specific training.

Knowledge is continuously evolving in every subject domain and technological applications to instruction emerge every year.

However, if teachers are not given time and the financial resources necessary to update their knowledge and skills, the entire school suffers, especially the students.

Examples of a Positive School Culture

Teacher agency: At the beginning of each academic year, teachers get to choose which committees they want to work on.
Teacher control over personal budget: Every teacher is allocated a portion of an “equipment and resources” budget which they can spend as they see fit.
Open discussion: Staff meetings are characterized by a lot of free-flowing discussion among the teachers and administrators.
Responsiveness: The maintenance department is quick to handle repairs of damaged equipment or classroom furniture.
Student and parent participation: Students and parents get to offer suggestions regarding the lunch menu and are regularly asked their opinions about food quality and quantity.
Relationship-building events: At least once a term, the school holds an outdoor barbecue on a weekend that involves a lot of fun activities and games.
Teacher buy-in for professional development: Every teacher gets to design their own professional development plan at the beginning of each academic year.
Teacher participation in strategic planning: Administrators and teachers devise a set of school-wide educational objectives and a detailed action plan to accomplish those goals.
Teacher participation in events: Once a year, the school holds a talent show for administrators and parents to display their hidden talent.
Teachers provide free and open feedback to leadership: At the end of each academic year, teachers respond to a job satisfaction survey that also includes a section for suggestions on how to improve the school.

Creating a positive school culture can produce numerous benefits for teachers, students, and administrators. Teachers approach their duties with greater enthusiasm and tend to have more positive interactions with their students and colleagues.

Administrators and teachers should work collaboratively towards a set of shared educational goals. Instead of feeling like competitors on opposing teams, they should see themselves as one team working towards one goal.

When students feel secure and cared for, it affects their behavior and academic performance. They form more positive emotional bonds with each other and their teachers, which reduces stress and interpersonal conflicts.

Giving teachers authority to make decisions regarding the school’s operation, nurturing PD, and highlighting best practices lets teachers know they are respected, trusted, and valued.

Establishing events and activities that have the sole purpose of being fun helps alleviate stress and interpersonal hostilities that may build up over time. In addition, creating a physical environment that is pleasing to the eye and includes lots of natural sunlight lifts everyone’s mood.

Deal, T. E. & Peterson, K. D. (2009). Shaping school cultures: Pitfalls, paradoxes, and promises. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Eaker, R., DuFour, R, Dufour, R (2002) Getting Started: Reculturing schools to Become Professional Learning Communities, Solution Tree, Bloomington (e-book).

Fullan, M., (2007) The new meaning of educational change. Routledge, New York.

Hargreaves, D. (1995). School culture, school effectiveness and school improvement, School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 6 (1), 23–46

Schein, E.H. (1985). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. p. 6

Stoll, L. (1998). School culture. School Improvement Network’s Bulletin, 9 . https://doi.org/10.18296/set.0805

Dave Cornell (PhD)

Dr. Cornell has worked in education for more than 20 years. His work has involved designing teacher certification for Trinity College in London and in-service training for state governments in the United States. He has trained kindergarten teachers in 8 countries and helped businessmen and women open baby centers and kindergartens in 3 countries.

Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 25 Positive Punishment Examples
Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 25 Dissociation Examples (Psychology)
Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 15 Zone of Proximal Development Examples
Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ Perception Checking: 15 Examples and Definition

Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link 25 Positive Punishment Examples
Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link 25 Dissociation Examples (Psychology)
Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link 15 Zone of Proximal Development Examples
Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link Perception Checking: 15 Examples and Definition

The School Culture Descriptive Essay

The artifacts that define the culture of the organization.

In this paper, I will describe the culture of a school organization. Essentially, organizational culture of a school entails its personality, which includes the values, assumptions, norms and tangible signs (artifacts) of the members and their behaviors. When walking across the compound of this particular school, though located in an economically depressed community, there are a well groomed green lawns and flowers that spread throughout.

The school appears clean and neat as you walk through the walkways. A school mission which is displayed on an expansive banner contains a symbolic message. As you take a trip down the hall, the kids together with the staff are taking care of actual live plants that decorate the hall. There are also some banners that contain words such as “hopefulness” perhaps to display the power of close bond between the staff and the kids, with the intention of improving the learning environment (Katz & Kahn, 1978).

What These Artifacts Reveal About the Shared Values and Basic Assumptions

The mottos that are displayed in banners are very critical as they reflect the shared values. The slogans also communicate the schools’ core values and the mission of the school organization. The artifacts also make it possible to comprehend the mission of the school.

Traversing across the school compound gives a person some positive feeling of what the school stands for. The symbols reflect the manner in which the kids and the members of the staff share close and positive relationships. It also reflects the relationships among the kids.

The traditions and the rituals of the school can also be drawn from the artifacts. They involve ceremonies of the positive aspects of the school, hence bringing the members of the community and the school together. This reinforces the school’s values and norms, as well as the school mission. Furthermore, no community can sustain itself without ceremonies (Katz & Kahn, 1978).

The Impact of Culture on Individuals Within the Organization

The impact of culture is strongly felt among the members of the school. For example, the staff and the teachers meeting reflects strong professional collaboration. The members of the school work together, to solve professional matters including organizational, instructional, and curricular among many other issues.

In addition, the collegial relationships can be seen from the way the students, teachers and other staff members work together, feel valued and involved and support each other. Finally, efficacy or self determination is impacted on the members of this school because they all feel as part of the school community as they want it, and work tirelessly to improve their professional skills (Bargh, 1990).

The Level and Type of Diversity Within the Organizational Culture

The school culture is made up of diversity of students, teachers and non teaching staff. The diversity of students includes both male and female students from different cultural backgrounds and age, and students with various ages, just to mention but a few. The diversity of teaching and non teaching staff is made up of males and females, different culture and race, and varied teaching and working experience among others.

How Organization’s Culture Can Facilitate or Hinder Change Efforts

The members of the school are encouraged to participate and get involved in problem-solving and decision-making processes hence promoting effective decisions and solutions. As such, the involvement increases the pledge towards plans. This enhances spontaneous work as the members possess common planning time and space. As such, planned change is highly enhanced (Cotton et al., 1988).

Bargh, J. (1990). Auto-motives: Preconscious determinants of social interaction, handbook of motivation and cognition. Foundations of Social Behavior , 2, 93- 130.

Cotton, J. L., Vollrath, D. A., Froggatt, K. L., Lengnick-Hall, M. L. & Jennings, K.R. (1988). Employee participation: Diverse forms and different outcomes. Academy of Management Review , 13, 8–22.

Katz, D. & Kahn, R.L. (1978). The social psychology of organizations. New York: Wiley.

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Bibliography

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School Culture Analysis Essay

Running head: SCHOOL CULTURE ANALYSIS School Culture Analysis Lisa Mack Grand Canyon University EDA 529 Dr. Tony Elmer July 21, 2009 School Culture Analysis The term school culture describes the environment that affects the behavior of the entire school community. School culture can be defined as the quality and character of school life. It is based on patterns of school life experiences and reflects norms, goals, values, relationships, teaching, leadership practices and the structure of the organization. Several studies have concurred that student performance is directly related to school climate. Students in schools with a positive school culture have higher achievements. Therefore, creating and …show more content…

Such a community is a place where teachers, students, and the stakeholders engage in decision making, have a shared sense of purpose and will all work together to support the infrastructure that involves alignment of instructional goals and a vision of learning (MacNeil & Maclin). School leaders that focus their attention on creating a positive school culture begin with a period of initiating a school process that focuses on school vision, use of data, shared expectations, and collaborative teamwork. In order for a positive school culture to be established, the principal must foster an atmosphere where teachers, students, and parents know where they fit in and how they can work together to support teaching and learning. Creating a positive school culture requires the principal to develop a vision of learning that is clearly communicated to the staff and students. Additionally, principals must create a climate that fosters shared authority and accountability if they are going to build a positive school culture (MacNeil & Maclin). Establishing a shared understanding of the definition of school culture with the stakeholders of the school is the first step in building a positive school culture. Once a shared definition is established, then a school administrator should next assess the current school culture and devise a plan of action. There are several avenues from

Shanna's Shirt Case Study

It may be one of the most important tasks that administrators engage in creating a positive and effective normative school culture. Part of the normative school culture should be based on understanding, acceptance, and appreciation of other perspectives. In creating a positive culture of accepted behavior, students, parents, teachers, and community members will feel connected to the school. If members of the school feel connected with purpose, they will be less likely to engage in negative

How The Ethos, Mission, Aims And Values Of A School

Explain how the ethos, mission, aims and values of a school may be reflected in working practices.

Positive School Culture In High Poverty Schools

According to former Indiana state superintendent of schools Dr. Suellen Reed, “We know from our research that there’s no turnaround school without a turnaround principal” (as cited in Gammil, 2007, para. 2), further supporting the fact that “school leaders have an essential role in cultivating a positive school culture in public schools” (Peterson and Deal, 2002, p.30). However, it is imperative to improve our understanding as to how principal leadership impacts the school culture in high poverty schools to ensure that all children receive a quality education, regardless of zip code, in an environment conducive to learning. The six measured factors are as follows:

Jody Jarrett. District Strategic Diversity Plan. Arkansas

We need to be a school district that prepares all students to be productive members of society. We need to expose our students to the real world and help them see that the world is bigger than our very small community. We need to ensure that all students have the opportunity to succeed and reach their goals. We need be a school with a pluralistic culture. Our students need to be culturally competent and have a good understanding of diversity. We need to promote the acceptance and celebration of people from all walks of life. We need to develop a supportive atmosphere where students feel they can express their beliefs freely without prejudice or judgment.

Tda 2.9support Children and Young People's Positive Behaviour

To promote a positive ethos in the school through encouraging a shared understanding of the values which underpin our school ethos

Tda 2.6 Help Improve Own and Team Practice in Schools

Making a school successful takes more than individual effort, it takes teamwork. Individuals need to work together towards shared goals and commitments focusing on meeting the academic and social needs of all pupils in the school.

Glt1 Task 2

If I were principal, my plan to improve school community relations would begin with a whole school concerted to effort to learn about the new cultural groups in the community and provide opportunities for school community members to come together to build relationships with the new families. Secondly, I would make sure to introduce myself to the new community members and use my people skills to build relationships with new businesses and community

School Ethos Essay

3.1 Explain how the ethos, mission, aims and values of a school may be reflected in working practices.

Racial Awareness At Black And Latino Males

As a leader I envision my school as one where students and teachers come to a place they enjoy entering each day. All share the focus of the school, the belief that all students can become high achievers. Staff is centered on student achievement; no matter what academic level that all students face coming into the classroom. All staff will understand that all children are teachable, even those with learning issues.

Principals Demonstrate School Culture And Equity Leadership

A: Intentional and Collaborative School Culture - Principals articulate, model and positively reinforce a clear vision and values of the school’s culture, and involve students, families and staff in creating an inclusive and welcoming climate that supports it.

Cultural Diversity in Schools Essay examples

and to build a world culture of human beings who resolve disputes in ways that

Personal Statement On Educational Leadership

In light of accountability requirements, fear of not meeting AYP (Annual Yearly Progress), and required school improvement plans, often the idea of “school improvement” is considered a negative attribute. Obviously schools do not want to be singled out or identified as in need of improvement. Teachers often take the same view towards the idea of improvement. We as teachers take very personal that concept of improvement; we often parallel the need for improvement to failure. However my belief is that effective schools are always in a school improvement process and effective teachers too also are constantly adapting their practice in a culture of continuous improvement and growth. Therefore it is important as an effective leader to build a community of trust and collaboration. I quote “We are all in this together. Once we know that we are, we’re all stars and we see that we’re all in this together.” (Disney High School Musical, 2006) These lyrics from a popular Disney movie put to light exactly the school culture where the goal is not personal but as a community to use data driven and research based approaches in reflection and growth that assist all stakeholders.

Mission Statement For A Educational Leader

As an educational leader, I must have a vision and mission statement for the school that is known by the staff, students, and parents. The vision will address the needs of the students academically, emotionally, and socially. According to DuFour (1998), “ Those who seek to transform their school into a professional learning community as characterized by an environment fostering mutual cooperation, emotional support, personal growth, and a synergy of efforts.” The leader must implement a plan that will cultivate the success of all students. The mission will speak to the direction of the school community stating what the desire goals are. The building leader will lead by example. High expectations will be communicated and encourage by staff and students. The educational leader of a school must develop a culture of team work to create a climate that is student friendly. The vision mission and goals of the leader should be transparent. The establishment of common goals is the first step. Without common goals, sustainable progress will be impossible and thus everyone will have lower expectations. The students, parents, and staff should be commented to the goals of every child reaching their full academic potential. The school environment should speak to goal setting and high expectations for all students and staff.

The Subculture Within The School Culture

Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people. It is learned and transmitted from one generation to the next. Culture will change as situations and the needs of people change. A school environment itself constitutes a subculture within a larger society. Each school has a culture of its own, like a minuscule society. The school culture reflects the community in which the school is located and its students’ characteristics. This will consist of the values, attitudes, beliefs, norms, and customs of those making the system. This is because of the racial and socioeconomic segregation of residential communities. A school’s culture is formed by its history context and the individuals in it. Each school has a

Education and Culture Essay

I believe that schools have hidden cultural agendas, stemming from their policy makers collective cultural backgrounds, which controls what curricula is used, and how knowledge is taught within the system. I further believe that not all students fit the cultural mold defined by our schools, and that those students that find themselves outside the established "norm" cannot fully benefit from their school experiences.

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TESS-India: Key resources
Key resources (complete)
Planning lessons
Involving all
Talk for learning
Using pair work
Using questioning to promote thinking
Monitoring and giving feedback
Using groupwork
Assessing progress and performance
Using local resources
Storytelling, songs, role play and drama
Compendium for teacher development
School–home communication
TI-AIE: School–home communication
A language-rich classroom
TI-AIE: A language-rich classroom
Speaking and listening
TI-AIE: Speaking and listening
Early reading
TI-AIE: Early reading
Storytelling
TI-AIE: Storytelling
Reading for pleasure
TI-AIE: Reading for pleasure
Reading for information
TI-AIE: Reading for information
Knowing and using children's literature
TI-AIE: Knowing and using children’s literature
Knowing and using children’s literature
Authentic writing
TI-AIE: Authentic writing
TI-AIE: Using local resources
Language, literacy and citizenship
TI-AIE: Language, literacy and citizenship
Multilingualism in the classroom
TI-AIE: Multilingualism in the classroom
Pair work for language and literacy
TI-AIE: Pair work for language and literacy
Integrating language, literacy and subject learning
TI-AIE: Integrating language, literacy and subject learning
Monitoring, assessment and feedback
TI-AIE: Monitoring, assessment and feedback
Acknowledgements
Elementary Language and Literacy acknowledgements
Classroom routines
TI-AIE: Classroom routines
Songs, rhymes and word play
TI-AIE: Songs, rhymes and word play
Letters and sounds of English
TI-AIE: Letters and sounds of English
Mark-making and early writing
TI-AIE: Mark-making and early writing
Shared reading
TI-AIE: Shared reading
Planning around a text
TI-AIE: Planning around a text
Promoting the reading environment
TI-AIE: Promoting the reading environment
English and subject content integration
TI-AIE: English and subject content integration
Using the textbook creatively
TI-AIE: Using the textbook creatively
Learning English in the creative arts
TI-AIE: Learning English in the creative arts
The learning environment
TI-AIE: The learning environment
Developing and monitoring reading
TI-AIE: Developing and monitoring reading
Developing and monitoring writing
TI-AIE: Developing and monitoring writing
Community resources for English
TI-AIE: Community resources for English
Elementary English acknowledgements
Local resources for teaching English
TI-AIE: Local resources for teaching English
Using more English in your classroom
TI-AIE: Using more English in your classroom
Building your students' confidence to speak English
TI-AIE: Building your students' confidence to speak English
Supporting reading for understanding
TI-AIE: Supporting reading for understanding
Whole-class reading routines
TI-AIE: Whole-class reading routines
Supporting independent writing in English
TI-AIE: Supporting independent writing in English
Whole-class writing routines
TI-AIE: Whole-class writing routines
Strategies for teaching listening
TI-AIE: Strategies for teaching listening
Supporting speaking in English: pair and groupwork
TI-AIE: Supporting speaking in English: pair and groupwork
English grammar in action
TI-AIE: English grammar in action
Strategies for teaching vocabulary
TI-AIE: Strategies for teaching vocabulary
Promoting reading for pleasure
TI-AIE: Promoting reading for pleasure
Supporting language learning through formative assessment
TI-AIE: Supporting language learning through formative assessment
Developing your English
TI-AIE: Developing your English
Using resources beyond the textbook
TI-AIE: Using resources beyond the textbook
Secondary English acknowledgements
Using number games: developing number sense
TI-AIE: Using number games: developing number sense
Using structured resources to develop understanding: place value
TI-AIE: Using structured resources to develop understanding: place value
Using a number line and the expression 'Imagine if ...': positive and negative numbers
TI-AIE: Using a number line and the expression ‘Imagine if …’: positive and negative numbers
Mathematical stories: word problems
TI-AIE: Mathematical stories: word problems
Asking questions that challenge thinking: fractions
TI-AIE: Asking questions that challenge thinking: fractions
Making students believe they CAN do mathematics: operations on fractions
TI-AIE: Making students believe they CAN do mathematics: operations on fractions
Using manipulatives: decomposition and regrouping
TI-AIE: Using manipulatives: decomposition and regrouping
Using real-life contexts: the formal division algorithm
TI-AIE: Using real-life contexts: the formal division algorithm
Comparing and contrasting tasks: volume and capacity
TI-AIE: Comparing and contrasting tasks: volume and capacity
Using rich tasks: area and perimeter
TI-AIE: Using rich tasks: area and perimeter
Physical representation in mathematics: handling data
TI-AIE: Physical representation in mathematics: handling data
Learning through talking: variables and constants
TI-AIE: Learning through talking: variables and constants
Conjecturing and generalising in mathematics: introducing algebra
TI-AIE: Conjecturing and generalising in mathematics: introducing algebra
Using embodiment, manipulative and real-life examples: teaching about angles
TI-AIE: Using embodiment, manipulatives and real-life examples: teaching about angles
Creative thinking in mathematics: proportional reasoning
TI-AIE: Creative thinking in mathematics: proportional reasoning
Elementary Maths acknowledgements
Using visualisation: algebraic identities
TI-AIE: Using visualisation: algebraic identities
Developing mathematical reasoning: mathematical proof
TI-AIE: Developing mathematical reasoning: mathematical proof
Visualising, comparing and contrasting: number systems
TI-AIE: Visualising, comparing and contrasting: number systems
Connecting mathematics: finding factors and multiples
TI-AIE: Connecting mathematics: finding factors and multiples
Building mathematical resilience: similarity and congruency in triangles
TI-AIE: Building mathematical resilience: similarity and congruency in triangles
Cooperative learning and mathematical talk: triangles
TI-AIE: Cooperative learning and mathematical talk: triangles
Creating contexts for abstract mathematics: equations
TI-AIE: Creating contexts for abstract mathematics: equations
Enacting vocabulary and asking questions: exploring the circle
TI-AIE: Enacting vocabulary and asking questions: exploring the circle
Hands-on learning and embodiment: constructions in geometry
TI-AIE: Hands-on learning and embodiment: constructions in geometry
Tackling mathematical anxiety: combination shapes and solids
TI-AIE: Tackling mathematical anxiety: combination shapes and solids
Learning from misconceptions: algebraic expressions
TI-AIE: Learning from misconceptions: algebraic expressions
Developing creative thinking in mathematics: trigonometry
TI-AIE: Developing creative thinking in mathematics: trigonometry
Reading, writing and modelling mathematics: word problems
TI-AIE: Reading, writing and modelling mathematics: word problems
Thinking mathematically: estimation
TI-AIE: Thinking mathematically: estimation
Developing stories: understanding graphs
TI-AIE: Developing stories: understanding graphs
Secondary Maths acknowledgements
Brainstorming: sound
TI-AIE: Brainstorming: sound
Pair work: life processes
TI-AIE: Pair work: life processes
Using groupwork: floating and sinking
TI-AIE: Using groupwork: floating and sinking
Using demonstration: food
TI-AIE: Using demonstration: food
Concept mapping: water
TI-AIE: Concept mapping: water
Teacher’s questioning: forces
TI-AIE: Teacher’s questioning: forces
Pupils’ questioning: sorting and classifying things
TI-AIE: Pupils’ questioning: sorting and classifying things
Observing patterns: shadows and night & day
TI-AIE: Observing patterns: shadows and night & day
Practical investigation: change
TI-AIE: Practical investigation: change
Using stories: environment
TI-AIE: Using stories: environment
Using games: electricity
TI-AIE: Using games: electricity
Alternative conceptions: heat and temperature
TI-AIE: Alternative conceptions: heat and temperature
Developing the learning environment
TI-AIE: Developing the learning environment
Discussion in science: malnutrition
TI-AIE: Discussion in science: malnutrition
Using the community: environmental issues
TI-AIE: Using the community: environmental issues
Elementary Science acknowledgements
Pair work: atoms and molecules, and chemical reactions
TI-AIE: Pair work: atoms and molecules, and chemical reactions
Reading in the science classroom : heredity and evolution
TI-AIE: Reading in the science classroom: heredity and evolution
Reading in the science classroom: heredity and evolution
Mind mapping and concept mapping: acids, bases and salts
TI-AIE: Mind mapping and concept mapping: acids, bases and salts
Using local resources: life processes
TI-AIE: Using local resources: life processes
Community approaches: science education and environmental issues
TI-AIE: Community approaches: science education and environmental issues
Using games: the Periodic Table
TI-AIE: Using games: the Periodic Table
Questioning: why do we fall ill?
TI-AIE: Questioning: why do we fall ill?
Language in the science classroom: cells
TI-AIE: Language in the science classroom: cells
Probing understanding: work and energy
TI-AIE: Probing understanding: work and energy
Using physical models: teaching electricity to Class X
TI-AIE: Using physical models: teaching electricity to Class X
Brainstorming: forces and laws of motion
TI-AIE: Brainstorming: forces and laws of motion
Building mental models: teaching carbon and its compounds to Class X
TI-AIE: Building mental models: teaching carbon and its compounds to Class X
Practical work and investigations: teaching gravitation to Class IX
TI-AIE: Practical work and investigations: teaching gravitation to Class IX
Effective demonstrations: teaching light and vision to Class X
TI-AIE: Effective demonstrations: teaching light and vision to Class X
Effective project work: sources of energy
TI-AIE: Effective project work: sources of energy
Secondary Science acknowledgements
Orientation
TI-AIE: Orientation: the elementary school leader as enabler
Orientation: the elementary school leader as enabler
TI-AIE: Orientation: the secondary school leader as enabler
Orientation: the secondary school leader as enabler
Perspective on leadership
TI-AIE: Perspective on leadership: leading the school’s self-review
Perspective on leadership: leading the school’s self-review
TI-AIE: Perspective on leadership: leading the school development plan
Perspective on leadership: leading the school development plan
TI-AIE: Perspective on leadership: using data on diversity to improve your school
Perspective on leadership: using data on diversity to improve your school
TI-AIE: Perspective on leadership: planning and leading change in your school
Perspective on leadership: planning and leading change in your school
TI-AIE: Perspective on leadership: implementing change in your school
Perspective on leadership: implementing change in your school
TI-AIE: Perspective on leadership: building a shared vision for your school
Perspective on leadership: building a shared vision for your school
Managing and developing self
TI-AIE: Managing and developing self: managing and developing yourself
Managing and developing self: managing and developing yourself
Transforming teaching-learning process
TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: leading improvements in teaching and learning in the elementary school
Transforming teaching-learning process: leading improvements in teaching and learning in the elementary school
TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: leading improvements in teaching and learning in the secondary school
Transforming teaching-learning process: leading improvements in teaching and learning in the secondary school
TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: leading assessment in your school
Transforming teaching-learning process: leading assessment in your school
TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: leading teachers’ professional development
Transforming teaching-learning process: leading teachers’ professional development
TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: supporting teachers to raise performance
Transforming teaching-learning process: supporting teachers to raise performance
TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: mentoring and coaching
Transforming teaching-learning process: mentoring and coaching
What this unit is about

What school leaders can learn in this unit

1 What is school culture and how does it impact on learning?

2 Styles of school leadership

3 Identifying and analysing the culture in your school
4 Developing a positive shared culture
Resource 1: Plan of action
Transforming teaching-learning process: developing an effective learning culture in your school
TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: promoting inclusion in your school
Transforming teaching-learning process: promoting inclusion in your school
TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: managing resources for effective student learning
Transforming teaching-learning process: managing resources for effective student learning
TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: leading the use of technology in your school
Transforming teaching-learning process: leading the use of technology in your school
Leading partnerships
TI-AIE: Leading partnerships: engaging with parents and the wider school community
Leading partnerships: engaging with parents and the wider school community
School Leadership acknowledgements
TI-AIE: TESS-India Video Resources
TI-AIE: TESS-India School Leadership Video Resources
TESS-India OER title list
TESS-India Subject Frameworks
TESS-India Key Resources and Video Resources mapping matrix
TESS-India Video Script titles
TESS-India Localisation Handbook
TESS-India MOOC Facilitation Guide
TESS-India Consultant Orientation Handbook (Draft)
Academic mentoring
Action research
Facilitating teachers' meetings
Networks: effective professional development for educational change
Reflection in education
Running an effective participatory interactive workshop
Engaging students
Focusing on examination results
Improving attendance
Dealing with large multi-grade classes
Motivating teachers
Speaking English with confidence
Supporting school leaders in motivating teacher change in their schools
Teacher development meetings
Teaching student teachers
Teaching multilingual classes
Using English in everyday life
Working with elementary Maths teachers

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A school that is able to develop and maintain a positive shared culture knows what aspects of the culture are important in developing an effective learning environment; it consciously transmits these values to its students. Through collective awareness and action, culture can be used positively in order to enhance student learning and achievement, whether through small actions such as celebrating achievements in public events, or to more large-scale projects such as developing democratic processes for teachers, students and other stakeholders to contribute to curriculum reform.

While it appears to be constant , culture is a dynamic space that is influenced by laws, policies and changes of leadership. It therefore requires school leaders to be aware of what influences or changes aspects of the school culture, whether deliberately or not, and ensuring that the culture for learning and achievement are never put at risk. Research demonstrates that school leaders have a critical role in ensuring that the culture supports student achievement (MacNeil et al., 2009). But – as identified by Bulach (2001) – a leader must identify a school’s existing culture before attempting to change it.

A positive school culture can be defined broadly to include (Character Education Partnership, 2010):

social climate , including a safe and caring environment in which all students feel welcomed and valued, and have a sense of ownership of their school; this helps students in their moral development
intellectual climate , in which all students in every classroom are supported and challenged to do their very best and achieve work of quality; this includes a rich, rigorous and engaging curriculum, and a powerful pedagogy for teaching it
rules and policies that hold all school members accountable to high standards of learning and behaviour
traditions and routines built from shared values that honour and reinforce the school’s academic and social standards
structures for giving staff and students a voice in, and shared responsibility for, solving problems and making decisions that affect the school environment and their common life
ways of effectively working with parents to support students’ learning and character growth
norms for relationships and behaviours that create a professional culture of excellence and ethical practice.

Figure 2 Does your school have a positive school culture?

This definition covers the breadth of school life, both academic and social. However, every bullet point can be seen to have a direct impact on student learning, whether it is through developing a culture of excellence, or ensuring that students feel safe and listened to. The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) recognises this by stating that ‘schools have a major role to play in ensuring that children are socialised into a culture of self-reliance, resourcefulness, peace-oriented values and health’ (2005, p. 35).

The NCF mentions the conscious creation of a culture that has a long-term, developmental impact, stating that ‘children cannot wake up one morning and know how to participate in, preserve and enhance a democracy, especially if they have had no prior personal or even second-hand experience of it, nor any role models to learn from’. It specifically mentions the importance of:

a culture of reading
a culture of innovation, curiosity and practical experience
highlighting students’ identities as ‘learners’ and creating an environment that enhances the potential and interests of each student
messages that convey interpersonal relations, teacher attitudes, and norms and values that are part of the culture of the school.

More recently, Section 17 of the Right to Education Act 2009 (RtE) is of particular significance in the context of developing a positive school culture, because it states that ‘no child shall be subjected to physical punishment or mental harassment’. This calls for the school leader to focus on making the school an enabling and facilitative place for all school children, thereby providing a stress-free, child-friendly, learner-centred classroom environment, which requires redefining notions of discipline, punishment and student–teacher relationships. Further, the National Programme Design and Curriculum Framework (2014) highlights the need to empower and develop the capabilities of the school leader so that the transformed school proactively nurtures children and facilitates their all-round development.

Before understanding the role of school leaders in establishing, modelling and sharing their vision of a positive school culture, it is necessary to consider how different aspects of the culture are enacted in schools. Activity 1 will help you to consider your own understanding of school culture in relation to the Character Education Partnership (CEP) definition above.

Activity 1: Identifying examples of positive school culture

Look again at the seven bullet points listed above in the CEP definition of school culture. For each bullet point, write down in your Learning Diary two examples of how this might be reflected to your school.

For each example you have listed, justify how it would have a positive impact on student learning.

You will have naturally drawn on examples from your own experience, and will maybe have thought of examples of practice that you feel your school should aim to implement. You may notice that the examples you have thought of range from something as small as all teachers saying good morning to students as they enter classrooms, to something more substantial such as changing the classroom pedagogy .

The examples you thought of for Activity 1 are likely to be context-specific. Table 1 lists some generic ideas to help you think through the broad range of practical elements that might contribute to a school culture.

Having considered the multi-faceted nature of what is meant by a school’s culture, it should be clear that there is very little that does not have an impact on how staff and students experience the school and affect the learning that takes place. As a school leader, this includes the way you lead and manage the staff, how you communicate your vision of the school’s development, and the relationships and interactions you have with staff, students and stakeholders.

For further information, take a look at our frequently asked questions which may give you the support you need.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section School Culture

Introduction, general overviews.

Foundational Texts
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School Culture by Patrick J. Schuermann , James W. Guthrie , Colleen Hoy LAST REVIEWED: 29 July 2020 LAST MODIFIED: 15 December 2011 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0034

Similar to change efforts in other sectors, organizational growth in education does not occur in an isolated environment. Rather, it occurs within institutions that have norms and values, assumptions and expectations. While often used interchangeably, several authors distinguish the constructs of “school climate” and “school culture” on the basis of organizational climate being the descriptive beliefs and perceptions individuals hold of the organization and culture being the shared values, beliefs, and expectations that develop from social interactions within the organization. School culture is “the way we do things around here”—those tangible and intangible norms and values shared by members of a school that help shape the behaviors of teachers and school leaders. This article provides a compilation of the major works that form the literature base on the topic of school culture, with an emphasis on works that discuss ways in which school leaders and teachers can utilize school culture in the service of achieving key educational goals.

School culture involves many stakeholders—policymakers, principals, teachers, students, and parents—and their behaviors impact the motivations, behaviors, and achievement of students. The history, definition, surrounding debates, measurement, importance, and applications of school culture are provided below in Anderson 1982 and Stolp and Smith 1995 , both widely regarded reviews. Building on these overviews, Eller and Eller 2009 provides for the user both theoretical frameworks and practical activities that inform reform strategies. As schools and teachers are forced to meet increasingly specific standards, school culture scholars espouse the importance of retaining the value and wonder of education when planning and implementing reforms ( Deal and Peterson 2009 ). The ability to foster positive culture while adhering to standards imposed from above requires strong assessment tools that allow leaders to ensure that norms and positive environments are maintained. Deal and Peterson 1999 argues that reforms without these values are unlikely to succeed. Maslowski 2006 reviews an array of inventories and questionnaires used to evaluate school culture and its reforms that will be highly useful for policymakers and school leadership. All of these frameworks and assessment tools inform school leaders in hopes that a strong school culture will improve student achievement levels, which DiMaggio 1982 argues are significantly related in a case study of cultural capital. These authors and resources offer a sampling of the most widely regarded studies of school culture available to the user. Finally, for an international perspective on measuring organizational health, Freiberg 1999 provides a wealth of assessment tools and implementation guides.

Anderson, Carolyn S. 1982. The search for school climate: A review of the research. Review of Educational Research 52.3 (Fall): 368–420.

DOI: 10.3102/00346543052003368

A vital and thorough review of research on school culture that will be a useful guide for the user. This piece reviews research concerning the history, definitions, debates, and measurement of school culture. The author provides widely accepted conclusions on the topic as well as suggestions and methodologies for providers.

Deal, Terrence E., and Kent D. Peterson. 1999. Shaping school culture: The heart of leadership . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Reforms that do not take a school’s unique culture into account are unlikely to succeed. The authors identify the main attributes of culture as the purposes, traditions, norms, and values within the community. The book uses real-life examples to provide a roadmap for leaders and identify strategies for leaders to use a school’s unique culture to successfully implement change.

Deal, Terrence E., and Kent D. Peterson. 2009. Shaping school culture: Pitfalls, paradoxes, and promises . 2d ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Educational leaders face the paradox of standards-based reforms and the need to preserve the cultural roots of education. These expert authors use this paradox to discuss the influence of culture on school functions. The authors encourage teachers and school leaders to reengage the “magic and myth” of education while reshaping school culture.

DiMaggio, Paul. 1982. Cultural capital and school success: The impact of status culture participation on the grades of U.S. high school students. American Sociological Review 47.2 (April): 189–201.

DOI: 10.2307/2094962

A major contribution to the study of school culture, in this study the author investigates the impact of cultural capital, as a component of school culture participation, on high school grades. The author uses Pierre Bourdieu’s definition of cultural capital and status and develops a useful cultural mobility model.

Eller, John, and Sheila Eller. 2009. Creative strategies to transform school culture . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

This comprehensive overview of school culture provides theory, strategies, and practical activities for school leaders to improve culture and teamwork among staff. The authors focus on creating and sustaining strong interpersonal relationships within the organization and address conflict and strategies for reconciliation. This is a valuable resource for leaders implementing change to cultivate staff development and team building.

Freiberg, H. Jerome, ed. 1999. School climate: Measuring, improving, and sustaining healthy learning environments . London: Falmer.

This exemplary work on the measurement of school climate provides the user with myriad assessment tools and implementation guides. Eighteen instruments to measure climate are presented by an international group of authors who analyze culture from multiple perspectives (e.g., student, teacher, principal, community). The authors offer a roadmap for assessing organizational health.

Maslowski, R. 2006. A review of inventories for diagnosing school culture. Journal of Educational Administration 44.1: 6–35.

DOI: 10.1108/09578230610642638

In this study, a first of its kind, the author offers a critical review of available school culture inventories and questionnaires. The author finds that questionnaires can be valuable tools to assess school culture and that inventories primarily address specific cultural traits. This review is an important tool for researchers, policymakers, school boards, principals, and teachers to determine which tool best meets their objectives.

Stolp, Stephen Wayne, and Stuart Carl Smith. 1995. Transforming school culture: Stories, symbols, values & the leader’s role . Eugene: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management, University of Oregon.

The authors offer a definitive discussion of school culture: its definition, importance, and application. They define culture as a dynamic process with significant implications on teacher and student performance. The piece offers measurement instruments, processes for improvement, and strategies for principal and staff development.

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Why School Culture Matters and Strategies to Improve It

School Administration
An Introduction to Teaching
Tips & Strategies
Policies & Discipline
Community Involvement
Technology in the Classroom
Teaching Adult Learners
Issues In Education
Teaching Resources
Becoming A Teacher
Assessments & Tests
Elementary Education
Secondary Education
Special Education
Homeschooling
M.Ed., Educational Administration, Northeastern State University
B.Ed., Elementary Education, Oklahoma State University

Why School Culture Matters

I recently read a quote by Dr. Joseph Murphy, Associate Dean at Vanderbilt’s Peabody College of Education, which really spoke to me. He said, “Seeds of change will never grow in toxic soil. School culture matters.” This message has stuck with me for the past several weeks as I have reflected on the past school year and look to move forward towards the next.

As I examined the issue of school culture, I wondered how one would define it. Over the past few weeks, I have formulated my own definition. School culture includes an atmosphere of mutual respect amongst all stakeholders where teaching and learning are valued; achievements and successes are celebrated, and where ongoing collaboration is the norm.

Dr. Murphy is 100% correct in both of his assertions. First, school culture does matter. When all stakeholders have the same goals and are on the same page, a school will flourish. Unfortunately, toxic soil can keep those seeds from growing and in some cases create virtually irreparable damage. Because of this school leaders must ensure that creating a healthy school culture is a priority. Building a positive school culture starts with leadership. Leaders must be hands-on, willing to make personal sacrifices, and should work with people rather than working against them if they want to improve school culture.

School culture is a mindset that can either be positive or negative. No one flourishes in constant negativity. When negativity persists in a school culture, no one wants to come to school. This includes the administrators, teachers, and students. This type of environment is set up to fail. Individuals are just going through the motions trying to get through another week and eventually another year. No one prospers in this type of environment. It is not healthy, and educators should do everything they can to ensure that they never allow this mindset to creep in.

When positivity persists in a school culture, everyone thrives. Administrators, teachers, and students are generally happy to be there. Amazing things happen in a positive environment. Student learning is enhanced. Teachers grow and improve . Administrators are more relaxed. Everyone benefits from this type of environment.

School culture does matter. It should not be discounted. Over the past few weeks as I have reflected on this, I have come to believe that it may be the single most important factor for school success. If no one wants to be there, then ultimately a school will not be successful. However, if a positive, supporting school culture exists then the sky is the limit for how successful a school can be.

Now that we understand the importance of school culture, we must ask how to improve it. Fostering a positive school culture takes a lot of time and hard work. It will not happen overnight. It is a difficult process that will likely come with immense growing pains. Tough decisions will have to be made. This includes personnel decisions with those unwilling to buy into a change in school culture. Those who resist these changes are the “toxic soil” and until they are gone, the “seeds of change” will never firmly take hold.

Strategies to Improve School Culture

The following seven broad strategies can help guide the process of improving school culture. These strategies are written under the assumption that a leader is in place which seeks to change the culture of a school and is willing to work hard. It is important to note that many of these strategies will require modifications along the way. Every school has its own unique challenges and as such there is no perfect blueprint for refining school culture. These general strategies are not the end all be all solution, but they can aid in the development of a positive school culture.

Create a team consisting of administrators, teachers, parents, and students to help shape changes to school culture. This team should develop a prioritized list of issues they believe harm to the overall school culture. In addition, they should brainstorm possible solutions for fixing those issues. Eventually, they should create a plan as well as a timeline for implementing the plan for turning around the school culture.
Administrators must surround themselves with like-minded teachers who fit the mission and vision the team has in place for establishing an effective school culture. These teachers must be trustworthy professionals who will do their job and make positive contributions to the school environment.
It is important for teachers feel supported. Teachers who feel like their administrators have their backs are generally happy teachers, and they are more likely to operate a productive classroom. Teachers should never question whether or not they are appreciated. Building and maintaining teacher morale is one of the most important duties a school principal plays in fostering a positive school culture. Teaching is a very difficult job, but it becomes easier when you work with a supportive administrator.
Students spend the largest amount of their time at school in the classroom. This makes teachers the most responsible for creating a positive school culture. Teachers help this process through a variety of ways. First, they build trusting relationships with students . Next, they ensure that every student has an opportunity to learn the required material. Additionally, they figure out a way to make learning fun so that students keep wanting to come back to their class. Finally, they show a vested interest in each student in a variety of ways including attending extracurricular activities, engaging in conversations about interests/hobbies, and being there for a student when they are having a hard time.
Collaboration is critical to developing a positive school culture. Collaboration enriches the overall teaching and learning experience. Collaboration builds lasting relationships. Collaboration can challenge us and make us better. Collaboration is essential in helping a school truly become a community of learners. Collaboration must be ongoing between every stakeholder within the school. Everyone should have a voice.
To establish an effective school culture, you must consider every little nuance in a school. Ultimately, everything contributes to the overall culture of a school. This includes school security , the quality of the food in the cafeteria, the friendliness of the main office staff when there are visitors or when answering the phones, the cleanliness of the school, the maintenance of the grounds, etc. Everything should be evaluated and changed as necessary.
Extra-curricular programs can foster an immense amount of school pride. Schools must offer a well-balanced assortment of programs to give every student an opportunity to be involved. This includes a mixture of both athletic and non-athletic programs. Coaches and sponsors responsible for these programs must provide the participants with everyone opportunity to be successful Programs and individuals within these programs should be recognized for their accomplishments. Ultimately, if you have a positive school culture, every stakeholder feels a sense of pride when one of these programs or individuals is successful.
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A Principal’s Perspective: The Importance of School Culture

Building a strong school culture helps breed student success.

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As a school leader, your top commitment is to improve student learning. So refining instructional practice among your staff should be at the top of your priority list. But before you go sifting through data and refining your school’s standards, you should keep in mind that creating a positive school culture can have a remarkable impact on the success of your school.

The ASCD book How to Create a Culture of Achievement in Your School and Classroom shows how positive school culture encourages greater effort and productivity, improves collegial collaboration, supports successful change and improvement efforts, builds commitment and identification of students and teachers with your school, and amplifies energy and motivation of staff members and students.

And, really, what leader wouldn’t want a more energized and motivated staff?

While there is no exhaustive list of the most effective strategies for creating this sense of community at your school, I have tried many over the years. The following techniques and examples represent my top five.

1. Plan a Bridge Program for New Students and Staff

We were all newbies at one point. Plan immersive experiences that help newbies fit into the culture of the school. At University Park Campus School in Worcester, Massachusetts, students begin learning the culture curriculum before the first day of school. Every new middle school student is required to attend a three-week academy to meet his or her teachers and peers and engage in a learning experience. Similarly, at High Tech Middle School in San Diego, students attend a 10-day bridge program to complete a project-based experience in order to be ready for their first projects when they start the school year. These immersive experiences allow new staff and students to feel a sense of community on the first day of school.

2. Make School-Wide Goals Visible

Where do you post the goals for your school? Chances are, they are hidden away in a website or a staff room. Post school-wide goals in a visible place so that the entire school community will feel a shared sense of purpose. You can also recite your mission statement over the PA each day and provide an example of a student or classroom that is achieving it. In “ The Principal’s Role in Successful Schools ,” Shelly Habegger finds that even schools with a disproportionately high number of underqualified teachers and students from disadvantaged backgrounds experience greater academic success when a positive school culture is created.

3. Keep a Loyal Opposition

How do leaders move the school in a positive direction when there are loud voices that stand in opposition? Quite simply, according to Thomas Sergiovanni in The Principalship: A Reflective Practice Perspective , keeping a loyal opposition builds trust. At the International School of Beijing, for example, before rolling out any initiative to the faculty, the head of the school always asked those opposed to provide their critique. This gesture transformed the biggest naysayers into his greatest proponents. Another way to do this is to create a survey that asks staff members to rate their commitment to fulfilling each school-wide initiative. Invite them to include the additional support they need to reach each goal.

4. Establish Collaborative Networks

Once you have identified the greatest obstacles to achieving your school-wide goals, hire an educational consultant to help you overcome these obstacles. In New York City, LaShawnna Harris, the principal of P.S. 330Q in Queens, partnered with Morrison Healthcare to improve school culture through staff appreciation days and team-building activities. The school saw a 22 percentage point increase in the number of teachers who found the principal’s vision to be clear, as well as a 43 percentage point increase in the number of teachers who felt supported.

5. Hold School-Wide Rallies and Assemblies

How often does your whole school gather? While many schools have a smattering of assemblies spread across the school year, it’s less common to gather every morning. At Quest College Preparatory School in McCallen, Texas, the school gathers daily to celebrate achievements and emphasize expectations for behavior and character. These celebrations often include a school song, announcements by students of upcoming events, and sometimes a brief showcase of student work. Beyond building school spirit and unity, a daily routine like this helps keep you focused on the big picture as a leader (Related Article: Daily Assemblies: Deepening Relationships Through Ritual and Recognition )

Motivating a school is an effort that lasts throughout the year. By focusing on instilling a positive school culture, principals can make these tasks manageable and fulfilling.

How do you support a strong school culture in your building? Please share your strategies in the comments below.

How To Define School Culture and Elevate Your Teaching

by Kimberly Mitchell, Teaching Associate at University of Washington and Founder, Inquiry Partners

Culture is the embodiment of a community’s shared driving purpose. In schools, this purpose is ideally driven by the unique needs of students, families and staff. To create and define positive school culture, administrators and teachers must start by identifying these needs, recognizing community assets, and making sure every decision reflects them.

Whether it is clearly defined, intentionally created or not, culture is present at every school. Culture is about implicit and explicit agreements, and defines the way that a school community works together. Culture is manifest in how people enter the building, what they eat and who they sit with at lunch, and who speaks and how much inside classrooms. It impacts the experience of everyone: staff, students, families and the community.

Throughout my career, I’ve come to appreciate more and more the importance of defining and elevating school culture. When we can define, identify, and question our school culture, we can become advocates for its continual improvement.

To improve it, we must first define school culture

School culture is as obvious and invisible as the air we breathe, which is its very challenge.

There are many ways to understand school culture. Tracking, for example, who is doing most of the talking in class (students or teachers), carefully observing students’ movements in (and out) of class, or regularly asking students and parents for anonymous feedback through surveys can all help shine a light on culture.

One of the most powerful ways of gaining a better understanding of an existing culture is to shadow a student throughout their entire school day. A now-viral post from educator Alexis Wiggins demonstrates the power of stepping into the students’ shoes. Wiggins transformed her experience by identifying culture, first and foremost.

How To Define School Culture and Elevate Your Teaching

Teachers are the biggest advocates

When we can name elements of school culture, we can do something about it. New or experienced, teachers can be intentional about how their instruction impacts the overall culture of their school. Involving students in the learning process and giving teachers an opportunity to make that happen (I call it inquiry-based instruction ) is one of the most powerful cultural changes a school can make.

Each of us may have a slightly different definition of inquiry-based instruction. I see inquiry as part-disposition and part skill set. The purpose of inquiry is to promote student curiosity; to have them asking the questions and seeking the answers. The teacher’s role is to design and guide experiences that promote student discussion and collaboration as they seek answers, or expand their understanding.

When we’re creative and thoughtful in our instruction, students notice. In a positive school culture, I see teachers creating an emotional bonds with and between students and their families. To take a lesson from improvisational theater, when we rid ourselves of the “yes, but…” mindset, and shift towards “yes, and…” Everyone feels respected; and when we feel respected, we can take risks and push each other’s thinking.

No matter the career, everyone is at risk for falling into a rut. It can be eye-opening to get meta-cognitive about what’s really happening in our work environment, and see if it matches to our beliefs. By asking reflective questions, we can recognize what needs to be changed.

Collaboration matters when defining school culture

An elevated school culture will reflect the reality of the community it serves. Being aware of students’ situations is a necessary step in relationship-building. We can’t afford to be disengaged.

For example, Seattle is a rapidly growing urban population. What is a school’s role in addressing social and racial justice issues with students? How do we include these in curriculum? Who does the school serve; who is left out?

Strive for continuous improvement

Traditional school models tend to be dug-in, but they are human created – they are changeable. Professional development can help educators stay on the cusp of new trends, hone their skillset and strengthen their pedagogy. But this only takes us so far. Defining and becoming aware of school culture means going beyond curriculum and instruction, and the four walls of individual classrooms.

During the UCDS College for School Culture’s Master of Education program design process, we collaborated to analyze work culture and what it means. After creating a map of the leading progressive teacher training programs in the United States, we identified patterns and innovations to create something unique. It was a thoughtful and purposeful project, made possible with colorful Post-Its and plenty of wall space. UCDS is a real-world example of ‘walking the talk.’ During the design process we continually spoke to the culture we created and maintained as a design team.

Culture permeates everything we do. It takes courage to expose it. To truly elevate culture, we must be comfortable defining it, and work together to strengthen it.

How To Define School Culture and Elevate Your Teaching 1

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School Culture and Bullying

Posted May 19, 2022
By Nakul Grover
Counseling and Mental Health
Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion
Families and Community
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K-12 School Leadership
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Bullying in the classroom can have grave consequences for students, especially as they build effective social and emotional skills amid the disruption caused by the pandemic. While administrators must take responsibility for creating a school environment that is safe and welcoming, educators can promote a strong classroom culture through responsive and warm interactions with students. Harvard Graduate School of Education lecturer Gretchen Brion-Meisels says that students should also be invited into the work of building a positive school culture.

“Too often, we forget the powerful insights that young people bring to our conversations about school culture and climate,” Brion-Meisels says. “While it is critical that adults take responsibility for creating the structures and routines that nurture safe and inclusive school communities, our students are powerful allies in this process. We need to invite students to help us imagine what safe and supportive schools can and should be; create processes for including students in decision-making around school climate; and invite students to join us in identifying and responding to harmful behavior when they occur.”

Nurturing a culture that stands against bullying looks different for every level of development, she says. For example, interventions at the elementary level may teach conflict resolution and celebrating others’ differences through play. For older students, activities could include looking inward and supporting students with identifying their own cultural identity as they begin to appreciate others.

“While it is critical that adults take responsibility for creating the structures and routines that nurture safe and inclusive school communities, our students are powerful allies in this process."

“Young people of all ages have insights into their own lived experiences and brilliant ideas about how we can improve the climate of their classrooms and schools,” Brion-Meisels says. “In the younger grades, classroom meetings are a powerful way to invite student feedback and involve students in decision-making. We can also teach students strategies for conflict resolution and problem-solving in relationships. For older youth, we can create meaningful and authentic student councils or youth research teams, which can help us to identify and address harm in the community. Teachings from restorative justice also offer us many wise ways to build community and address harm.”

Across her research, Brion-Meisels has identified points of insight for teachers who want to support students in creating an antibullying culture.

Mobilize and empower students to be upstanders. Show students as early as possible the language required to intervene in bullying. Provide examples of what reacting to harmful behaviors looks like. Provide sentence starters to help students imagine how they might respond in a harmful situation; use scenarios to allow students to practice responding when stakes are low; allow students to talk about the pros and cons of different response options.
Communicate the consequences of reporting bullying. Demonstrate the positive impacts of reporting harmful behaviors and explore what those conversations might look like. Allow students to talk about their fears related to reporting bullying. Take those fears seriously and help them problem-solve with a “both/and” approach.
Help students — especially those who feel isolated — find friends who can act as supportive upstanders. Leverage the power of peer relationships as often as possible to engage students in positive upstander behaviors. Use cooperative learning protocols to allow students to work with different peers; provide opportunities for students to interview and connect with each other one-on-one; provide scaffolded time, like teaching lunches, with small groups of students to help create connections.
Use role-play and reflection to teach upstander behaviors. Structured activities like scenarios and case studies can promote student leadership and other initiatives necessary for adopting upstander behaviors. These activities can be opportunities for all students to participate in classroom conversations and reframe mistakes as opportunities from which life lessons can be learned.
Reinforce existing competencies. By reminding students what they already know and what they are already good at, you celebrate their successes that build an infectious confidence.

Usable Knowledge

Connecting education research to practice — with timely insights for educators, families, and communities

Schoolwide SEL to Prevent Bullying

Developing a school culture that prioritizes the social-emotional wellbeing of every student (and adult)

Students Surviving and Thriving

How to support LGBTQ and gender non-conforming kids

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A Bully-Free Culture

Leading Culture Change: Strategies for School Improvement

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Gain a deeper understanding of how strong school cultures develop and design a concrete action plan to drive culture change in your school or district.

Upcoming Sessions

Jun 16, 2024 - Jun 18, 2024 Application Deadline: Apr 1, 2024 Tuition: $2,495.00

A strong culture helps drive successful organizations. But what does it take to build a strong culture that strengthens how schools and districts work to improve student outcomes? The knowledge, skills, and strategies needed to answer this question are essential for school leadership that can transform the culture of their learning environments. Leading Culture Change: Strategies for School Improvement is a new on-campus program offered by Professional Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education for school and district teams wanting to deepen their understanding of culture, identify strategies to develop it, and create an action plan for culture change.

Program Details

Leading Culture Change , led by HGSE professor Ebony N. Bridwell-Mitchell , is a three-day interactive program that begins with school and district teams conducting a pre-program diagnostic of culture in their own learning context. During the program, teams are involved in instructional sessions and discussions with faculty experts to analyze culture’s key aspects. In peer working groups, teams target areas and strategies for developing a culture based on existing research and real-world examples of strong cultures in various sectors. By the program’s end, teams develop an action plan to transform school or district culture and can continue learning through a post-program impact assessment and professional community. Specific program activities include:

School and team culture diagnostics
Harvard faculty-led sessions
Interactive, small-group working sessions
Individual self-assessment and reflection
Peer discussion, feedback, and presentations
Action planning work groups

Learning Goals

Gaining a deeper understanding of core aspects of organizational culture.
Identifying fundamental strategies for leading culture change.
Assessing culture to target and prioritize areas for change.
Developing a customized action plan – including specific strategies and implementation steps – for transforming school or district culture.

Faculty Chair

Ebony N. Bridwell-Mitchell

Ebony Bridwell-Mitchell’s research is on leadership, management, and organizations, exploring how organizational factors affect the success of public school reform.

Who Should Attend

Leading Culture Change is a team-based program for participants who want to improve culture within their schools or districts. School- and district-based teams are strongly encouraged to include a minimum of four participants and a cross-section of stakeholders:

School-based teams should include a principal, assistant principal (or equivalent), at least one teacher, and one other person in a leadership role
District-based teams should include at least one member of the superintendent’s cabinet (or equivalent), one or two principals, and one or more other persons in a district leadership role
All teams who attend will be asked to complete the pre-program culture diagnostic of their school or district.

While the program is designed to most benefit teams, individual applicants will be accepted on a case-by-case basis.

How to Apply

This program only accepts teams. First-time applicants need to create a Professional Education account to apply.

Designate one participant or an administrative staff member as the Coordinator.

The Coordinator should click the "Apply" button at the top of this page to log into their Professional Education account and access the application page.
Proceed with the team form, including providing the name, email address, and job title of each participant in your team.
The Coordinator can choose to receive a team invoice.
Contact us if you need to make any changes to your team after submitting the form.

Invoices will only be available upon your acceptance.

The tuition covers all instructional materials, a daily continental breakfast, and beverages and light refreshments during our scheduled breaks between sessions.

Travel, lodging expenses, and most lunches and dinners are not included in this fee. We have blocked a limited number of rooms in select hotels in the Cambridge/Boston area. The daily rates for these hotels typically range from $250 to $375 per room, plus applicable taxes. Once your applicants are accepted into the program, they will receive detailed information about these hotel options.

Interested in running a TPC program in your school or district?

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Related links, south african journal of education, on-line version issn 2076-3433 print version issn 0256-0100, s. afr. j. educ. vol.32 n.1 pretoria jan. 2012.

The influence of school culture and school climate on violence in schools of the Eastern Cape Province

Kalie Barnes I ; Susette Brynard II ; Corene de Wet II

I Eastern Cape Department of Education, Queenstown II School of Education Studies, Faculty of Education, University of the Free State [email protected]

This article reports on research undertaken about the influence of school culture and school climate on violence at schools in the Eastern Cape. An adapted California School Climate and Survey - Short Form (CSCSS-SF), which was used as the data-collection instrument, was completed by 900 Grade 10 to 12 learners. With the assistance of Pearson's product moment correlation coefficient, it was found that the better the school culture and school climate are at a school, the lower the levels of school violence. On the other hand, a lack of school safety contributed to learners experiencing higher levels of violence at schools. The results of hierarchy regression analyses indicated that school culture and school climate can be used to explain a significant percentage of variance in school violence. The f 2 values indicate that, with the exception of two aspects of the variance physical and verbal harassment, the results did not have any practical value. The article concludes with a few suggestions on how the results can be used to address school violence.

Keywords: CSCSS-SF; school climate; school culture; school violence

Introduction

Violence and crime in South African schools are a critical problem (Le Roux & Mokhele, 2011). According to the South African Institute for Race Relations, South African schools are viewed as the most dangerous in the world. If the problem is not addressed, it could influence the education and training of many learners negatively (Khumalo, 2008). To satisfy the youths' developmental needs regarding safety, respect, authority, love, skills, challenges, independence and existence, it is important that schools should make learners aware of the fact that they are important as human beings and learners, and that they can make a difference in their striving towards a better life (Cohen, McCabe, Michelli & Pickeral, 2008). Cohen et al. (2008) emphasise the responsibility that rests on the shoulders of policy makers and educational leaders to establish a positive school culture and school climate. If they forsake their responsibility, it will violate the learners' right to quality education.

Researchers have found that a positive school culture and a school climate are important dimensions that can be linked to effective risk prevention and the advancement of teaching and learning (Cohen & Pickerall, 2007; Najaka, Gottfredson & Wilson, 2002). Researchers also determined that effective risk-prevention programmes are positively linked to a safe and caring school culture and school climate (Berkowitz & Bier, 2005). According to the above writers, if violence occurs at schools and is not addressed, it can destroy the school culture and school climate, as well as diminish the protective influence of the school. Furthermore, research by Squelch (2001) indicates that since 1994, several documents have been put in place by the National and Provincial Departments of Education in South Africa, which attempt to address violence in schools by establishing a positive school culture and school climate. It therefore appears that researchers and policy makers view a positive school culture and school climate as prerequisites for safe schools.

In the light of the above, and taking into account the needs of schools in their actions against violence, this study is guided by the following primary question: What are the effects of school culture and school climate on violence in the Eastern Cape Province? In the search for an answer to this question, the following research hypothesis was formulated:

• School culture and school climate can be used to explain the significant percentage of variation in school violence.

The aim of this article is, firstly, to establish if there is a correlation between the predictors of school violence (school culture, school climate and safety) and school violence and, secondly, to establish if school culture and school climate can be utilised to explain a significant presentation of the variance in school violence. This will take place against the background of a conceptual framework.

Conceptual framework

School culture and school climate are two separate, but closely related and interactive, dimensions in the functioning of a school (Saufler, 2005). Both school culture and school climate are concepts that can be linked to the atmosphere at a school, but which could influence the circumstances at a school in different ways. Both concepts are important in establishing the quality of the circumstances and the ability to ensure positive learner outcomes. This includes good academic results, as well as non-academic achievements such as well-developed citizens and a positive school environment (Ninan, 2006). As a result of the interactive, extensive and complex elements that construct school culture and school climate, it is necessaryto interrogate the concepts, school culture and school climate.

The concept of school culture is not new. In 1932 Waller (Peterson & Deal, 2002) stated that each school has its own culture with a unique set of customs and history, as well as moral behaviour and relational codes. Gruenert (2008) is of the opinion that a collective set of expectations is developed when a group of people at a school works together for a significant period of time. These expectations then evolve into a set of unwritten rules to which members adapt in order to work well together. In this way, a collective school culture develops and transmits information from one generation to another.

Barth (2002) defines school culture as a complex pattern of norms, attitudes, beliefs, behaviour, values, ceremonies, traditions and myths which is deeply embedded in each aspect of the school. It is an historic legacy of power that is exerted over people's thoughts and their actions. Hinde (2004) views school culture as norms, beliefs, traditions and customs that develop in a school over time. According to him, it is a set of obvious expectations and assumptions which directly influences the activities of the staff and the learners. School culture is therefore not static, but a self-perpetuating cycle which reflects the collective ideas, assumptions and beliefs that reflect each school's own identity and standard of behavioural outcomes.

According to Robbins and Alvy (2009), school culture reflects the aspects that the school community cares about; how they celebrate and what they talk about. It occurs in their daily routine. Theschool culture has an influence on the learners' productivity, professional development and leadership practices and traditions (Robbins & Alvy, 2009). Furthermore, Reames and Spencer (1998) are of the opinion that the internal structures and processes of the school can be a determinant in the efficiency and functioning of a school. For example, collegiality, cooperation, shared decision-making processes, the continuous improvement of educational practices and long-term involvement are seen as ways to enhance the positive culture at a school. Cavanagh and Delhar (2001) agree that factors such as professional development, cooperation and leadership practices contribute to a school of quality. The authors emphasise that the unspoken set of values and aims that contribute to the quality of the daily school routine and motivates all to do their best, impacts on the establishment of a positive school culture. The aim of all the interactive elements of culture is to establish a school environment which promotes teaching and learning.

Although the concept school climate has been studied since1908, teachers and researchers cannot reach consensus on a uniform meaning of the terminology or definitions (Cohen et al. , 2008). Depending on the nature of the study, school climate can be regarded as the school environment or as the school learning environment (Johnson & Stevens, 2006). School climate refers to the set of norms and expectations which is presented to the learners (West, 1985); the psycho-social context in which teachers work and teach (Fisher & Fraser, 1991); the morale of the teachers (Brown & Henry, 1992); the level of empowerment for teachers (Short & Rinehardt, 1992); learners' perception of the school's "personality" (Johnson, Johnson & Zimmerman, 1996); the environment for learners as indicated by the incidence of negative leaner behaviour at the school (Bernstein, 1992); or the physical and emotional wellbeing of the school organisation (Freiberg & Stein, 1999). Researchers (Cohen et al. , 2008; Johnson & Stevens, 2006) are of the opinion that the following four core dimensions of school life can influence the school climate: safety, teaching and learning, relationships and environment. School climate can therefore be viewed as a combination that represents the involvement of all at the school, or as something that is seen primarily as a function of teachers and learners. Although there are differences in nuances between the concepts school culture and climate , the instrument used in this study does not draw a distinction, and uses the inclusive notion of 'school culture and climate'. The differences in nuances between the two notions will consequently not be discussed further in this article.

Zulu, Urbani and Van der Merwe (2004) see school violence as wilful and illegal violent acts within the school context. The definition of Van der Westhuizen and Maree (2009) links the behavioural patterns of learners, teachers and school administrators with physical violence that result in physical injuries to any person or harm to school property as the objective. School violence is therefore negative behavioural patterns which can harm the school's educational mission. Morrell (2002) and Harber (2008) argue that schools can be violent places. Culturally condoned ethos of masculinity, gender violence, the inculcation of habits of conformity, discipline and morality, the reproduction of inequalities, the intensely competitive examination regimes that lead to high levels of stress and anxiety are some of the ways that schools are a violent experience for learners ( cf . Harber, 2002 & 2008; Herr & Anderson, 2003; Morrell, 2002). Harber (2002) notes that the predominate form of schooling has always been authoritarian, with learners having little control over school curriculum or organisation. He links authoritarianism with racist and/or ethnic violence (in schools). Morrell (2002) writes that teachers whose identities are vested in power and hierarch contribute to violence by being violent, by condoning violence and by supporting a school ethos intolerant of difference and insistent of conformity. Yet, "in many schools the hard teacher or the iron man is held up as the ideal" (Morrell, 2002:42).

Opposed to this, a safe school is described as a place where the school climate allows learners, teachers, administrators, parents and visitors to communicate with one another in a positive and non-threatening manner (Bucher & Manning, 2005). Dwyer, Osher and Wagner (1998) classify safe schools as schools where strong leadership, parental and community involvement, high levels of learner participation and behavioural codes prevail in order to ensure responsible behaviour. Safe schools are therefore characterised by good discipline, communication, a culture and climate conducive to teaching and learning, good administrative practices and an absence of any levels of crime and violence.

Theoretical framework

Although many traditional and integrated theories regarding violence exist ( cf . Bender & Emslie, 2010; Klewin, Tillmann & Weingart, 2003), violence at schools will be reviewed from a bio-ecologic perspective, as adapted by Benbenishty and Astor (2005 & 2008), for the purposes of this study. According to Benbenishty and Astor (2005 & 2008), Bronfenbrenner's bio-ecologic theory creates the notion of violence as the interaction between relevant subsystems. This theory illustrates the interaction between a person's characteristics and environmental variables (social and physical). The environment under discussion could include other people who are involved in the situations (co-learners and teachers), as well as the physical environment (school, class size, school structures). Whilst other bio-ecological models place the individual at the centre ( cf . Dunbar-Krige, Pillay & Henning, 2011), Benbenishty and Astor (2005 & 2008) position the school context at the centre.

Empirical study

Research instrument

The California School Climate and Survey - Short Form (CSCSS-SF) was used as the instrument for collecting data. The CSCSS-SF was developed by the Centre for School-Based Youth Development in California. It is a structured questionnaire for learners with the exclusive aim of determining school culture, school climate and school safety. According Barnes (2010), this instrument was also used in international studies undertaken by, amongst others, Morrison, Bates and Smith (1994), Furlong, Sharma and Rhe (2000), and Furlong, Greif, Whipple, Bates and Jimenez (2005), to examine aspects of school culture, school climate and school safety.

Items in the questionnaire dealing with school safety can be divided into subsections, namely, campus disruption, drug abuse and the carrying of weapons. The first of these subsections indicates less serious issues such as theft, fighting and vandalism, while the second subsection represents activities of a more serious nature. The items in these sections are designed to measure the respondents' perceptions of the occurrence of dangerous activities on school grounds. According to a five-point Lickert scale, which varies between not at all to often , respondents are asked how often activities such as drug abuse, vandalism and the carrying of weapons occur on the school premises. A high score in the subscales will indicate a high incidence of campus disruptions and drug abuse, as well as the carrying of weapons.

The section on school culture and school climate measures the respondents' perception regarding the school environment. Respondents had to answer questions regarding safety, respect, support and interpersonal relationships in the school. Items in this section are divided into ten subsections: rules and norms; physical safety; social and emotional assurance; support for learning; social and citizen learning; respect for variety; social support - adults; social support - learners; school union and the physical environment. In this section, a five-point Lickert scale, which varies from I do not agree at all to I completely agree , was also used. A high score in these subscales indicates that respondents experienced school culture and school climate as positive support.

The section on school violence in this questionnaire measured the extent of incidents of school violence. Respondents were asked to indicate their personal experiences during the previous twelve months (not what they perceived) regarding victimisation. Items in this section are divided into three subsections: physical and verbal harassment; weapons and physical attacks; and sexual harassment. The five-point Lickert scale was also used in this section, with answers ranging from not at all to constantly . A high score in the subscale indicates a high level of experience of victimisation.

Construction and background information on the research group

For the compilation of the research group, nonprobability sampling was used. The sampling was also done in a non-random manner; the learners were approached intentionally and according to their availability. Thirty schools in the Eastern Cape Province that teach Grade 10 to Grade 12 were used for the study as a convenience sampling. Because the Eastern Cape Province has 24 school districts and is spread across a vast area, schools from the following districts in the immediate vicinity of the first author were selected: East London (11), Queenstown (13), Lady Frere (5) and King Williamstown District (1). Ten learners from Grades 10, 11 and 12 at each school were asked to complete the questionnaire. Schools were asked to make equal numbers of boys and girls from each grade available. In total, 900 learners participated in the study - 49% boys and 51% girls. With regard to the number of learners from different grades, schools were requested to make the same number of learners available from each grade. The total number of learners from each grade was as follows: Grade 10 - 32,9%, Grade 11 - 33,8% and Grade 12 - 33,3%.

The first author visited each school during the period from 28 April 2010 to 21 May 2010 and was personally responsible for the administration and taking down of the tests. Therefore, he could ensure that respondents understood the outline of the questionnaire; he could deal with any ambiguities related to questions on the questionnaires; and he could ensure that all questions in the questionnaire were answered. At the same time, he could also ensure that the correct number of learners per school completed the questionnaire.

Criteria for quality

In an effort to increase the validity of the questionnaire, attention was paid to form and content validity ( cf . Pieterson & Maree, 2007). A statistician, as well as another specialist in the field of research looked at the questionnaire before it was distributed, in order to establish the validity of the instrument and to determine whether it entirely covered the content of the research area. The use of the existing instrument enhanced the validity of the study ( cf . Bless, Higson-Smith & Kagee, 2006). A pilot study was undertaken. After ten learners from a senior secondary school, which was not involved in the research, had completed the questionnaire, changes to the content and structure of the questionnaire were made. The internal consistency of the measurement of the items of the three scales of the CSCSS-SF was calculated with the help of Cronbach's coefficient. The alpha coefficients for school safety, school culture and school climate and school violence scales were 0.709, 0.760, and 0.815, respectively. The internal consistency was at acceptable levels ( cf . Pieterson & Maree, 2007).

Processing of data

To investigate the research hypothesis, a hierarchy regression analysis was done. In this case, school culture and school climate, as well as school safety are the independent variables, while school violence is the dependent variable. School violence is measured with three scales (physical and verbal harassment; weapons and physical attacks; and sexual harassment) and will be used separately in the analysis. The procedure that was followed was, firstly, to determine the total variance declared jointly by the predictor variables (entire model) with regard to the criterion (violence in the school), i.e. initially, all the predictors are entered jointly to determine the % variance that explains it all together. After that, the contribution of the set of variables (culture and climate, and school safety) was investigated, as well as the unique contribution of each individual predictor (the scales of school culture and school climate) to determine the explanation of the variation in school violence. The variance percentage explained by the specific variant(s) is indicated by the R 2 (quadrated, multiple-correlation coefficient). In order to establish whether a specific variant or set of variants' contribution to the R 2 value is statistically significant, it will be examined with the help of the hierarchic F test.

The 1% level of significance is used in this study. In order to arrive at a decision about the practical importance of statistically significant results that were found in the research, one must look at the practical significance of the results. In regression analysis, an effect size is indicated by f 2 and it gives an indication of the contribution to R 2 in terms of the proportion of unexplained variance of the previous model. The following guiding values ( f 2 ) were used in the regression analysis: 0.10 = little effect; 0.5 = medium effect and 0.35 = major effect.

Results related to the research hypothesis are provided against the background of descriptive statistics (averages and standard deviations) with regard to the school violence subscales. The scale values are calculated by adding the number of items and dividing it by the number of items (physical and verbal harassment = 7 items; weapons and physical items = 5 items; sexual harassment = 2 items). The mean in terms of the scale width (1-5) is calculated in this manner. The standard deviations, which indicate variability and changeability, are calculated as the square root of the mathematical average of the squares of the deviation of the different scores from the mathematical average of the division.

Statistical processing was done with the help of the SPSS-computer software.

Ethical aspects

The applicability of the principle of consent was already visible in the initial stage of the research project. A supportive letter of motivation from the University of the Free State was attached to the letter of application to the Eastern Cape Department of Education (Cohen et al. , 2003). The participants' dignity, privacy and interests were respected at all times. The questionnaires did not contain any identifying aspects, names, addresses or code symbols. Before completing the questionnaires, the learners were also informed that the process was completely voluntary and that they could withdraw at any stage during the process. The first author, who was present at all times during the completion of the questionnaires, was available, if necessary, to support or refer traumatised respondents.

Results and discussion

For the sake of the conceptualisation of the hypothesis it is necessary to provide the level of experience of the research group regarding school violence during the twelve months prior to the study ( Table 1 ).

All the mean scores for the respondents' level of experience of school violence are under two out of a possible score of five. This indicates that in all three the subscales of school violence respondents indicated that they had been subjected to school violence. However, the assumption can be made that the schools are relatively safe places.

The correlation between predictors of school violence (school culture, school climate and school safety) and school violence was calculated with Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient. The information is captured in Table 2 .

The correlation coefficient in Table 2 firstly indicates that, with the exception of one school culture and school climate scale, namely support for learning, all the other scales (school culture, school climate and school safety) are at the 1% level significant correlations with the violence scale physical and verbal harassment. Secondly, it seems that, with the exception of one school culture and school climate scale, namely social and citizen leaning, all the other scales (culture, climate and school safety) are at the 1% level significant correlations with the violence scale weapon and physical attacks. Thirdly, it seems, with the exception of two school culture and school climate scales, namely support for learning and social and citizen learning, all the other scales (culture, climate and school safety) are at the 1% level of significant correlation with the violence scale sexual harassment. All the school culture and school climate scales show a negative correlation with the three violence scales. All the school safety scales which relate to the lack of safety indicate a statistically significant positive correlation with the violence scales. It follows that, the better the school culture and school climate at a school, the lower the levels of school violence, while the lack of school safety contributes to learners experiencing higher levels of violence at schools.

Because school violence comprises three scales, independent hierarchical regression analyses for each of the scales must be done. The results for physical and verbal harassment are captured in Table 3 .

From Table 3 it is clear that the total group of predictors (culture, climate and school safety) combined explain 232% of the variance in physical and verbal harassment. This calculated R2 value is significant on the 1% level [ F 12;887 sup> = 22.364; p < 0.0001].

The ten school culture and school climate aspects combined explain 8.4% of the variance in physical and verbal harassment of learners. This presentation is significant on the 1% level [ F (10;887) = 9.702]. The corresponding f 2 value (0.11) is significant of a result with average practical value. Related to what the contributions of individual school culture and school climate scales are, results in Table 3 indicate that, with the exception of one scale - support with learning - all the other scales on the 1% level contribute to the explanation of the variants in physical and verbal harassment. The corresponding effect sizes indicate that the results are not of practical importance. The two school safety aspects combined explain 6.9% of the variant in physical and verbal harassment of learners. This presentation is significant on the 1% level [ F (2;887) = 39.846]. The corresponding f 2 value (0.10) is significant of the result with average practical value. With regard to the individual school safety aspects, results in Table 3 indicate that both scales on the 1% level provide a unique contribution to the explanation of the variants in physical and verbal harassment. The corresponding effect sizes indicate that the results are not of any practical importance.

It seems then that, with the exception of a few individual aspects, the individual as well as combined school culture and school climate, together with aspects of school safety, contribute uniquely to physical and verbal harassment at schools. The results of weapon and physical attacks are captured in Table 4 .

From Table 4 it is clear that for the total group of learners, the predictors (school culture, school climate and school safety) jointly explain 8.7% of the variance in weapon and physical attacks. This calculated R2 value is significant on the 1% level [ F 12;887 = 7.062; p < 0,0001]. The ten aspects of school climate and culture jointly explain 6.9% of the variance in weapon and physical attacks of learners. This presentation is significant on the 1% level [ F 12;887 = 6.704]. The corresponding f 2 value (0.08) is significant of a value with no practical value. With regard to the contributions of the individual scale of school culture and school climate, the results in Table 4 show that with the exception of two scales, social and citizen learning, as well as respect for variety, all the other scales on the 1% level uniquely contribute to the explanation of the variance in weapon and physical attacks. The corresponding effect sizes indicate that the results are of no practical importance. It seems that the aspects of school culture and school climate are important joint contributors to weapon and physical attacks at schools.

The two school safety aspects jointly explain 0.7% of the variance in weapon and physical attacks on learners. This presentation is not significant on the 1% level [ F 12;887 = 3.400]. With regard to the contributions of the individual school safety scales, the results in Table 5 show that the individual scale also did not succeed in explaining a significant presentation of the variance in weapon and physical attacks. It seems that school safety does not contribute significantly to the explanation of the variance in weapons and physical attacks (as forms of violence).

The results of sexual harassment are captured in Table 5 .

From Table 5 it is clear that the total group of predictors (school culture, school climate and school safety) jointly declare 9.9% of the variance in sexual harassment. The calculated R2 value is significant on the 1% level [ F 12;887 = 8.082; p < 0.0001].

The ten aspects of school culture and school climate jointly declare 4.7% of the variance in the sexual harassment of learners. This presentation is significant on the 1% level [ F 10;887 = 4.627]. The corresponding f 2 value (0.05) is significant of a result with no practical value. Regarding contributions from the individual scales of school culture and school climate, the results in Table 5 indicate that with the exception of three scales - physical safety, support with learning and social and citizen learning - all the other scales contribute uniquely on the 1% level to the explanation of the variance in sexual harassment. The corresponding effect sizes indicate that the result is of no practical importance.

The two school safety aspects jointly declare 2.4% of the variance in the sexual harassment of learners. The presentation is significant on the 1% level [ F 2;887 = 11.813]. The corresponding f 2 value (0.03) is significant of a result with no practical value. With regard to the contribution of individual school safety scales, the results in Table 5 indicate that both scales are on the 1% level and uniquely contribute to the explanation of the variance in sexual harassment. The corresponding effect sizes, however, indicate that the result is of no practical value.

Although crime and violence is a way of life in South Africa in general (Le Roux & Mokhele, 2011) and in the Eastern Cape Province in particular (Mlisa, Ward, Flisher & Lombard, 2008), schools in the Eastern Cape are nevertheless, relatively safe places ( cf . Table 1 ). Whereas Arnette and Walsleben (1998) are of the opinion that school violence is nothing more than community violence which penetrates schools, this study is underpinned by Benbenishty and Astor's (2005 & 2008) theoretical model which places the school context, which includes school culture and climate, at the centre of school violence. Findings from studies that have shown that schooling has a profound influence on school violence (Bandyopadhyay, Cornell & Konold, 2009; Benbenishty & Astor, 2005; Harber, 2002, 2008; Morrell, 2002; Potts, 2006) resonate well with results from this study.

The results of this study, namely, that the better the school culture and school climate are at a school, the lower the level of school violence, as well as the fact that the lack of school safety contributes to learners experiencing higher levels of violence at schools, is in line with the findings by Benbenishty and Astor (2005), Sullivan and Keeney (2008) and Cavanagh and Delhar (2001). The separate hierarchic regression analyses of the school violence scales indicate that with the exception of some school culture and school climate, as well as school safety scales, the CSCSS-SF scale can be used to explain the variance in verbal and physical, as well as in sexual harassment. The results of the hierarchic regression analysis can also explain the influence of school climate and school culture on weapon and physical attacks. Neither the results of the combined aspects, nor the individual school safety scales indicate that this scale can provide a statistically significant contribution to explain the variance weapon and physical attacks. The f 2 value for the total school culture and school climate and school safety aspects indicate a moderate practical value regarding only one variant namely, physical and verbal harassment. The f 2 value of the ten individual scales for school culture and school climate and the two scales for school safety indicate a result with no practical value.

Many researchers emphasise the importance of developing a positive school culture and school climate to reduce school violence and create safe schools that are conducive to teaching and learning (Benbenishty & Astor, 2005; Bucher & Manning, 2005; Le Roux & Mokhete, 2011; Rhodes, Stevens & Hemmings, 2011). The reality of school violence in Eastern Cape schools, as well as the correlation between the predictors of school violence (school culture, school climate and school safety) and school violence consequently emphasise the need for the establishment of a positive school culture and school climate as a way of addressing school violence. Benbenishty and Astor (2005) suggest that schools should attend to the following components of school culture and school climate in their quest to reduce school violence and create safe schools:

• School policy against violence . Schools should have policies that include clear, consistent and fair rules to reduce violence. • Teacher support for learners . Supportive relationships may reduce learners' alienation towards their school and give them a chance to develop positive relationships with adults who may support, counsel and help them overcome their emotional and behaviour problems. • Learners' participation . School policies and teacher support of learners may be more effective if they include learner participation in decision making and in the design of strategies to prevent/reduce violence.

Although this study contributes to the enhancement of the literature on school violence, it has limitations. This research was investigative in nature. No claims can be made with regard to the universal application of the results. The research, however, can act as a challenge for future researchers to attempt to confirm or question the results. Should this happen, the study will have succeeded in its overarching goal, namely to determine whether school culture and school climate have an influence on school violence. This study was aimed only at learners from Grade 10 to 12. To gain a broader perspective on the influence of school culture and school climate on school violence, all learners at the schools, as well as teachers and parents should be involved. Research findings are not contextualised in this article. A follow-up article will place findings within the socio-political and economic context of the Eastern Cape in general, and the demographic context of participating schools, in particular.

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Ethan Crumbley’s Parents Were Just Part of a Much Bigger Problem

A collage showing a diagram of a handgun and photo of a hand resting on someone’s shoulder.

By Elizabeth Spiers

Ms. Spiers, a contributing Opinion writer, is a journalist and digital media strategist.

James and Jennifer Crumbley never anticipated that their then-15-year-old son, Ethan, would use the 9-millimeter Sig Sauer handgun Mr. Crumbley had bought — ostensibly as an early Christmas present — to kill four students at a Michigan high school. At least that’s the argument their lawyers made in court before Ms. Crumbley, last month, and Mr. Crumbley, almost two weeks ago, were convicted of involuntary manslaughter in separate trials. Prosecutors argued that the Crumbleys did not do enough to secure the gun and ignored warning signs that Ethan was planning to use it.

After every mass shooting by a teenager at a school, there is an instinct to look to the shooter’s parents to understand what went wrong. In the case of the Crumbleys, this seems obvious: Ethan left disturbing journal entries fantasizing about shooting up the school, and stating that he had asked his parents for help with his mental health issues but didn’t get it. His father said the family had a gun safe but the safe’s combination was the default factory setting, 0-0-0.

One factor that’s gotten less attention, however, is how the Crumbleys’ attitudes and actions reflect an increasingly insidious gun culture that treats guns as instruments of defiance and rebellion rather than as a means of last resort.

I’ve been thinking about this case a lot because I grew up in the 1980s and ’90s in a rural part of the Deep South where almost everyone I knew had guns in the house, unsecured, and mental illness was stigmatized and often went untreated. Church was considered a superior venue for counseling, and only “crazy” people sought professional help. If the evidence for criminal negligence is a failure to lock up a gun and ignoring signs of mental illness, many of the adults I grew up around would have been (and still would be) vulnerable to the same charges as the Crumbleys.

It’s convenient and comforting for many people to believe that if it had been their child, they’d have prevented this tragedy. But prison visiting rooms are full of good, diligent parents who never thought their kid would be capable of landing there.

My parents didn’t own a gun safe, but kept guns hidden away from us, which, like many gun owners at the time, they thought of as “secured.” The men in my family were all hunters and the guns they kept were hunting rifles, not AR-15s. (You can’t feed a family with deer meat that’s been blown to bits.) I knew my parents kept a handgun, too, but it was never shown to us, or treated as a shiny new toy.

Gun culture was different then. It would have never occurred to my parents to acquire an entire arsenal of guns and display them prominently around the house, as some people now do, or ludicrously suggest that Jesus Christ would have carried one . They did not, as more than a few Republican politicians have done, send out Christmas photos of their children posing with weapons designed explicitly to kill people at an age when those children likely still believed Santa existed. Open carry was legal, but if you were to walk into the local barbecue joint with a semiautomatic rifle on your back emblazoned with fake military insignia, people would think you were creepy and potentially dangerous, not an exemplar of masculinity and patriotism.

All of these things happen now with regularity, and they’re considered normal by gun owners who believe that any kind of control infringes on their Second Amendment rights. Children are introduced at a young age to guns like the Sig Sauer that Ethan Crumbley used. They’re taught to view guns as emblematic of freedom and the right to self-defense — two concepts that have been expanded to include whatever might justify unlimited accumulation of weapons.

“Freedom” is short for not being told what to do, even though the law very much dictates how and when guns should be used. “Self-defense” is often talked about as a justifiable precaution in the event of home invasion, though home invasions are as rare as four-leaf clovers and do not require an arsenal unless the invader is a small army. (It’s also worth noting that basic home security systems are far less expensive than many popular guns, which suggests that at the very least, some gun owners may be intentionally opting for the most violent potential scenario.) Most important, too many children are taught that guns confer power and can and should be used to intimidate other people. (Relatedly, any time I write about gun control, at least one gun owner emails to say he’d love to shoot me, which is not exactly evidence of responsible gun ownership.)

Mass shooters often begin with a grievance — toward certain populations, individuals they feel wronged by, society at large — and escalate their behavior from fantasizing about violence to planning actual attacks. A study from 2019 suggests that feeling inadequate may make gun owners more inclined toward violence. In the study, gun owners were given a task to perform and then told that they failed it. Later they were asked a number of questions, including whether they would be willing to kill someone who broke into their home, even if the intruder was leaving. “We found that the experience of failure increased participants’ view of guns as a means of empowerment,” wrote one researcher , “and enhanced their readiness to shoot and kill a home intruder.”

The study hypothesized that these gun owners “may be seeking a compensatory means to interact more effectively with their environment.”

Good parents model healthy interactions all the time. If their kids are struggling with a sense of inferiority or are having trouble dealing with failure, we teach them self-confidence and resilience. Parents who treat guns as a mechanism for feeling more significant and powerful are modeling an extremely dangerous way to interact with their environment.

What’s particularly hypocritical here is that the most strident defenders of this culture skew conservative and talk a lot about what isn’t appropriate for children and teenagers. What they think is inappropriate often includes educating kids about sex, about the fact that some people are gay or transsexual and about racism. It’s a perverse state of affairs: Exposing children to simple facts is dangerous, but exposing them to machines designed to kill is not. You can’t get your driver’s license until you’re a teenager, or buy cigarettes and alcohol until you’re 21, but much earlier than that, kids can, with adult supervision, legally learn how to end someone’s life.

Parents can’t ensure that their child won’t ever feel inferior or disempowered, or even in some cases become delusional or filled with rage. Teenagers do things that their parents would never anticipate every day, even if they’re close and communicative. Some develop serious drug habits or become radicalized into extremism or take their own lives.

One thing parents can ensure is that their children cannot get access to a gun in their house. The only foolproof way to do that is to ensure that there’s no gun in the house to begin with. Barring that, parents can make sure they are not reinforcing a toxic gun culture that says that displaying and threatening to use lethal machines is a reasonable way to deal with anger or adversity. That message makes the idea of killing someone seem almost ordinary.

That doesn’t prevent school shooters; it primes them.

Elizabeth Spiers, a contributing Opinion writer, is a journalist and digital media strategist.

Source photographs by CSA-Printstock and John Storey, via Getty Images.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

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The ASCD book How to Create a Culture of Achievement in Your School and Classroom shows how positive school culture encourages greater effort and productivity, improves collegial collaboration, supports successful change and improvement efforts, builds commitment and identification of students and teachers with your school, and amplifies energy and motivation of staff members and students.
How does school culture affect student learning?
School culture embodies a community's shared driving purpose. Mission statements and values are two factors that feed school culture, and impact the entire academic experience. Here's the six values we believe are most important to shape your school's culture and positively affect student learning: Be thoughtful. Be inclusive.
How To Define School Culture and Elevate Your Teaching
Culture is about implicit and explicit agreements, and defines the way that a school community works together. Culture is manifest in how people enter the building, what they eat and who they sit with at lunch, and who speaks and how much inside classrooms. It impacts the experience of everyone: staff, students, families and the community.
PDF The Effects of School Culture on Students Academic Achievements
The matters of culture, school culture, dimensions of school culture, strong and positive school culture and academic achievement have been addressed under this title. Culture When the related literature is examined, it is seen that culture has many definitions.For instance, according to Fitcher (2002), culture is the signs and
10 Strategies for Cultivating a Positive School Culture
School culture is an integral aspect of educational institutions. It shapes how students learn, staff members' relationships, and the school's atmosphere. A positive school culture can have a ...
PDF A Culture of Success—Examining School Culture and Student Outcomes via
Keywords: school culture, school leadership, student absenteeism, suspensions 1. Introduction In this current educational context of high stakes accountability, public schools in the United States are under significant pressure to increase student achievement. This pressure is even greater in high poverty environments
(PDF) School culture
culture to be, "the deeper level of basic assumptions and beliefs that are. shared by members of an organisation, that operate unconsciously, and. that define in a basic 'taken-for-granted ...
Culture and education: looking back to culture through education
Culture and education are complex phenomena and their causal relationship is of a "chicken or the egg" character. There is of course a great debate over what constitutes both "education" and "culture", let alone their relationship with one another. The essays in this issue of Paedagogica Historica are not consistent in their ...
School Culture and Bullying
Across her research, Brion-Meisels has identified points of insight for teachers who want to support students in creating an antibullying culture. Mobilize and empower students to be upstanders. Show students as early as possible the language required to intervene in bullying. Provide examples of what reacting to harmful behaviors looks like.
The Importance of School Culture
The Importance of School Culture on Students. While school culture greatly affects teachers, its also affects students. In fact, a positive school culture can improve students' ability to learn by creating a positive environment that builds relationships among students and teachers. In schools that have a strong culture, teachers are ...
Leading Culture Change: Strategies for School Improvement
Leading Culture Change, led by HGSE professor Ebony N. Bridwell-Mitchell, is a three-day interactive program that begins with school and district teams conducting a pre-program diagnostic of culture in their own learning context.During the program, teams are involved in instructional sessions and discussions with faculty experts to analyze culture's key aspects.
The influence of school culture and school climate on violence in
The shaping school culture fieldbook. San Francisco: Jossey Bass Publishers. [ Links ] Potts A 2006. Schools as dangerous places. Educational Studies, 32:319-330. [ Links ] Reames EH & Spencer WA 1998. Teacher efficacy and commitment: relationships to middle school culture. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational ...
Final Video Essay Script willem berry (pdf)
Final Video Essay Script In Toni Morrison's novel, Song of Solomon, she uses a postcolonial criticism lens to discuss historical values, cultural identities, and social constructs to highlight the impact from colonialism and slavery on African American communities. Through Morrisons writing we see themes of identity, culture and the continuous legacy of colonialism.
Opinion
That doesn't prevent school shooters; it primes them. Elizabeth Spiers, a contributing Opinion writer, is a journalist and digital media strategist. Source photographs by CSA-Printstock and John ...