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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• Academic Writing Style
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and specific areas of expertise. Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts within a community of scholarly experts and practitioners.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020.

Importance of Good Academic Writing

The accepted form of academic writing in the social sciences can vary considerable depending on the methodological framework and the intended audience. However, most college-level research papers require careful attention to the following stylistic elements:

I.  The Big Picture Unlike creative or journalistic writing, the overall structure of academic writing is formal and logical. It must be cohesive and possess a logically organized flow of ideas; this means that the various parts are connected to form a unified whole. There should be narrative links between sentences and paragraphs so that the reader is able to follow your argument. The introduction should include a description of how the rest of the paper is organized and all sources are properly cited throughout the paper.

II.  Tone The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing. Throughout your paper, it is important that you present the arguments of others fairly and with an appropriate narrative tone. When presenting a position or argument that you disagree with, describe this argument accurately and without loaded or biased language. In academic writing, the author is expected to investigate the research problem from an authoritative point of view. You should, therefore, state the strengths of your arguments confidently, using language that is neutral, not confrontational or dismissive.

III.  Diction Diction refers to the choice of words you use. Awareness of the words you use is important because words that have almost the same denotation [dictionary definition] can have very different connotations [implied meanings]. This is particularly true in academic writing because words and terminology can evolve a nuanced meaning that describes a particular idea, concept, or phenomenon derived from the epistemological culture of that discipline [e.g., the concept of rational choice in political science]. Therefore, use concrete words [not general] that convey a specific meaning. If this cannot be done without confusing the reader, then you need to explain what you mean within the context of how that word or phrase is used within a discipline.

IV.  Language The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is often complex and multi- dimensional . Therefore, it is important that you use unambiguous language. Well-structured paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without difficulty. Your language should be concise, formal, and express precisely what you want it to mean. Do not use vague expressions that are not specific or precise enough for the reader to derive exact meaning ["they," "we," "people," "the organization," etc.], abbreviations like 'i.e.'  ["in other words"], 'e.g.' ["for example"], or 'a.k.a.' ["also known as"], and the use of unspecific determinate words ["super," "very," "incredible," "huge," etc.].

V.  Punctuation Scholars rely on precise words and language to establish the narrative tone of their work and, therefore, punctuation marks are used very deliberately. For example, exclamation points are rarely used to express a heightened tone because it can come across as unsophisticated or over-excited. Dashes should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory comment in a sentence, while hyphens should be limited to connecting prefixes to words [e.g., multi-disciplinary] or when forming compound phrases [e.g., commander-in-chief]. Finally, understand that semi-colons represent a pause that is longer than a comma, but shorter than a period in a sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses of semi-colons: when a second clause expands or explains the first clause; to describe a sequence of actions or different aspects of the same topic; placed before clauses which begin with "nevertheless", "therefore", "even so," and "for instance”; and, to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which contain commas. If you are not confident about when to use semi-colons [and most of the time, they are not required for proper punctuation], rewrite using shorter sentences or revise the paragraph.

VI.  Academic Conventions Among the most important rules and principles of academic engagement of a writing is citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of references as either footnotes or endnotes. The academic convention of citing sources facilitates processes of intellectual discovery, critical thinking, and applying a deliberate method of navigating through the scholarly landscape by tracking how cited works are propagated by scholars over time . Aside from citing sources, other academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of headings and subheadings, properly spelling out acronyms when first used in the text, avoiding slang or colloquial language, avoiding emotive language or unsupported declarative statements, avoiding contractions [e.g., isn't], and using first person and second person pronouns only when necessary.

VII.  Evidence-Based Reasoning Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about the research problem. However, what is valued in academic writing is that statements are based on evidence-based reasoning. This refers to possessing a clear understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and academic debates that exist within, and often external to, your discipline concerning the topic. You need to support your arguments with evidence from scholarly [i.e., academic or peer-reviewed] sources. It should be an objective stance presented as a logical argument; the quality of the evidence you cite will determine the strength of your argument. The objective is to convince the reader of the validity of your thoughts through a well-documented, coherent, and logically structured piece of writing. This is particularly important when proposing solutions to problems or delineating recommended courses of action.

VIII.  Thesis-Driven Academic writing is “thesis-driven,” meaning that the starting point is a particular perspective, idea, or position applied to the chosen topic of investigation, such as, establishing, proving, or disproving solutions to the questions applied to investigating the research problem. Note that a problem statement without the research questions does not qualify as academic writing because simply identifying the research problem does not establish for the reader how you will contribute to solving the problem, what aspects you believe are most critical, or suggest a method for gathering information or data to better understand the problem.

IX.  Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking Academic writing addresses complex issues that require higher-order thinking skills applied to understanding the research problem [e.g., critical, reflective, logical, and creative thinking as opposed to, for example, descriptive or prescriptive thinking]. Higher-order thinking skills include cognitive processes that are used to comprehend, solve problems, and express concepts or that describe abstract ideas that cannot be easily acted out, pointed to, or shown with images. Think of your writing this way: One of the most important attributes of a good teacher is the ability to explain complexity in a way that is understandable and relatable to the topic being presented during class. This is also one of the main functions of academic writing--examining and explaining the significance of complex ideas as clearly as possible.  As a writer, you must adopt the role of a good teacher by summarizing complex information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts, and recommendations that contribute to a better understanding of the research problem.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Murray, Rowena  and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Roy. Improve Your Writing Skills . Manchester, UK: Clifton Press, 1995; Nygaard, Lynn P. Writing for Scholars: A Practical Guide to Making Sense and Being Heard . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2015; Silvia, Paul J. How to Write a Lot: A Practical Guide to Productive Academic Writing . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2007; Style, Diction, Tone, and Voice. Writing Center, Wheaton College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.

Strategies for...

Understanding Academic Writing and Its Jargon

The very definition of research jargon is language specific to a particular community of practitioner-researchers . Therefore, in modern university life, jargon represents the specific language and meaning assigned to words and phrases specific to a discipline or area of study. For example, the idea of being rational may hold the same general meaning in both political science and psychology, but its application to understanding and explaining phenomena within the research domain of a each discipline may have subtle differences based upon how scholars in that discipline apply the concept to the theories and practice of their work.

Given this, it is important that specialist terminology [i.e., jargon] must be used accurately and applied under the appropriate conditions . Subject-specific dictionaries are the best places to confirm the meaning of terms within the context of a specific discipline. These can be found by either searching in the USC Libraries catalog by entering the disciplinary and the word dictionary [e.g., sociology and dictionary] or using a database such as Credo Reference [a curated collection of subject encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, guides from highly regarded publishers] . It is appropriate for you to use specialist language within your field of study, but you should avoid using such language when writing for non-academic or general audiences.

Problems with Opaque Writing

A common criticism of scholars is that they can utilize needlessly complex syntax or overly expansive vocabulary that is impenetrable or not well-defined. When writing, avoid problems associated with opaque writing by keeping in mind the following:

1.   Excessive use of specialized terminology . Yes, it is appropriate for you to use specialist language and a formal style of expression in academic writing, but it does not mean using "big words" just for the sake of doing so. Overuse of complex or obscure words or writing complicated sentence constructions gives readers the impression that your paper is more about style than substance; it leads the reader to question if you really know what you are talking about. Focus on creating clear, concise, and elegant prose that minimizes reliance on specialized terminology.

2.   Inappropriate use of specialized terminology . Because you are dealing with concepts, research, and data within your discipline, you need to use the technical language appropriate to that area of study. However, nothing will undermine the validity of your study quicker than the inappropriate application of a term or concept. Avoid using terms whose meaning you are unsure of--do not just guess or assume! Consult the meaning of terms in specialized, discipline-specific dictionaries by searching the USC Libraries catalog or the Credo Reference database [see above].

Additional Problems to Avoid

In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are other aspects of academic writing in the social sciences that you should be aware of. These problems include:

• Personal nouns . Excessive use of personal nouns [e.g., I, me, you, us] may lead the reader to believe the study was overly subjective. These words can be interpreted as being used only to avoid presenting empirical evidence about the research problem. Limit the use of personal nouns to descriptions of things you actually did [e.g., "I interviewed ten teachers about classroom management techniques..."]. Note that personal nouns are generally found in the discussion section of a paper because this is where you as the author/researcher interpret and describe your work.
• Directives . Avoid directives that demand the reader to "do this" or "do that." Directives should be framed as evidence-based recommendations or goals leading to specific outcomes. Note that an exception to this can be found in various forms of action research that involve evidence-based advocacy for social justice or transformative change. Within this area of the social sciences, authors may offer directives for action in a declarative tone of urgency.
• Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms . Academic writing relies on excellent grammar and precise word structure. Your narrative should not include regional dialects or slang terms because they can be open to interpretation. Your writing should be direct and concise using standard English.
• Wordiness. Focus on being concise, straightforward, and developing a narrative that does not have confusing language . By doing so, you  help eliminate the possibility of the reader misinterpreting the design and purpose of your study.
• Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company," "that area," etc.). Being concise in your writing also includes avoiding vague references to persons, places, or things. While proofreading your paper, be sure to look for and edit any vague or imprecise statements that lack context or specificity.
• Numbered lists and bulleted items . The use of bulleted items or lists should be used only if the narrative dictates a need for clarity. For example, it is fine to state, "The four main problems with hedge funds are:" and then list them as 1, 2, 3, 4. However, in academic writing, this must then be followed by detailed explanation and analysis of each item. Given this, the question you should ask yourself while proofreading is: why begin with a list in the first place rather than just starting with systematic analysis of each item arranged in separate paragraphs? Also, be careful using numbers because they can imply a ranked order of priority or importance. If none exists, use bullets and avoid checkmarks or other symbols.
• Descriptive writing . Describing a research problem is an important means of contextualizing a study. In fact, some description or background information may be needed because you can not assume the reader knows the key aspects of the topic. However, the content of your paper should focus on methodology, the analysis and interpretation of findings, and their implications as they apply to the research problem rather than background information and descriptions of tangential issues.
• Personal experience. Drawing upon personal experience [e.g., traveling abroad; caring for someone with Alzheimer's disease] can be an effective way of introducing the research problem or engaging your readers in understanding its significance. Use personal experience only as an example, though, because academic writing relies on evidence-based research. To do otherwise is simply story-telling.

NOTE:   Rules concerning excellent grammar and precise word structure do not apply when quoting someone.  A quote should be inserted in the text of your paper exactly as it was stated. If the quote is especially vague or hard to understand, consider paraphrasing it or using a different quote to convey the same meaning. Consider inserting the term "sic" in brackets after the quoted text to indicate that the quotation has been transcribed exactly as found in the original source, but the source had grammar, spelling, or other errors. The adverb sic informs the reader that the errors are not yours.

Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Murray, Rowena  and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Eileen S. “Action Research.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education . Edited by George W. Noblit and Joseph R. Neikirk. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020); Oppenheimer, Daniel M. "Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words Needlessly." Applied Cognitive Psychology 20 (2006): 139-156; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020; Pernawan, Ari. Common Flaws in Students' Research Proposals. English Education Department. Yogyakarta State University; Style. College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Improving Academic Writing

To improve your academic writing skills, you should focus your efforts on three key areas: 1.   Clear Writing . The act of thinking about precedes the process of writing about. Good writers spend sufficient time distilling information and reviewing major points from the literature they have reviewed before creating their work. Writing detailed outlines can help you clearly organize your thoughts. Effective academic writing begins with solid planning, so manage your time carefully. 2.  Excellent Grammar . Needless to say, English grammar can be difficult and complex; even the best scholars take many years before they have a command of the major points of good grammar. Take the time to learn the major and minor points of good grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed feedback from professors. Take advantage of the Writing Center on campus if you need help. Proper punctuation and good proofreading skills can significantly improve academic writing [see sub-tab for proofreading you paper ].

Refer to these three basic resources to help your grammar and writing skills:

• A good writing reference book, such as, Strunk and White’s book, The Elements of Style or the St. Martin's Handbook ;
• A college-level dictionary, such as, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary ;
• The latest edition of Roget's Thesaurus in Dictionary Form .

3.  Consistent Stylistic Approach . Whether your professor expresses a preference to use MLA, APA or the Chicago Manual of Style or not, choose one style manual and stick to it. Each of these style manuals provide rules on how to write out numbers, references, citations, footnotes, and lists. Consistent adherence to a style of writing helps with the narrative flow of your paper and improves its readability. Note that some disciplines require a particular style [e.g., education uses APA] so as you write more papers within your major, your familiarity with it will improve.

II. Evaluating Quality of Writing

A useful approach for evaluating the quality of your academic writing is to consider the following issues from the perspective of the reader. While proofreading your final draft, critically assess the following elements in your writing.

• It is shaped around one clear research problem, and it explains what that problem is from the outset.
• Your paper tells the reader why the problem is important and why people should know about it.
• You have accurately and thoroughly informed the reader what has already been published about this problem or others related to it and noted important gaps in the research.
• You have provided evidence to support your argument that the reader finds convincing.
• The paper includes a description of how and why particular evidence was collected and analyzed, and why specific theoretical arguments or concepts were used.
• The paper is made up of paragraphs, each containing only one controlling idea.
• You indicate how each section of the paper addresses the research problem.
• You have considered counter-arguments or counter-examples where they are relevant.
• Arguments, evidence, and their significance have been presented in the conclusion.
• Limitations of your research have been explained as evidence of the potential need for further study.
• The narrative flows in a clear, accurate, and well-organized way.

Boscoloa, Pietro, Barbara Arféb, and Mara Quarisaa. “Improving the Quality of Students' Academic Writing: An Intervention Study.” Studies in Higher Education 32 (August 2007): 419-438; Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; Candlin, Christopher. Academic Writing Step-By-Step: A Research-based Approach . Bristol, CT: Equinox Publishing Ltd., 2016; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Style . College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Considering the Passive Voice in Academic Writing

In the English language, we are able to construct sentences in the following way: 1.  "The policies of Congress caused the economic crisis." 2.  "The economic crisis was caused by the policies of Congress."

The decision about which sentence to use is governed by whether you want to focus on “Congress” and what they did, or on “the economic crisis” and what caused it. This choice in focus is achieved with the use of either the active or the passive voice. When you want your readers to focus on the "doer" of an action, you can make the "doer"' the subject of the sentence and use the active form of the verb. When you want readers to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself, you can make the effect or the action the subject of the sentence by using the passive form of the verb.

Often in academic writing, scholars don't want to focus on who is doing an action, but on who is receiving or experiencing the consequences of that action. The passive voice is useful in academic writing because it allows writers to highlight the most important participants or events within sentences by placing them at the beginning of the sentence.

Use the passive voice when:

• You want to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself;
• It is not important who or what did the action;
• You want to be impersonal or more formal.

Form the passive voice by:

• Turning the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive sentence.
• Changing the verb to a passive form by adding the appropriate form of the verb "to be" and the past participle of the main verb.

NOTE: Consult with your professor about using the passive voice before submitting your research paper. Some strongly discourage its use!

Active and Passive Voice. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Diefenbach, Paul. Future of Digital Media Syllabus. Drexel University; Passive Voice. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.  

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• v.12(3); 2020 Jun

Academic Writing, and How to Learn How to Write

Marcin kozak.

Associate Professor, Department of Media, Journalism and Social Communication, University of Information Technology and Management, Rzeszow, Poland

I read with great interest the editorial by Yarris and colleagues on academic writing, 1 and I fully agree that academic writing is going to change. It must change, to be true—not only because it should align with technological development, but also because far too often academic texts are unclear, clumsy, and inefficient. We need articles like Yarris et al's and similar initiatives to change this for the better.

A man of the written word, I see academic writing mainly through the prism of actual writing—which does not mean I do not agree with everything else Yarris and colleagues wrote about, because I do. But let me focus on academic writing as an actual writing process. Even if the written word is to be partly replaced with other means, such as visualization, we will continue to write, at least because this is likely the best means of showing what we think . Most visualizations, be it a graph or a table, also show what we think, because they show how we interpret the data: For a given data set, we can often present various charts, offering quite different interpretations. But to show what you think, it's best to write it, even if other measures can help.

The authors emphasize, and I fully agree, that academic writers will have to change their approach to writing, switching from an incomprehensible language full of jargon to an understandable one—and even, I would say, to pleasurable writing. 2 Sad but true, more often than not academic texts are difficult to understand, and the future of academic writing should change that.

To this end, we not only need to put more emphasis on teaching young researchers how to write, but also on convincing not so young ones to further develop their writing skills. While many among the former can be taught, most of the latter would prefer to self-learn. For this, they need to practice, and they need good resources—Yarris and colleagues proposed at least a couple of them. 1

While I really like Stephen King's On Writing 3 and Anne Lamott's Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life , 4 and I love Helen Sword's Air & Light & Time & Space: How Successful Academics Write , 5 these are by no means writing resources. I am afraid that beginning writers starting off with these books would learn what the life of a writer is like, not how to write. Explaining how to organize your work in order to write more, Paul J. Silva also does not offer advice on how to write well. 6

There are quite a few books that do not tell stories about writers and writing, but that show what good writing is and how to write well. Yarris and colleagues provided a perfect example: Helen Sword's Stylish Academic Writing —but unlike the authors stated, it deals with academic, not general, writing. I think academic authors would learn a lot from Thomas S. Kane's The Oxford Essential Guide to Writing 7 and Joseph M. Williams's Style: Ten Lessons in Charity and Grace , 8 both being general writing books; and from Anne E. Greene's Writing Science in Plain English , focused on academic writing, particularly on biology. 9 Let's not forget William Zinsser's On Writing Well: The Classic Guide to Writing Nonfiction , another general writing book of useful advice, very well-known among nonfiction writers. 10 Michael Swan's Practical English Usage 11 might not offer the most pleasant read, since it's a usage guide—but it's known of great usefulness for anyone writing in English.

Of course, these are just my choices. I have enjoyed 20 or 30 other books (by such authors as Roy Peter Clark, Patricia T. O'Conner, Lynne Truss, Constance Hale, June Casagrande, and Mark Forsyth), but the brevity of this letter does not enable me to provide that long a list. If you wish and have the time, find your own favorites, but I would advise beginning with the ones described above.

I have always treated general writing books as more useful than most academic writing ones, for the simple reason that often the latter are too … academic. There are exceptions, though, like the above-mentioned Sword's and Greene's books. I am afraid that too few academics and educators have time to spend on reading about writing. So, unless you are, like me, a rare specimen of a minority population finding pleasure in reading about writing, and do so not only to learn how to write, but also to enjoy your scarce free time—start off with Greene and Sword, and then, if you can, follow with Williams, Zinsser, and Kane.

Table of Contents

Collaboration, information literacy, writing process, academic writing – how to write for the academic community.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - University of South Florida

Academic writing refers to the writing style that researchers, educators, and students use in scholarly publications and school assignments. An academic writing style refers to the semantic and textual features that characterize academic writing and distinguish it from other discourses , such as professional writing , workplace writing , fiction , or creative nonfiction . Learn about the discourse conventions of the academic community so you can write with greater authority , clarity , and persuasiveness (and, in school settings, earn higher grades!).  

What is Academic Writing?

Academic writing refers to all of the texts produced by academic writers, including theoretical, empirical , or experience-based works. Examples:

• Students at the high school and undergraduate level write essays, book reviews, lab reports, reviews of literature, proposals–and more . These assignments often presume an audience of a teacher-as-examiner
• by proposing a new theory, method, application
• by presenting new empirical findings
• by offering new interpretations of existing evidence .

Different academic fields have distinct genres , writing styles and conventions because each academic field possesses its own set of rules and practices that govern how ideas are researched , structured , supported , and communicated . Thus, there is no one single style of academic writing. Rather, there are many different writing styles a writer might adopt , depending on their aims of discourse , media , writing tools, and rhetorical situation .

Related Concepts: Audience – Audience Awareness ; Discourse Community – Community of Practice ; Discourse Conventions ; Elements of Style ; Genre ; Professional Writing – Style Guide ; Persona ; Rhetorical Stance ; Tone ; Voice

Differences aside, there are a number of discourse conventions that academic writers share across disciplines. These conventions empower writers to establish authority and clarity in their prose –and to craft pieces that can be understood and appreciated by readers from various academic fields as well as the general public.

Features of Academic Discourse

• Academic writing tends to be  substantive  rather than superficial,  anecdotal ,  vague or underdeveloped.  For example, a paper on climate change would not just describe the observed changes in temperature, but might also delve into the scientific theories that explain these changes, the evidence supporting these theories, the potential impacts of climate change, and the debates within the scientific community
• Academic writing prioritizes evidence and logical reasoning over anecdotal observations , personal opinions, personal beliefs emotional appeals
• Members of the academic community expect authors to provide evidence for claims . When academics introduce evidence into their texts, they know their readers expect them to establish the currency, relevance ,  authority , accuracy , and purpose of any evidence they introduce
• Academic writers are careful to support their claims with evidence from credible sources, especially peer-reviewed , academic literature.
• Academics are sensitive to the ideologies and epistemologies that inform research methods.
• For example, when a psychology student studies the effects of mindfulness on anxiety disorders, they would need to understand that their research is based on the assumption that anxiety can be measured and quantified, and that it can be influenced by interventions like mindfulness training. They would also need to understand that their research is situated within a particular theoretical framework (e.g., cognitive-behavioral theory), which shapes how they conceptualize anxiety, mindfulness, and the relationship between them.
• Academic writing is expected to be objective and fair–and free of bias . This means presenting evidence in a balanced way, considering different perspectives , and not letting personal biases distort the analysis.
• It also involves recognizing the limitations of the research and being open to criticism and alternative interpretations .
• Academic writers are very careful to attribute the works of authors whom they’re quoting , paraphrasing , or summarizing . They understand information has value , and they’re careful to discern who the major thought leaders are on a particular topic . They understand they cannot simply copy and paste large sections of copyrighted material into their own work, even if they provide an attribution .
• Academic writers must also abide copyright laws , which protect the rights of authors and creators. This means, for example, that they cannot simply copy and paste large sections of copyrighted material into their own work, even if they provide a citation . Instead, they can use smaller excerpts under the principle of “fair use,” or they can seek permission from the copyright holder to use larger portions.

Organization

Academic writing is typically organized in a deductive way (as opposed to inductively ). Many genresof academic writing have a research abstract, a clear introduction , body, conclusions and recommendations.

Academic essays tend to have an introduction that introduces the topic, the exigency that informs this call to write. reviews pertinent research, and explains the problem — hypothesis, thesis, and rhetorical situation. the context and states the purpose of the writing (aka, the thesis! ), the body develops the arguments or presents the research, and the conclusion summarizes the main points and discusses the implications or applications of the research

Typically, the design of academic documents is plain vanilla, despite the visual turn in communication made possible by the ubiquity of design tools. Unlike professional writing, which tends to be incredibly visual, academic writing tends to be fairly traditional with its focus on alphabetical text as opposed to visual elements.

• Plain Design: Academic documents, such as research papers, theses, or scholarly articles, typically follow a minimalist design approach. They primarily consist of black text on a white background, with a standard, easy-to-read font. This “plain vanilla” design reflects the focus of academic writing on the content rather than the presentation. The aim is to communicate complex ideas clearly and without distraction.
• Limited Use of Visuals: Unlike in professional writing or journalism, visuals such as images, infographics, or videos are not commonly used in academic writing. When they are used, it’s usually to present data (in the form of graphs, charts, or tables) or to illustrate a point (with diagrams or figures). The visuals are typically grayscale and are intended to supplement the text rather than replace it.
• Structured Layout: Academic writing tends to follow a structured layout, with clearly marked sections and subsections. This helps to organize the content and guide the reader through the argument. However, aside from headings, there is usually little use of design elements such as color, bolding, or varied fonts to highlight different parts of the text.
• Lack of Interactive Features: With the transition to digital media, many types of writing have become more interactive, incorporating hyperlinks, multimedia, or interactive data visualizations. However, academic writing has been slower to adopt these features. While academic articles often include hyperlinks to references, they rarely include other interactive elements.

However, as digital media and visual communication become increasingly prevalent, we may see changes in the conventions of academic design.

• Academic writing tends to be formal in persona , tone , diction . Academic writers avoid contractions , slang, colloquial expressions, sexist use of pronouns . Because it is written for specialists, jargon is used, but not unnecessarily. However, the level of formality can vary depending on the discipline, the genre (e.g., a research paper vs. a blog post), and the intended audience . For instance, in sociology and communication, autoethnography is a common genre , which is a composite of autobiography , memoir, creative nonfiction, and ethnographic methods .
• In the last 20 years, there has been a significant move toward including the first person in academic writing. However, in general, the focus of discourse isn’t the writer. Thus, most academic writers use the first person sparingly–if at all.
• Academic writers use the citation styles required by their audiences .
• Specialized Vocabulary: Academics often use specialized vocabulary or jargon that is specific to their field. These terms can convey complex ideas in a compact form, contributing to the compressed nature of academic prose. However, they can also make the writing less accessible to non-specialists.
• Complex Sentence Structures: Academic writing often uses complex sentence structures, such as long sentences with multiple clauses, or sentences that incorporate lists or parenthetical information. These structures allow academic writers to express complex relationships and nuances of meaning, but they can also make the writing more challenging to read.
• Referential Density: Academic writing often refers to other works, theories, or arguments, either explicitly (through citations) or implicitly. This referential density allows academic writers to build on existing knowledge and engage in scholarly conversation, but it also assumes that readers are familiar with the referenced works or ideas.

1. When is it appropriate to use the first person?

Use of the first person is now more commonplace across academic disciplines. In order to determine whether first person is appropriate, engage in rhetorical analysis of the rhetorical situation .

Recommended Resources

• Professional Writing Prose Style
• First-Person Point of View
• Using First Person in an Academic Essay: When is It Okay?
• A Synthesis of Professor Perspectives on Using First and Third Person in Academic Writing

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The Complete Beginner's Guide to Academic Writing

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Written by  Scribendi

What Is Academic Writing?

Academic writing is a specialized form of writing that suits the particular needs of academic writers. Used effectively, it helps scholars express complex concepts, research, and theories clearly to their peers. Learning to embrace this style of writing is essential in academia. However, we all need to start somewhere.

Welcome, friend, to the beginner's guide to academic writing.

In this post, we'll cover the following topics:

Characteristics of Academic Writing

Major types of academic writing.

Finding Your Research Question & Thesis Statement

The Importance of a Strong Structure 

Good Academic Writing Requires an Outline

Always Keep Your Writing Concise 

Style Guides: Don't Wait until the Last Minute

Always edit and proofread your academic writing, parting advice, elevate your writing with professional editing.

Learn More      OR      Get Started

Throughout this guide, you'll see the words "academic writing" and "scholarly writing" being used interchangeably. Both of these terms refer to the same form of writing, and both adhere to the same set of characteristics.

Let's take a closer look at three of the major characteristics of academic writing.

1. Evidence Based

Unlike other forms of writing, academic writing prioritizes logical, evidence-based reasoning. Every conclusion or point that you make should be supported by evidence.

Furthermore, all of these points should work together to support your thesis. Your thesis is the topic or research question that your writing aims to investigate, discuss, prove, or disprove.

Scholarly writing should be formal in tone. This means no contractions, colloquialisms, or slang. It also means that your writing should avoid personal pronouns such as "I." In this style of writing, you should write in the third person.

Furthermore, while you're certainly encouraged to feel passionately about your topic, you should also aim to write in a neutral tone. This means that your writing should avoid inflammatory, judgment-call statements.

Instead, your writing should sound like a rational exploration of the facts and evidence that support your conclusions. Seek to eliminate bias from your writing and remember to thoughtfully engage with your opposition's viewpoints. Don't just dismiss them as "wrong."

3. Properly cited

Proper citations are one of the most important characteristics of academic writing. You should always support any evidence that you call on with clear, orderly citations and references. This not only lends authority to your writing but also helps others locate your sources and further expand on your topic.

Your citations and the overall formatting of your paper may change depending on your assigned style guide ( APA , the Chicago Manual of Style , or MLA , to name a few). Make sure to adhere to the specifications of your specific style guide.

Next, let's take a look at the major types of academic writing that you'll encounter. Unfortunately, part of the reason that the answer to "What is academic writing?" is so long is that the subject is littered with subcategories.

Below, we've listed some of the most common types of scholarly writing and linked them to articles detailing each one. 

• Lab reports
• Book reports
• Theses and dissertations
• Grant proposals
• Literature reviews

These types of scholarly writing can be split into further subcategories. For example, an academic essay might fall into the descriptive, analytical, persuasive, or critical category—each of which might ask you to take a different approach in your writing.

Finding Your Research Question and Thesis Statement

Now that you have a grasp on what academic writing is, let's take a closer look at its elements. We'll begin with the star of the show, the thesis statement. However, in order to create your thesis statement, you'll first need a research question.

Select a topic that interests you and draft an intriguing question about it. That question is your research question. Make it as specific as possible, and as you dig into your research, continue to narrow its scope.

More often than not, the answers you find will become your thesis, which is the statement or question that your writing will investigate, prove, or disprove.

A good thesis statement should demonstrate the following characteristics:

• Evidence based

If you want to learn more about thesis statements, check out our article on  how to write a great thesis statement .

The Importance of a Strong Structure

A good structure is vital in academic writing, and a clear, logical structure will help you present your ideas. Moreover, many forms of academic writing obey an established structure, which the reader will expect you to follow.

For example, many academic essays follow a five-part structure. It's okay to experiment with other structures from time to time, but it is a good one to start with.

A five-part structure involves an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Your introduction introduces your topic and situates its importance within your field. It establishes your methodology and introduces your thesis statement.

Your body paragraphs support your thesis in more detail. Each body paragraph begins with a topic sentence, after which a cycle of introducing subtopics, providing evidence, and reflecting on the impact of that evidence ensues.

Your conclusion should summarize your body paragraphs and reaffirm your thesis. It shouldn't contain any new information. Instead, think of it as an opportunity to finish strong and hammer in your points one last time.

Check out our Ultimate Essay Checklist for additional essay writing advice.

In order to have a strong structure, it's best to create an outline before you start writing. It'll help you keep yourself motivated and on track. It's much easier to write with a plan in mind than to write into a shapeless void.

If you can, leave time for multiple drafts. It may sound unnecessary; however, each draft will give you the time and mental space you need to drastically improve the quality of your writing.

Always Keep Your Writing Concise

Verbose writing is one of the most common issues in academic writing.

Whenever you can, keep things concise . Complex vocabulary and sentences are common in academic writing. However, they aren't everything. Learning to write concisely is a difficult skill to master. However, it has great benefits, including the ability to express yourself clearly.

To begin writing concisely, challenge yourself to first avoid the passive voice. It won't always be possible to use the active voice. However, favor the active voice whenever you can. It shakes up your writing, making it more dynamic and helping to propel the reader forward.

Style guides are intended to make your life easier, not complicate it. Think of them as friendly guides who will help you cite and format your work correctly. Don't wait until the last moment to crack yours open!

Here are three of the most common style guides and the fields they're commonly used in:

• The Chicago Manual of Style (Chicago), which is used in history, criminology, and business
• Modern Language Association (MLA) style, which is used in the humanities and liberal arts
• American Psychological Association (APA) style, which is used in the social sciences, psychology, business, and economics

Never underestimate the value of editing and proofreading your work. You wouldn't believe the number of errors that can be caught simply by taking a break, refreshing your mind, and settling in to complete an editing or proofreading pass.

In turn, professional editing and proofreading can give you an even stronger boost. When you work closely with a text, it's easy to skim over errors and confusing language. You already know how your writing should go, so it's easy for your brain to fill in the gaps.

You should now have all that you need to step out into the world of academic writing. It's time to take all that you've learned and put it into practice. Make your mark on the world. We'll be rooting for you.

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Scribendi's in-house editors work with writers from all over the globe to perfect their writing. They know that no piece of writing is complete without a professional edit, and they love to see a good piece of writing transformed into a great one. Scribendi's in-house editors are unrivaled in both experience and education, having collectively edited millions of words and obtained numerous degrees. They love consuming caffeinated beverages, reading books of various genres, and relaxing in quiet, dimly lit spaces.

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Academic writing

Academic writing is an essential skill for your students to master. Find out how you can support them to develop these skills. 

1 August 2019

In most subjects, academic writing is the biggest factor determining a student’s degree classification. Nothing affects a student’s academic prospects more than their ability to write well.

Higher education subjects are defined through academic texts. If a student is to fully grasp their subject they need to understand how it’s written.

Many students know this but feel that successful academic writing is a mystery.

As teachers, we can help students improve their academic writing by:

• offering them opportunities to practice
• encouraging them to share their work
• giving them individual, face-to-face feedback
• pointing them towards practical resources.

What academic writing means

Academic writing underpins all aspects of teaching and learning. It describes a wide range of activities, such as:

• note-making
• researching
• structuring
• referencing

Putting it into practice

Set clear expectations for writing standards.

Helping students improve their academic writing should be a continual part of teaching, but making time and space in the curriculum for it can be challenging.

At the start of a programme or module, review the course assessment criteria with students. This will help start a conversation about what you expect students to achieve in their writing.

You’ll also need to ensure that you give students the means to reach those standards.

Some aspects of good academic writing will be procedural, for example the format for including citations. Be clear about which system you expect students to use.

Other aspects will be more subjective, such as good sentence construction.

Spending time in the first few weeks can ensure that students are moving in the right direction straight away, rather than waiting until a piece of assessed written work is due.

• Academic integrity: staff guide to UCL’s online course for students : how to support your students to recognise and avoid plagiarism and other academic misconduct.

What makes good academic writing

Get students to think about:

• language fundamentals such as grammar, punctuation and spelling
• writing clear introductions, statements of purpose and conclusions
• writing in plain English
• revising their work, always reading it back to check it makes sense.

Get students to write frequently

The best way to help students improve their academic writing is to get them to do short and varied writing activities throughout their course. If this isn’t done, students may only be expected to produce one or two pieces of assessed written work per module.

Short tasks done in class are especially effective. They also keep students engaged with the subject (see the Active learning toolkit ).

• Thinking Writing by Queen Mary University of London, contains lots of great ideas for short writing tasks.

The wider the range of writing genres that students practise, the better.

Get students to critique their own and others’ writing

1. reviewing published works .

In class, look at a piece of published work relevant to your subject and discuss with students what makes it good. Better still, do this with your own work and talk about the stages of writing.

Choose something short: for example the introduction to a book, or a journal article.

• why the author has written it
• how the author has formulated the argument
• how easy it is to understand
• which aspects of the author’s writing style help or hinder the reader.

2. Reviewing coursework from a previous year group

Look at coursework from a previous year group and discuss its strengths and weaknesses.

Compare it with the marking guide and ask students to say what they would have given it. Then you can reveal what mark it actually got.

Make sure any work you show is anonymised. If you are using students’ work from recent years, ideally you should get their permission first. If in doubt, check with your teaching lead.

To maximise time in the classroom, share the written work with students beforehand via Moodle.

Example case study:  It's a trap! How I got students to engage with assessment: the power of guided marking

3. Getting students to critique their own and others’ writing

Get students to write something for five minutes. Then ask them to read one another’s work in groups of three and compare views.

As a teacher, you don’t have to read everything your students write. Encouraging students to show their written work to others (apart from you) can help them become better at self-assessment and peer assessment . 

It can also make them think more carefully about what they write. Showing work to others can help to foster a better culture of learning and sharing among students. It also gives students a sense of how they are contributing to the body of work that makes up an academic subject. 

Offer individual tuition to students

Ask your teaching lead about the individual support on a programme for students to improve their writing.

Ask your students if they’ve ever been invited to sit down with someone to go through their writing. If they haven’t, give them that opportunity.

Sit down for 15 minutes with a student. Look at a short piece of their writing with them and explain how they could improve it.

If you have too many students (say over 25), you could offer part of your weekly office time on a first-come-first-served basis.

Particularly in their first two years of study, offer your personal tutees the chance to use a tutorial to talk about academic writing.

UCL writing resources

Use these resources for more practical examples of things to try when teaching large groups.  

• UCL Academic Communication Centre  shows what support is available to students in each faculty.
• UCL Centre for Languages & International Education (CLIE) offers taught courses for students who are non-native speakers of English and resources for staff to help students with their English.
• UCL Academic Writing Centre at the IOE, UCL's Faculty of Education and Society, provides short courses, tutorials, forums and online resources to IOE postgraduate students.
• Writing and Language Support Programme (WALS) : peer-to-peer support for non-native speakers of English through UCL Union.
• UCL’s Survey of English Usage produces apps on academic writing (free), spelling and punctuation (free) and grammar (various costs).
• UCL Student Disability Services has produced some excellent guides on reading, note-taking, essay writing, revision technique and time management.

Academic integrity: staff guide to UCL’s online course for students

UCL also has a licence for Linkedin Learning (formerly Lynda.com), the online video training provider. Linkedin Learning has several short courses on writing, such as writing in plain English.

External writing resources

• Guide to writing essays , the Royal Literary Fund
• Guide to writing dissertations , the Royal Literary Fund
• Andrew Northedge, The Good Study Guide, 2nd ed. , The Open University, 2005. Book available on Amazon
• William Strunk and E.B. White, The Elements of Style, 4th ed. , New York, 2000. Book available on Amazon
• How to write in Plain English, the Plain English Campaign (pdf)

This guide has been produced by the UCL Arena Centre for Research-based Education . You are welcome to use this guide if you are from another educational facility, but you must credit the UCL Arena Centre. 

Further information

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[email protected] : contact the UCL Arena Centre 

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• Academic writing

Types of academic writing

• Planning your writing
• Structuring written work
• Grammar, spelling and vocabulary
• Editing and proofreading
• Evidence, plagiarism and referencing
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The four main types of academic writing are descriptive, analytical, persuasive and critical. Each of these types of writing has specific language features and purposes.

In many academic texts you will need to use more than one type. For example, in an empirical thesis:

• you will use critical writing in the literature review to show where there is a gap or opportunity in the existing research
• the methods section will be mostly descriptive to summarise the methods used to collect and analyse information
• the results section will be mostly descriptive and analytical as you report on the data you collected
• the discussion section is more analytical, as you relate your findings back to your research questions, and also persuasive, as you propose your interpretations of the findings.

Descriptive

The simplest type of academic writing is descriptive. Its purpose is to provide facts or information. An example would be a summary of an article or a report of the results of an experiment.

The kinds of instructions for a purely descriptive assignment include: 'identify', 'report', 'record', 'summarise' and 'define'.

It’s rare for a university-level text to be purely descriptive. Most academic writing is also analytical. Analytical writing includes descriptive writing, but also requires you to re-organise the facts and information you describe into categories, groups, parts, types or relationships.

Sometimes, these categories or relationships are already part of the discipline, while in other cases you will create them specifically for your text. If you’re comparing two theories, you might break your comparison into several parts, for example: how each theory deals with social context, how each theory deals with language learning, and how each theory can be used in practice.

The kinds of instructions for an analytical assignment include: 'analyse', 'compare', 'contrast', 'relate', and 'examine'.

To make your writing more analytical:

• spend plenty of time planning. Brainstorm the facts and ideas, and try different ways of grouping them, according to patterns, parts, similarities and differences. You could use colour-coding, flow charts, tree diagrams or tables.
• create a name for the relationships and categories you find. For example, advantages and disadvantages.
• build each section and paragraph around one of the analytical categories.
• make the structure of your paper clear to your reader, by using topic sentences and a clear introduction.

In most academic writing, you are required to go at least one step further than analytical writing, to persuasive writing. Persuasive writing has all the features of analytical writing (that is, information plus re-organising the information), with the addition of your own point of view. Most essays are persuasive, and there is a persuasive element in at least the discussion and conclusion of a research article.

Points of view in academic writing can include an argument, recommendation, interpretation of findings or evaluation of the work of others. In persuasive writing, each claim you make needs to be supported by some evidence, for example a reference to research findings or published sources.

The kinds of instructions for a persuasive assignment include: 'argue', 'evaluate', 'discuss', and 'take a position'.

To help reach your own point of view on the facts or ideas:

• read some other researchers' points of view on the topic. Who do you feel is the most convincing?
• look for patterns in the data or references. Where is the evidence strongest?
• list several different interpretations. What are the real-life implications of each one? Which ones are likely to be most useful or beneficial? Which ones have some problems?
• discuss the facts and ideas with someone else. Do you agree with their point of view?

To develop your argument:

• list the different reasons for your point of view
• think about the different types and sources of evidence which you can use to support your point of view
• consider different ways that your point of view is similar to, and different from, the points of view of other researchers
• look for various ways to break your point of view into parts. For example, cost effectiveness, environmental sustainability, scope of real-world application.

To present your argument, make sure:

• your text develops a coherent argument where all the individual claims work together to support your overall point of view
• your reasoning for each claim is clear to the reader
• your assumptions are valid
• you have evidence for every claim you make
• you use evidence that is convincing and directly relevant.

Critical writing is common for research, postgraduate and advanced undergraduate writing. It has all the features of persuasive writing, with the added feature of at least one other point of view. While persuasive writing requires you to have your own point of view on an issue or topic, critical writing requires you to consider at least two points of view, including your own.

For example, you may explain a researcher's interpretation or argument and then evaluate the merits of the argument, or give your own alternative interpretation.

Examples of critical writing assignments include a critique of a journal article, or a literature review that identifies the strengths and weaknesses of existing research. The kinds of instructions for critical writing include: 'critique', 'debate', 'disagree' and 'evaluate'.

You need to:

• accurately summarise all or part of the work. This could include identifying the main interpretations, assumptions or methodology.
• have an opinion about the work. Appropriate types of opinion could include pointing out some problems with it, proposing an alternative approach that would be better, and/or defending the work against the critiques of others.
• provide evidence for your point of view. Depending on the specific assignment and the discipline, different types of evidence may be appropriate, such as logical reasoning, reference to authoritative sources and/or research data.

Critical writing requires strong writing skills. You need to thoroughly understand the topic and the issues. You need to develop an essay structure and paragraph structure that allows you to analyse different interpretations and develop your own argument, supported by evidence.

This material was developed by the Learning Hub (Academic Language and Learning), which offers workshops, face-to-face consultations and resources to support your learning. Find out more about how they can help you develop your communication, research and study skills .

See our Writing skills handouts .

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Scholarly Writing: Scholarly Writing

Introduction.

Scholarly writing is also known as academic writing. It is the genre of writing used in all academic fields. Scholarly writing is not better than journalism, fiction, or poetry; it is just a different category. Because most of us are not used to scholarly writing, it can feel unfamiliar and intimidating, but it is a skill that can be learned by immersing yourself in scholarly literature. During your studies at Walden, you will be reading, discussing, and producing scholarly writing in everything from discussion posts to dissertations. For Walden students, there are plenty of opportunities to practice this skill in a writing intensive environment.

The resources in the Grammar & Composition tab provide important foundations for scholarly writing, so please refer to those pages as well for help on scholarly writing. Similarly, scholarly writing can differ depending on style guide. Our resources follow the general guidelines of the APA manual, and you can find more APA help in the APA Style tab.

Read on to learn about a few characteristics of scholarly writing!

Writing at the Graduate Level

Writing at the graduate level can appear to be confusing and intimidating. It can be difficult to determine exactly what the scholarly voice is and how to transition to graduate-level writing. There are some elements of writing to consider when writing to a scholarly audience: word choice, tone, and effective use of evidence . If you understand and employ scholarly voice rules, you will master writing at the doctoral level.

Before you write something, ask yourself the following: 

• Is this objective?
• Am I speaking as a social scientist? Am I using the literature to support my assertions?
• Could this be offensive to someone?
• Could this limit my readership?

Employing these rules when writing will help ensure that you are speaking as a social scientist. Your writing will be clear and concise, and this approach will allow your content to shine through.

Specialized Vocabulary

Scholarly authors assume that their audience is familiar with fundamental ideas and terms in their field, and they do not typically define them for the reader. Thus, the wording in scholarly writing is specialized, requiring previous knowledge on the part of the reader. You might not be able to pick up a scholarly journal in another field and easily understand its contents (although you should be able to follow the writing itself).

Take for example, the terms "EMRs" and "end-stage renal disease" in the medical field or the keywords scaffolding and differentiation in teaching. Perhaps readers outside of these fields may not be familiar with these terms. However, a reader of an article that contains these terms should still be able to understand the general flow of the writing itself.

Original Thought

Scholarly writing communicates original thought, whether through primary research or synthesis, that presents a unique perspective on previous research. In a scholarly work, the author is expected to have insights on the issue at hand, but those insights must be grounded in research, critical reading , and analysis rather than personal experience or opinion. Take a look at some examples below:

Needs Improvement: I think that childhood obesity needs to be prevented because it is bad and it causes health problems.

Better: I believe that childhood obesity must be prevented because it is linked to health problems and deaths in adults (McMillan, 2010).

Good: Georges (2002) explained that there "has never been a disease so devastating and yet so preventable as obesity" (p. 35). In fact, the number of deaths that can be linked to obesity are astounding. According to McMillan (2010), there is a direct correlation between childhood obesity and heart attacks later in their adult lives, and the American Heart Association's 2010 statistic sheet shows similar statistics: 49% of all heart attacks are preventable (AHA, 2010). Because of this correlation, childhood obesity is an issue that must be addressed and prevented to ensure the health of both children and adults.

Notice that the first example gives a personal opinion but cites no sources or research. The second example gives a bit of research but still emphasizes the personal opinion. The third example, however, still gives the writer's opinion (that childhood obesity must be addressed), but it does so by synthesizing the information from multiple sources to help persuade the reader.

Careful Citation

Scholarly writing includes careful citation of sources and the presence of a bibliography or reference list. The writing is informed by and shows engagement with the larger body of literature on the topic at hand, and all assertions are supported by relevant sources.

Crash Course in Scholarly Writing Video

Note that this video was created while APA 6 was the style guide edition in use. There may be some examples of writing that have not been updated to APA 7 guidelines.

• Crash Course in Scholarly Writing (video transcript)

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Examples of paragraphs in academic writing

Each of the following paragraphs have notes that explain how they work and what you can learn from them. The examples are from published academic work from a wide variety of disciplines and you can read each item online using the reference provided.

Select a paragraph type to learn more.

Synthesising

Giving context or explanation, using sources as evidence, introductory paragraphs.

• Demonstrating your position

Concluding paragraphs

Discussing results, using a quotation to illustrate a point, paragraphs that link together, proposing a new idea or theory.

You can download all the information included within each section of this exercise by downloading the Microsoft Word document below.

Download paragraph examples (.docx)

Now that you have gone through all parts of the exercise, you can return to the main Library website by selecting the 'Back to Library' button below.

This section will provide an outline of the features of synthesising, that is, using multiple sources in broad agreement with one another .

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Supporting your points with multiple sources which broadly agree with one another, can give extra credibility and strength to your writing.

The first sentence uses two sources to support the opening statement. Using more than one source is a good way to show that the point you are making may have a solid basis in research, therefore adding strength to your point.

This technique is also used later in the paragraph, grouping together two or more sources which are broadly in agreement with one another and backing up the points being made.

Even though early treatments for ADHD are efficacious, few children typically receive specialty mental health care ( Danielson et al., 2018 ; Hoza et al., 2006 ). In the 2016 National Survey of Children's Health, more than six million children and teens had been diagnosed with ADHD, and of these, 5.4 million had current ADHD. About 23% of children with current ADHD diagnoses had not received any treatment ( Danielson et al., 2018 ). Yet, there are often delays in identification which lead to high societal costs ( Biederman & Faraone, 2006 ; Mahone & Denckla, 2017 ). The reason for these high costs is that children and adolescents with ADHD are at high risk of other issues such as accidents, injuries, and substance abuse ( Hurtig et al., 2016 ; Leibson et al., 2001 ; Molina & Pelham, 2014 ). Moreover, it is difficult to ascertain the reasons why children diagnosed with behavioral issues are unable to access timely treatment.

This section will provide an outline of giving context or explanation.

Whilst good academic writing needs to show critical analysis, using a variety of sources and demonstrating clear arguments, it is also important to add context and explanations where necessary.

This paragraph outlines the topic, setting the scene for a more thorough and detailed examination in the rest of the chapter.

The writer gives the subject matter context by summarising the current situation.

References to the work of other authors are used to bring in real examples which also help to build a general picture of the area.

The mobile nature of digital games ensures that the lines between in-school and out-of-school gameplay is blurred. Thus, it is important to explore the possibilities of these games to create new spaces for learning and engaging with mathematics. From a social learning perspective, research has been concerned with the ways in which the games industry has been influencing ‘interactive’ learning via computers (Scanlon et al. 2005); creating spaces for students to create their own digital games in order to teach concepts to peers (Li 2010); or the ways in which the games are arranged to motivate learners to engage with the games (Habgood and Ainsworth 2011) and engage with higher-order problem solving abilities (Sun et al. 2011). These and many other studies seem to support the possibilities of digital games to promote learning.

This section will provide an outline of using sources as evidence.

Reading academic texts not only gives you a deeper understanding of your subject area, but also exposes you to different viewpoints and evidence. When you write at university, you use your reading to support the claims or arguments that you make in your work. You could also present sources giving counter arguments to demonstrate alternative perspectives

The frequent use of citations for other sources in this example, shows that there is evidence for all of the claims being made. This gives credibility to the writing.

Citations can be used in the middle or at the end of your sentences and in some science, engineering or medical subjects they may be used at the end of a paragraph, which is not always the case in Arts and Humanities academic writing. Check with your department if you are unsure what is expected.

The Australian Psychological Society (APS) reports that one in four Australians feel lonely and over half of the population feel that they lack valuable social connection 1 . Whether objective or perceived (i.e. loneliness), the consequences of prolonged social isolation are significant. Social isolation is linked to severe negative health implications including increased risk of heart disease 2 , cancer 3 and obesity 4 , culminating in reduced life expectancy 5,6 . Social isolation also comes with significant risk of mental health and neuropsychiatric disorders, including chronic anxiety and depression 7,8 . Alongside this complex aetiology, social isolation has been linked to the increased prevalence of substance use disorders across a range of drug types 7 , where social isolation both predicts drug abuse, and drug abuse occurs as a consequence of social isolation 9,10,11 . Unfortunately, when socially isolated individuals wish to moderate or quit drug-intake, quitting is more difficult and less successful 12,13 , limiting the likelihood of a long lasting recovery.

This section will provide an outline of introductory paragraphs.

Introductory paragraphs give the reader an understanding of what is coming up in the article.

This paragraph uses linguistic ‘signposts’ to help the reader to understand major developments in the history of Stonehenge.

The writer gives some background about Stonehenge and the way in which it changed and developed over time. If you knew nothing about the topic, this introduction gives key facts, information and context. If, however you are familiar with the subject, this paragraph is a neat overview, creating a gateway to the rest of the article.

The second paragraph begins with an introduction to the aims and objectives of the Stonehenge Riverside Project.

This provides useful signpost, in the last sentence, what is coming up next.

Stonehenge, a Late Neolithic–Early Bronze Age monument in Wiltshire, southern England, was constructed in five stages between around 3000 BC and 1500 BC (Darvill et al. 2012). The first stage consisted of a circular ditch enclosing pits thought to have held posts or standing stones, of which the best known are the 56 Aubrey Holes. These are now believed to have held a circle of small standing stones, specifically ‘bluestones’ from Wales (Parker Pearson et al. 2009: 31–33). In its second stage , Stonehenge took on the form in which it is recognisable today, with its ‘sarsen’ circle and horseshoe array of five sarsen ‘trilithons’ surrounding the rearranged bluestones.

Starting in 2003, the Stonehenge Riverside Project explored the theory that Stonehenge was built in stone for the ancestors, whereas timber circles and other wooden structures were made for the living (Parker Pearson & Ramilisonina 1998). Stonehenge has long been known to contain prehistoric burials (Hawley 1921). Most were undated, so a priority for the project was to establish whether, when and in what ways these dead were associated with the monument. Until excavation in 2008, most of the recovered human remains remained inaccessible for scientific research, having been reburied at Stonehenge in 1935 (Young 1935: 20–21).

Demonstrating your position (your voice)

This section will provide an outline of demonstrating your position, that's to say, your voice.

The way in which you express your thoughts in academic writing can vary depending on your subject area.

This writer makes statements that clearly demonstrate their opinion. They say for example that “Science fiction is a useful tool...”, “Gender, in turn, offers an interesting glimpse...”, “The process is a particularly rewarding version...”. The language chosen shows what the writer thinks about this topic.

In this second paragraph (from a different source) the writer makes clear their position about decreased nerve conduction velocity and why this matters: ‘appreciably decreased NCV can be an important indicator of nerve injury or disease’.

Science fiction is a useful tool for investigating habits of thought, including conceptions of gender. Gender, in turn, offers an interesting glimpse into some of the unacknowledged messages that permeate science fiction. Each reads the other in very interesting ways. Examining stories with a view to both their science-fictional qualities and their uses of gender generates new questions about both gender and genre. Then those questions can be addressed to those and other stories to yield further insights. The process is a particularly rewarding version of the hermeneutic circle-a decoding ring.

Impulses travel along nerves at a speed called the nerve conduction velocity (NCV). This velocity has been extensively measured in human peripheral nerves because of its utility in clinical medicine (Liveson & Ma, 1992; Oh, 1993). Appreciably decreased NCV can be an important indicator of nerve injury or disease (Liveson & Ma, 1992; Oh, 1993).

This section will provide an outline of concluding paragraphs.

Depending on the written work that you do, you may need one or several concluding paragraphs.

This is an example of a concise stand-alone conclusion paragraph.

This conclusion brings together the main arguments that were made in the main body of the work.

The final sentence is a recommendation for future action, which can be a good way to emphasise your viewpoint.

Given the fragile health systems in most sub-Saharan African countries, new and re-emerging disease outbreaks such as the current COVID-19 epidemic can potentially paralyse health systems at the expense of primary healthcare requirements. The impact of the Ebola epidemic on the economy and healthcare structures is still felt five years later in those countries which were affected. Effective outbreak responses and preparedness during emergencies of such magnitude are challenging across African and other lower-middle-income countries. Such situations can partly only be mitigated by supporting existing regional and sub-Saharan African health structures.

This section will provide an outline of discussing results.

This paragraph effectively discusses the results of a research project. Paragraphs like this one are very common in science, engineering or medical subjects.

The first sentence contains the major finding of the research, which is then explored in more detail.

In the second sentence, the writer clearly states the need for more research as a major factor in the results obtained.

These results further indicate that not only liquid-bearing clouds 16 but also clouds composed exclusively of ice significantly increase radiative fluxes into the surface and decrease GrIS SMB. This underscores the need for continued research into the factors that govern the formation and maintenance of these distinct cloud regimes, and their evolution in a future warmer and wetter Arctic 36 . Evidence of the large spread in cloud cover and liquid/ice partitioning over the GrIS in current state-of-the-art climate models, in combination with our limited understanding of the interaction between clouds, circulation and climate 37 , suggests that improved cloud representations in climate models could significantly increase the fidelity of future projections of GrIS SMB and subsequent global sea level rise.

This section will provide an outline of using a quotation to illustrate a point.

Quotations are particularly useful where the phrasing of the original author’s point enhances your argument in a way that your own words could not. However, in science, engineering or medicine disciplines, quotations are very rarely used.

This paragraph incorporates a quotation from a book to illustrate and strengthen the main point (set out in the first sentence).

The quotation is introduced mid-paragraph and deepens our understanding of the argument by giving us insights into the feelings of the characters.

Rowling creates this intense tension between Harry’s substitute maternal and paternal figures to highlight just how connected Mrs. Weasley is to Harry Potter, and to illustrate how Harry’s situation has changed dramatically, though his journey is not nearly over. Harry is now part of several families: Hogwarts, the Weasley’s and soon the Order of Phoenix. He is cared for in a way he has never experienced before now, as is evident by Mrs. Weasley’s maternal wrath: “‘He’s not your son,” said Sirius quietly. “He’s as good as!” said Mrs. Weasley fiercely” (Rowling, 2004, p. 90) . Mrs. Weasley continues to clash with Sirius throughout OotP, believing he makes poor choices and doesn’t recognize that Harry would risk his own life for him. She can accept the peril Harry faces from Lord Voldemort, but she cannot tolerate that Sirius might carelessly expose Harry to danger.

This section will provide an outline of paragraphs that link together.

Paragraphs often (but not always) link together thematically, which means that one may continue an idea or argument from a previous paragraph.

The first sentence of the first paragraph sets out the topic under examination.

The first paragraph goes on to explore the topic in more depth, giving relevant examples and evidence as part of the discussion.

The second paragraph is intrinsically linked to the first. It acts as an extension, allowing the author to develop the point further by bringing in a new aspect of communication and analysing this in detail.

The men and women who saw or met the royal family in the war regularly confronted a perceptual gap between their own close-up sighting of them and official projections. A private with the 1st Battalion of the Welsh Regiment on the Western Front, who saw George V coming down from the line in 1916, remembered how surprised he was to find that the king was just a ‘little fellah with a beard’ – an observation that registered the difference between seeing the king nearby and how he was imagined in his public and ceremonial roles. 18 The early twentieth century witnessed a significant shift towards the democratization of public reputations in Britain and across the Anglophone world, involving the partial displacement of older notions of charisma by more commodified public personalities driven by the media. Soldiers and nurses who encountered the king and his family frequently registered a tension between traditional, prestigious images of royalty and those that were redolent with what journalists now defined as ‘human interest’ and even entertainment. 19 The article argues that one consequence of the intimate exposure of royalty during the war was that some who saw or met the king and his family perceived them more horizontally and less vertically, in ways that paralleled other forms of popular modernism. Adrian Gregory and Paul Fussell have emphasized that the war was fundamental in breaking social and cultural hierarchies, creating the conditions in which modernism would flourish. 20 One long-term effect of the loosening of traditional authority in the minds of some observers involved a partial desacralization of sovereignty, whereby royalty was brought closer to the lives of ordinary people in ways that intersected with developments in the popular media.

Publicity was one significant factor shaping the views of men and women who encountered royalty; the practice of letter-writing and diary keeping was another. Letters and postcards sent by troops at the front to family and friends at home were forms of social and cultural communication shaped by the long history of epistolary writing and its specific uses as a resource in wartime. Wartime censorship, which was enforced by officers for British and dominion rank-and-file troops, influenced what could be written in letters about a sensitive issue like the monarchy, though standards of inspection were uneven and critical comments did get through. 21 Diaries and memoirs encouraged greater reflection, and this was where more expansive and often trenchant remarks about the royal family emerged. The oral histories drawn on here pivot between remembering early twentieth-century royalty through the prism of nostalgia, or remembering them as central figures in a hierarchical society where witnesses saw themselves as either resistant or subaltern subjects. These personal testimonies provide historians not simply with an archive of opinion about the monarchy, but with a window onto competing structures of belief and feeling, as they were shaped by what Penny Summerfield has called distinctive ‘conduits of expression’. 22 They constructed meanings about sovereignty, while simultaneously involving audiences in their own projections of selfhood, in the context of both the structures of their own lives and the impact of European warfare.

This section will provide an outline of proposing a new idea or theory.

Sometimes your writing will need to be persuasive, for example, when you propose a new idea, theory or way of looking at an issue, or you may be trying to show that another writer’s point or argument is strong or weak.

The opening sentence signals that three new strategies are going to be set out.

In the second sentence, the first of these strategies is introduced.

The final two sentences begin to unpack the first strategy. Further emphasis is given to persuade the reader by the tone and use of language such as “important”.

Three strategies for reinserting class into planning theory and practice can be proposed. The first strategy is the acknowledgement that capitalism is based on economic antagonisms. When identifying “needs” in planning theory or practice, it is important to ask, whose needs? In contrast to contemporary assumptions where “communities” are the subjects and where “consensus” is an ideal (as in the King’s Cross Development), we would argue that one should recognize and consider antagonisms like class.

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Jeffrey R. Wilson

Academic writing.

A how-to guide for high-quality arguments

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“Writing” is usually understood as the expression of thought. This book redefines “writing” as the thought process itself. Writing is not what you do with thought. Writing is thinking.

Better living through interpretation : that’s the promise of academic writing, which is a foundational course in most schools because it’s a foundational skill in life. Our world is full of things that need to be questioned, from ancient myths and historical events to current politics and the weird details of everyday life.

Based on his courses in the Writing Program at Harvard University, Jeffrey R. Wilson’s Academic Writing is a no-nonsense guide to the long and complex writing process. Packed with concrete examples, helpful visuals, and practical tips, the book is an essential guide for academic writing at the highest level. Empowering writers to be creators—not just consumers—of knowledge, Wilson shows how to develop perspective, ask questions, build ideas, and craft arguments that reveal new truths that the world needs to hear. Writers learn different strategies for articulating the implications of an argument—why it matters—and putting ideas in conversation with others by finding, reading, and incorporating scholarship. There are models for different ways to organize an essay and tips to make sentences snap with style. Emphasis is placed on developing ideas in constant conversation with others and on strengthening papers through multiple rounds of revision. 

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Academic Writing Examples to Learn From: From Good to Great

When it comes to academic writing, examples are a crucial tool for students to understand the different types of writing they may encounter in their academic careers. Whether it’s a research proposal, dissertation, abstract, or academic article, having access to examples can help students better understand the structure and tone of each type of writing.

In this article, we will provide several academic writing examples, along with an analysis of each type of writing and tips for how to approach each one. By the end of this article, you will have a better understanding of the different types of academic writing and how to effectively communicate your ideas in each context.

The Best of the Best: Academic Writing Examples that Inspire

Understanding Academic Writing

Academic writing is a style of writing that is used in academic settings, such as universities, colleges, and research institutions. The purpose of academic writing is to convey information and ideas clearly and effectively to a specific audience. In this section, we will discuss the characteristics of academic writing and the importance of academic writing.

Characteristics of Academic Writing

Academic writing has specific characteristics that distinguish it from other types of writing. The following are some of the key characteristics of academic writing:

• Formal tone: Academic writing uses a formal tone and language that is objective, precise, and clear. It avoids the use of slang, jargon, and colloquialisms.
• Clear structure: Academic writing follows a clear structure that includes an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Each paragraph should have a clear topic sentence, supporting evidence, and a concluding sentence.
• Evidence-based: Academic writing is based on evidence and research. It uses credible sources to support arguments and ideas.
• Critical thinking: Academic writing requires critical thinking skills. It involves analyzing and evaluating information, and forming opinions based on evidence.
• Proper citation: Academic writing requires proper citation of sources. It uses a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to give credit to the original source of information.

Importance of Academic Writing

Academic writing is important for several reasons. The following are some of the key reasons why academic writing is important:

• Communication: Academic writing is a way to communicate ideas and information to a specific audience. It allows you to share your research and ideas with others in your field.
• Professionalism: Academic writing is a professional way of communicating in academic settings. It shows that you take your work seriously and are committed to your field of study.
• Credibility: Academic writing requires evidence-based arguments and proper citation of sources. This gives your work credibility and shows that you have done your research.
• Career advancement: Academic writing is important for career advancement in academic settings. It is often required for publishing research papers, presenting at conferences, and obtaining funding for research projects.

In conclusion, academic writing is a specific style of writing that is used in academic settings. It has specific characteristics that distinguish it from other types of writing, and it is important for communication, professionalism, credibility, and career advancement in academic settings.

Types of Academic Writing

Essays are a common type of academic writing that you will likely encounter in your studies. They are typically shorter pieces of writing that require you to present an argument or perspective on a particular topic. Essays can be either formal or informal in tone, depending on the assignment requirements.

When writing an essay, you should aim to:

• Present a clear and concise argument
• Use evidence to support your claims
• Follow a logical structure
• Use formal language and avoid slang or colloquialisms

Research Papers

Research papers are more in-depth than essays and require you to conduct extensive research on a particular topic. They typically involve a thesis statement, literature review, methodology, results, and conclusion.

When writing a research paper, you should aim to:

• Conduct thorough research on the topic
• Present a clear and concise thesis statement

Dissertations

Dissertations are lengthy pieces of academic writing that are typically required for a Ph.D. program. They require extensive research and original contributions to the field. Dissertations typically have a strict structure and format that must be followed.

When writing a dissertation, you should aim to:

• Make an original contribution to the field
• Follow a strict structure and format

Reports are a type of academic writing that presents information on a particular topic. They are typically shorter than research papers and may be required for a variety of purposes, such as summarizing findings or presenting recommendations.

When writing a report, you should aim to:

• Present information clearly and concisely
• Use headings and subheadings to organize information

Academic Writing Examples

Essay examples.

Essays are a common form of academic writing, typically used to present an argument or analysis of a topic. Here are some examples of essays:

• Persuasive Essay: Argues for or against a particular viewpoint
• Expository Essay: Provides information on a particular topic
• Narrative Essay: Tells a story or personal experience
• Comparative Essay: Compares and contrasts two or more subjects

Research Paper Examples

Research papers are a more in-depth form of academic writing that requires extensive research and analysis. Here are some examples of research papers:

• Experimental Research Paper: Presents the results of an experiment or study
• Literature Review Paper: Analyzes and summarizes existing research on a particular topic
• Argumentative Research Paper: Presents an argument and supports it with evidence
• Case Study Research Paper: Analyzes a specific case or example in-depth

Dissertation Examples

Dissertations are typically required for advanced degrees and involve extensive research and analysis. Here are some examples of dissertations:

• Empirical Dissertation: Presents original research and data analysis
• Theoretical Dissertation: Analyzes existing theories and proposes new ones
• Case Study Dissertation: Analyzes a specific case or example in-depth
• Narrative Dissertation: Tells a story or personal experience related to the topic

Report Examples

Reports are a common form of academic writing used to present information on a particular topic. Here are some examples of reports:

• Business Report: Analyzes a business problem or opportunity
• Scientific Report: Presents the results of a scientific study or experiment
• Technical Report: Provides information on a technical subject or product
• Progress Report: Updates on the progress of a project or initiative

Academic Writing Style

Language usage.

In academic writing, it is important to use clear and concise language that is free of jargon and unnecessary complexity. You should strive to make your writing as accessible as possible to your intended audience, which may include both experts in your field and non-experts. To achieve this, you should avoid using overly technical terms or obscure references that may be unfamiliar to your readers.

Tense and Voice

Academic writing typically uses the present tense when discussing general facts or concepts, and the past tense when discussing specific research findings or events that have already occurred. Additionally, academic writing often uses the passive voice to emphasize the objectivity of the research being presented. However, you should use the active voice when appropriate, such as when describing your own research methods or findings.

Citations and References

In academic writing, it is essential to properly cite and reference all sources that you use in your research. This not only gives credit to the original authors but also allows readers to verify your claims and build upon your research. You should use a consistent citation style, such as APA or MLA , and ensure that all citations are accurate and complete. Additionally, you should include a bibliography or reference list at the end of your paper that lists all sources cited in your text.

Common Mistakes in Academic Writing

As a student, you are expected to produce high-quality academic writing that is clear, concise, and well-structured. However, there are some common mistakes that students make in their writing that can detract from the quality of their work.

Grammar Errors

One of the most common mistakes in academic writing is grammar errors. These errors can range from simple mistakes in punctuation to more complex issues with sentence structure and verb tense. Here are some of the most common grammar errors to watch out for:

• Subject-verb agreement: Make sure that the subject and verb in your sentences agree in number. For example, “The students is studying” should be corrected to “The students are studying.”
• Run-on sentences: A run-on sentence is a sentence that is too long or contains too many ideas. Make sure to break up long sentences into shorter, more manageable sentences.
• Incorrect use of apostrophes: Apostrophes are used to indicate possession or contractions, not to make words plural. For example, “The student’s paper” indicates possession, while “The students’ papers” indicates multiple students.

Poor Structuring

Another common mistake in academic writing is poor structuring. This can include issues with paragraph structure, transitions between ideas, and overall organization of the paper. Here are some tips to avoid poor structuring:

• Use clear topic sentences: Each paragraph should have a clear topic sentence that introduces the main idea of the paragraph.
• Use transitions: Transitions are words or phrases that connect ideas and help the reader follow your argument. Some common transitions include “however,” “in addition,” and “furthermore.”
• Use headings and subheadings: Headings and subheadings can help organize your paper and make it easier to follow.

Plagiarism is a serious offense in academic writing and can result in severe consequences, including failing the assignment or even being expelled from school. Here are some tips to avoid plagiarism:

• Use proper citation: Make sure to cite any sources you use in your paper, including direct quotes and paraphrased information.
• Use plagiarism checkers: There are many online tools available that can help you check your paper for plagiarism before you submit it.
• Take good notes: When researching, make sure to take detailed notes and keep track of your sources to make it easier to cite them later.

Improving Academic Writing Skills

As a student, it is important to continuously improve your academic writing skills to effectively communicate your ideas and thoughts. Here are some tips on how to improve your academic writing skills.

Reading and Understanding

Reading and understanding the material is essential for academic writing. Before starting to write, make sure you have a clear understanding of the topic and the requirements of the assignment. Take notes while reading and organize them in a way that makes sense to you. This will help you to stay focused and avoid plagiarism.

Drafting and Revising

Drafting and revising are important steps in the writing process. When drafting, focus on getting your ideas down on paper without worrying about grammar or spelling errors. Once you have a draft, revise it by checking for clarity, coherence, and organization. Make sure your ideas flow logically and that your arguments are supported by evidence.

Proofreading and Editing

Proofreading and editing are important for ensuring that your final draft is error-free. When proofreading, check for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. Read your paper out loud to catch awkward phrasing and ensure that your sentences are clear and concise. When editing, focus on improving the overall structure and coherence of your paper.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are some common types of academic writing?

Academic writing encompasses a wide range of genres, including research papers, essays, case studies, lab reports, book reviews, and more. Each of these types of academic writing has its own specific requirements and conventions, so it is important to familiarize yourself with the genre you are working in.

Can you provide some examples of academic writing sentences?

Certainly! Here are a few examples of academic writing sentences:

• “The results of our study suggest that there is a significant correlation between sleep deprivation and academic performance.”
• “In order to test our hypothesis, we conducted a series of experiments using a randomized controlled trial design.”
• “According to Smith et al. (2018), there is a growing body of evidence to suggest that climate change is having a significant impact on global food security.”

What are some short examples of academic writing?

Here are a few short examples of academic writing:

• “The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of social media on adolescent mental health.”
• “The literature review revealed a significant gap in the research on the use of virtual reality in education.”
• “The results of our analysis suggest that there is a positive correlation between exercise and cognitive function in older adults.”

What distinguishes academic writing from non-academic writing?

Academic writing is characterized by its formal tone, use of evidence and research to support arguments, and adherence to specific conventions and guidelines. Non-academic writing, on the other hand, is often more informal in tone and may rely more heavily on personal experience or opinion.

What are some examples of academic writing at the college level?

At the college level, examples of academic writing might include research papers, essays, lab reports, and case studies. These assignments typically require students to engage with complex ideas and arguments, conduct research using academic sources, and present their findings in a clear and organized manner.

Last Updated on August 29, 2023

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• The Scientist University

The Fundamentals of Academic Science Writing

Writing is an essential skill for scientists, and learning how to write effectively starts with good fundamentals and lots of practice..

Nathan Ni holds a PhD from Queens University. He is a science editor for The Scientist’s Creative Services Team who strives to better understand and communicate the relationships between health and disease.

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Writing is a big part of being a scientist, whether in the form of manuscripts, grants, reports, protocols, presentations, or even emails. However, many people look at writing as separate from science—a scientist writes, but scientists are not regarded as writers. 1 This outdated assertion means that writing and communication has been historically marginalized when it comes to training and educating new scientists. In truth, being a professional writer is part of being a scientist . 1 In today’s hypercompetitive academic environment, scientists need to be as proficient with the pen as they are with the pipette in order to showcase their work. 

Using the Active Voice

Stereotypical academic writing is rigid, dry, and mechanical, delivering prose that evokes memories of high school and undergraduate laboratory reports. The hallmark of this stereotype is passive voice overuse. In writing, the passive voice is when the action comes at the end of a clause—for example, “the book was opened”. In scientific writing, it is particularly prevalent when detailing methodologies and results. How many times have we seen something like “citric acid was added to the solution, resulting in a two-fold reduction in pH” rather than “adding citric acid to the solution reduced the pH two-fold”?

Scientists should write in the active voice as much as possible. However, the active voice tends to place much more onus on the writer’s perspective, something that scientists have historically been instructed to stay away from. For example, “we treated the cells with phenylephrine” places much more emphasis on the operator than “the cells were treated with phenylephrine.” Furthermore, pronoun usage in academic writing is traditionally discouraged, but it is much harder, especially for those with non-native English proficiency, to properly use active voice without them. 

Things are changing though, and scientists are recognizing the importance of giving themselves credit. Many major journals, including Nature , Science , PLoS One , and PNAS allow pronouns in their manuscripts, and prominent style guides such as APA even recommend using first-person pronouns, as traditional third-person writing can be ambiguous. 2 It is vital that a manuscript clearly and definitively highlights and states what the authors specifically did that was so important or novel, in contrast to what was already known. A simple “we found…” statement in the abstract and the introduction goes a long way towards giving readers the hook that they need to read further.

Keeping Sentences Simple

Writing in the active voice also makes it easier to organize manuscripts and construct arguments. Active voice uses fewer words than passive voice to explain the same concept. It also introduces argument components sequentially—subject, claim, and then evidence—whereas passive voice introduces claim and evidence before the subject. Compare, for example, “T cell abundance did not differ between wildtype and mutant mice” versus “there was no difference between wildtype and mutant mice in terms of T cell abundance.” T cell abundance, as the measured parameter, is the most important part of the sentence, but it is only introduced at the very end of the latter example.

The sequential nature of active voice therefore makes it easier to not get bogged down in overloading the reader with clauses and adhering to a general principle of “one sentence, one concept (or idea, or argument).” Consider the following sentence: 

Research on CysLT 2 R , expressed in humans in umbilical vein endothelial cells, macrophages, platelets, the cardiac Purkinje system, and coronary endothelial cells , had been hampered by a lack of selective pharmacological agents , the majority of work instead using the nonselective cysLT antagonist/partial agonist Bay-u9773 or genetic models of CysLT 2 R expression modulation) .

The core message of this sentence is that CysLT 2 R research is hampered by a lack of selective pharmacological agents, but that message is muddled by the presence of two other major pieces of information: where CysLT 2 R is expressed and what researchers used to study CysLT 2 R instead of selective pharmacological agents. Because this sentence contains three main pieces of information, it is better to break it up into three separate sentences for clarity.

In humans, CysLT 2 R is expressed in umbilical vein endothelial cells, macrophages, platelets, the cardiac Purkinje system, and coronary endothelial cells . CysLT 2 R research has been hampered by a lack of selective pharmacological agents . Instead, the majority of work investigating the receptor has used either the nonselective cysLT antagonist/partial agonist Bay-u9773 or genetic models of CysLT 2 R expression modulation.

The Right Way to Apply Jargon

There is another key advantage to organizing sentences in this simple manner: it lets scientists manage how jargon is introduced to the reader. Jargon—special words used within a specific field or on a specific topic—is necessary in scientific writing. It is critical for succinctly describing key elements and explaining key concepts. But too much jargon can make a manuscript unreadable, either because the reader does not understand the terminology or because they are bogged down in reading all of the definitions. 

The key to using jargon is to make it as easy as possible for the audience. General guidelines instruct writers to define new terms only when they are first used. However, it is cumbersome for a reader to backtrack considerable distances in a manuscript to look up a definition. If a term is first introduced in the introduction but not mentioned again until the discussion, the writer should re-define the term in a more casual manner. For example: “PI3K can be reversibly inhibited by LY294002 and irreversibly inhibited by wortmannin” in the introduction, accompanied by “when we applied the PI3K inhibitor LY294002” for the discussion. This not only makes things easier for the reader, but it also re-emphasizes what the scientist did and the results they obtained.

Practice Makes Better

Finally, the most important fundamental for science writing is to not treat it like a chore or a nuisance. Just as a scientist optimizes a bench assay through repeated trial and error, combined with literature reviews on what steps others have implemented, a scientist should practice, nurture, and hone their writing skills through repeated drafting, editing, and consultation. Do not be afraid to write. Putting pen to paper can help organize one’s thoughts, expose next steps for exploration, or even highlight additional experiments required to patch knowledge or logic gaps in existing studies. 

Looking for more information on scientific writing? Check out The Scientist’s TS SciComm  section. Looking for some help putting together a manuscript, a figure, a poster, or anything else? The Scientist’s Scientific Services  may have the professional help that you need.

• Schimel J. Writing Science: How to Write Papers That Get Cited And Proposals That Get Funded . Oxford University Press; 2012.
• First-person pronouns. American Psychological Association. Updated July 2022. Accessed March 2024. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/first-person-pronouns  

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• How to write an argumentative essay | Examples & tips

How to Write an Argumentative Essay | Examples & Tips

Published on July 24, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An argumentative essay expresses an extended argument for a particular thesis statement . The author takes a clearly defined stance on their subject and builds up an evidence-based case for it.

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Table of contents

When do you write an argumentative essay, approaches to argumentative essays, introducing your argument, the body: developing your argument, concluding your argument, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about argumentative essays.

You might be assigned an argumentative essay as a writing exercise in high school or in a composition class. The prompt will often ask you to argue for one of two positions, and may include terms like “argue” or “argument.” It will frequently take the form of a question.

The prompt may also be more open-ended in terms of the possible arguments you could make.

Argumentative writing at college level

At university, the vast majority of essays or papers you write will involve some form of argumentation. For example, both rhetorical analysis and literary analysis essays involve making arguments about texts.

In this context, you won’t necessarily be told to write an argumentative essay—but making an evidence-based argument is an essential goal of most academic writing, and this should be your default approach unless you’re told otherwise.

Examples of argumentative essay prompts

At a university level, all the prompts below imply an argumentative essay as the appropriate response.

Your research should lead you to develop a specific position on the topic. The essay then argues for that position and aims to convince the reader by presenting your evidence, evaluation and analysis.

• Don’t just list all the effects you can think of.
• Do develop a focused argument about the overall effect and why it matters, backed up by evidence from sources.
• Don’t just provide a selection of data on the measures’ effectiveness.
• Do build up your own argument about which kinds of measures have been most or least effective, and why.
• Don’t just analyze a random selection of doppelgänger characters.
• Do form an argument about specific texts, comparing and contrasting how they express their thematic concerns through doppelgänger characters.

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An argumentative essay should be objective in its approach; your arguments should rely on logic and evidence, not on exaggeration or appeals to emotion.

There are many possible approaches to argumentative essays, but there are two common models that can help you start outlining your arguments: The Toulmin model and the Rogerian model.

Toulmin arguments

The Toulmin model consists of four steps, which may be repeated as many times as necessary for the argument:

• Make a claim
• Provide the grounds (evidence) for the claim
• Explain the warrant (how the grounds support the claim)
• Discuss possible rebuttals to the claim, identifying the limits of the argument and showing that you have considered alternative perspectives

The Toulmin model is a common approach in academic essays. You don’t have to use these specific terms (grounds, warrants, rebuttals), but establishing a clear connection between your claims and the evidence supporting them is crucial in an argumentative essay.

Say you’re making an argument about the effectiveness of workplace anti-discrimination measures. You might:

• Claim that unconscious bias training does not have the desired results, and resources would be better spent on other approaches
• Cite data to support your claim
• Explain how the data indicates that the method is ineffective
• Anticipate objections to your claim based on other data, indicating whether these objections are valid, and if not, why not.

Rogerian arguments

The Rogerian model also consists of four steps you might repeat throughout your essay:

• Discuss what the opposing position gets right and why people might hold this position
• Highlight the problems with this position
• Present your own position , showing how it addresses these problems
• Suggest a possible compromise —what elements of your position would proponents of the opposing position benefit from adopting?

This model builds up a clear picture of both sides of an argument and seeks a compromise. It is particularly useful when people tend to disagree strongly on the issue discussed, allowing you to approach opposing arguments in good faith.

Say you want to argue that the internet has had a positive impact on education. You might:

• Acknowledge that students rely too much on websites like Wikipedia
• Argue that teachers view Wikipedia as more unreliable than it really is
• Suggest that Wikipedia’s system of citations can actually teach students about referencing
• Suggest critical engagement with Wikipedia as a possible assignment for teachers who are skeptical of its usefulness.

You don’t necessarily have to pick one of these models—you may even use elements of both in different parts of your essay—but it’s worth considering them if you struggle to structure your arguments.

Regardless of which approach you take, your essay should always be structured using an introduction , a body , and a conclusion .

Like other academic essays, an argumentative essay begins with an introduction . The introduction serves to capture the reader’s interest, provide background information, present your thesis statement , and (in longer essays) to summarize the structure of the body.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a typical introduction works.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

The body of an argumentative essay is where you develop your arguments in detail. Here you’ll present evidence, analysis, and reasoning to convince the reader that your thesis statement is true.

In the standard five-paragraph format for short essays, the body takes up three of your five paragraphs. In longer essays, it will be more paragraphs, and might be divided into sections with headings.

Each paragraph covers its own topic, introduced with a topic sentence . Each of these topics must contribute to your overall argument; don’t include irrelevant information.

This example paragraph takes a Rogerian approach: It first acknowledges the merits of the opposing position and then highlights problems with that position.

Hover over different parts of the example to see how a body paragraph is constructed.

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

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An argumentative essay ends with a conclusion that summarizes and reflects on the arguments made in the body.

No new arguments or evidence appear here, but in longer essays you may discuss the strengths and weaknesses of your argument and suggest topics for future research. In all conclusions, you should stress the relevance and importance of your argument.

Hover over the following example to see the typical elements of a conclusion.

The internet has had a major positive impact on the world of education; occasional pitfalls aside, its value is evident in numerous applications. The future of teaching lies in the possibilities the internet opens up for communication, research, and interactivity. As the popularity of distance learning shows, students value the flexibility and accessibility offered by digital education, and educators should fully embrace these advantages. The internet’s dangers, real and imaginary, have been documented exhaustively by skeptics, but the internet is here to stay; it is time to focus seriously on its potential for good.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
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An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

The majority of the essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Unless otherwise specified, you can assume that the goal of any essay you’re asked to write is argumentative: To convince the reader of your position using evidence and reasoning.

In composition classes you might be given assignments that specifically test your ability to write an argumentative essay. Look out for prompts including instructions like “argue,” “assess,” or “discuss” to see if this is the goal.

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Caulfield, J. (2023, July 23). How to Write an Argumentative Essay | Examples & Tips. Scribbr. Retrieved April 2, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-essay/argumentative-essay/

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Academic Writing Seven features of academic writing

Academic writing is arguably the most important skill in academic contexts, since writing is the main method of academic communication. It is also the most difficult skill for most students to master. This page considers what academic writing is , looking in detail at the main features of academic writing , as well as suggesting ways to develop academic writing . There is a checklist at the end for you to check your understanding.

For another look at the same content, check out YouTube or Youku , or the infographic . There is a worksheet (with answers and teacher's notes) for this video.

Academic writing is writing which communicates ideas, information and research to the wider academic community. It can be divided into two types: student academic writing, which is used as a form of assessment at university, as well as at schools as preparation for university study; and expert academic writing, which is writing that is intended for publication in an academic journal or book. Both types of academic writing (student and expert) are expected to adhere to the same standards, which can be difficult for students to master. The characteristics of academic writing which together distinguish it from other forms of writing are that it is:

• structured ;
• evidenced ;
• objective ;

Features of academic writing

Check out the features of academic writing infographic »

Academic writing should have a clear structure. The structure will often derive from the genre of writing . For example, a report will have an introduction (including the aim or aims), a method section, a discussion section and so on, while an essay will have an introduction (including a thesis statement ), clear body paragraphs with topic sentences , and a conclusion. The writing should be coherent , with logical progression throughout, and cohesive , with the different parts of the writing clearly connected. Careful planning before writing is essential to ensure that the final product will be well structured, with a clear focus and logical progression of ideas.

Opinions and arguments in academic writing should be supported by evidence. Often the writing will be based on information from experts in the field, and as such, it will be important to reference the information appropriately, for example via the use of in-text citations and a reference section .

Academic writing does more than just describe. As an academic writer, you should not simply accept everything you read as fact. You need to analyse and evaluate the information you are writing about, in other words make judgements about it, before you decide whether and how to integrate it into your own writing. This is known as critical writing . Critical writing requires a great deal of research in order for the writer to develop a deep enough understanding of the topic to be truly critical about it.

Academic writing should be balanced. This means giving consideration to all sides of the issue and avoiding bias. As noted above, all research, evidence and arguments can be challenged, and it is important for the academic writer to show their stance on a particular topic, in other words how strong their claims are. This can be done using hedges , for example phases such as the evidence suggests... or this could be caused by... , or boosters , that is, phrases such as clearly or the research indicates .

Academic writing should use clear and precise language to ensure the reader understands the meaning. This includes the use of technical (i.e. subject-specific) vocabulary , which should be used when it conveys the meaning more precisely than a similar non-technical term. Sometimes such technical vocabulary may need defining , though only if the term is not commonly used by others in the same discipline and will therefore not be readily understood by the reader.

Academic writing is objective. In other words, the emphasis is placed on the arguments and information, rather than on the writer. As a result, academic writing tends to use nouns and noun phrases more than verbs and adverbs. It also tends to use more passive structures , rather than active voice, for example The water was heated rather than I heated the water .

Finally, academic writing is more formal than everyday writing. It tends to use longer words and more complex sentences , while avoiding contractions and colloquial or informal words or expressions that might be common in spoken English. There are words and collocations which are used in academic writing more frequently than in non-academic writing, and researchers have developed lists of these words and phrases to help students of academic English, such as the Academic Word List , the Academic Vocabulary List , and the Academic Collocation List .

Developing your academic writing

Given the relatively specialist nature of academic writing, it can seem daunting when you first begin. You can develop your academic writing by paying attention to feedback from tutors or peers and seeking specific areas to improve. Another way to develop your academic writing is to read more. By reading academic journals or texts, you can develop a better understanding of the features that make academic writing different from other forms of writing.

Alexander, O., Argent, S. and Spencer, J. (2008) EAP Essentials: A teacher's guide to principles and practice . Reading: Garnet Publishing Ltd.

Cardiff Metropolitan University (n.d.) Academic Writing: Principles and Practice . Available at: https://study.cardiffmet.ac.uk/AcSkills/Documents/Guides/AS_Guide_Academic_Writing.pdf (Access date: 4/2/21).

Gillett, A. (n.d.) Features of academic writing . Available at: http://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/featfram.htm (Access date: 4/2/21).

Staffordshire University (2020) Academic writing . https://libguides.staffs.ac.uk/ld.php?content_id=33103104 (Access date: 4/2/21).

Staffordshire University (2021) Academic writing . https://libguides.staffs.ac.uk/academic_writing/explained (Access date: 4/2/21).

University of Leeds (2021) Academic writing . https://library.leeds.ac.uk/info/14011/writing/106/academic_writing (Access date: 4/2/21).

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Author: Sheldon Smith    ‖    Last modified: 24 July 2022.

Sheldon Smith is the founder and editor of EAPFoundation.com. He has been teaching English for Academic Purposes since 2004. Find out more about him in the about section and connect with him on Twitter , Facebook and LinkedIn .

Compare & contrast essays examine the similarities of two or more objects, and the differences.

Cause & effect essays consider the reasons (or causes) for something, then discuss the results (or effects).

Discussion essays require you to examine both sides of a situation and to conclude by saying which side you favour.

Problem-solution essays are a sub-type of SPSE essays (Situation, Problem, Solution, Evaluation).

Transition signals are useful in achieving good cohesion and coherence in your writing.

Reporting verbs are used to link your in-text citations to the information cited.

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Academic vs Non-Academic Articles

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Academic vs. Non-Academic: What's the Difference?

The majority of your research will require academic and scholarly articles. Many students struggle with trying to determine what an academic source, or article, is.

Academic articles   are written by professionals in a given field. They are edited by the author's peers and often take years to publish. Their language is formal and will contain words and terms typical to the field. The author's name will be present, as will their credentials. There will be a list of references that indicate where the author obtained the information they are using in the article.

Academic articles can be found in periodicals similar to the Journal of Psychology, Childhood Education, or The American Journal of Public Health.

The following link is an example of an academic article.  Experimental educational networking on open research issues; Studying PSS applicability and development in emerging contexts .

This article is considered academic because the language is very formal and genre-specific, there are two authors and their credentials are listed (these are found at the end of the article), and most importantly there is a list of references.

Non-academic articles are written for the mass public. They are published quickly and can be written by anyone. Their language is informal, and casual and may contain slang. The author may not be provided and will not have any credentials listed. There will be no reference list. Non-academic articles can be found in periodicals similar to Time, Newsweek, or Rolling Stone.

As a general rule religious texts and newspapers are not considered academic sources. Do not use Wikipedia as an academic source. This website can be altered by anyone so any information found within its pages cannot be considered credible or academic.

The following link is an example of a non-academic article.  Marketing News's Writers Rules

This article is non-academic because the language is very casual and includes some examples of slang, there is an author, but they chose to write anonymously so there are no credentials provided for the author, and no references were included to show where the author obtained their information.

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