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Inductive Reasoning | Types, Examples, Explanation

Published on January 12, 2022 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Inductive reasoning is a method of drawing conclusions by going from the specific to the general. It’s usually contrasted with deductive reasoning , where you go from general information to specific conclusions.

Inductive reasoning is also called inductive logic or bottom-up reasoning.

Note Inductive reasoning is often confused with deductive reasoning. However, in deductive reasoning, you make inferences by going from general premises to specific conclusions.

Table of contents

What is inductive reasoning, inductive reasoning in research, types of inductive reasoning, inductive generalization, statistical generalization, causal reasoning, sign reasoning, analogical reasoning, inductive vs. deductive reasoning, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about inductive reasoning.

Inductive reasoning is a logical approach to making inferences, or conclusions. People often use inductive reasoning informally in everyday situations.

You may have come across inductive logic examples that come in a set of three statements. These start with one specific observation, add a general pattern, and end with a conclusion.

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In inductive research, you start by making observations or gathering data. Then , you take a broad view of your data and search for patterns. Finally, you make general conclusions that you might incorporate into theories.

You distribute a survey to pet owners. You ask about the type of animal they have and any behavioral changes they’ve noticed in their pets since they started working from home. These data make up your observations.

To analyze your data, you create a procedure to categorize the survey responses so you can pick up on repeated themes. You notice a pattern : most pets became more needy and clingy or agitated and aggressive.

Inductive reasoning is commonly linked to qualitative research , but both quantitative and qualitative research use a mix of different types of reasoning.

There are many different types of inductive reasoning that people use formally or informally, so we’ll cover just a few in this article:

Inductive reasoning generalizations can vary from weak to strong, depending on the number and quality of observations and arguments used.

Inductive generalizations use observations about a sample to come to a conclusion about the population it came from.

Inductive generalizations are also called induction by enumeration.

• The flamingos here are all pink.
• All flamingos I’ve ever seen are pink.
• All flamingos must be pink.

Inductive generalizations are evaluated using several criteria:

• Large sample: Your sample should be large for a solid set of observations.
• Random sampling: Probability sampling methods let you generalize your findings.
• Variety: Your observations should be externally valid .
• Counterevidence: Any observations that refute yours falsify your generalization.

Statistical generalizations use specific numbers to make statements about populations, while non-statistical generalizations aren’t as specific.

These generalizations are a subtype of inductive generalizations, and they’re also called statistical syllogisms.

Here’s an example of a statistical generalization contrasted with a non-statistical generalization.

Causal reasoning means making cause-and-effect links between different things.

A causal reasoning statement often follows a standard setup:

• You start with a premise about a correlation (two events that co-occur).
• You put forward the specific direction of causality or refute any other direction.
• You conclude with a causal statement about the relationship between two things.
• All of my white clothes turn pink when I put a red cloth in the washing machine with them.
• My white clothes don’t turn pink when I wash them on their own.
• Putting colorful clothes with light colors causes the colors to run and stain the light-colored clothes.

Good causal inferences meet a couple of criteria:

• Direction: The direction of causality should be clear and unambiguous based on your observations.
• Strength: There’s ideally a strong relationship between the cause and the effect.

Sign reasoning involves making correlational connections between different things.

Using inductive reasoning, you infer a purely correlational relationship where nothing causes the other thing to occur. Instead, one event may act as a “sign” that another event will occur or is currently occurring.

• Every time Punxsutawney Phil casts a shadow on Groundhog Day, winter lasts six more weeks.
• Punxsutawney Phil doesn’t cause winter to be extended six more weeks.
• His shadow is a sign that we’ll have six more weeks of wintery weather.

It’s best to be careful when making correlational links between variables . Build your argument on strong evidence, and eliminate any confounding variables , or you may be on shaky ground.

Analogical reasoning means drawing conclusions about something based on its similarities to another thing. You first link two things together and then conclude that some attribute of one thing must also hold true for the other thing.

Analogical reasoning can be literal (closely similar) or figurative (abstract), but you’ll have a much stronger case when you use a literal comparison.

Analogical reasoning is also called comparison reasoning.

• Humans and laboratory rats are extremely similar biologically, sharing over 90% of their DNA.
• Lab rats show promising results when treated with a new drug for managing Parkinson’s disease.
• Therefore, humans will also show promising results when treated with the drug.

Inductive reasoning is a bottom-up approach, while deductive reasoning is top-down.

In deductive reasoning, you make inferences by going from general premises to specific conclusions. You start with a theory, and you might develop a hypothesis that you test empirically. You collect data from many observations and use a statistical test to come to a conclusion about your hypothesis.

Inductive research is usually exploratory in nature, because your generalizations help you develop theories. In contrast, deductive research is generally confirmatory.

Sometimes, both inductive and deductive approaches are combined within a single research study.

Inductive reasoning approach

You begin by using qualitative methods to explore the research topic, taking an inductive reasoning approach. You collect observations by interviewing workers on the subject and analyze the data to spot any patterns. Then, you develop a theory to test in a follow-up study.

Deductive reasoning approach

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Inductive reasoning is a method of drawing conclusions by going from the specific to the general. It’s usually contrasted with deductive reasoning, where you proceed from general information to specific conclusions.

In inductive research , you start by making observations or gathering data. Then, you take a broad scan of your data and search for patterns. Finally, you make general conclusions that you might incorporate into theories.

Inductive reasoning takes you from the specific to the general, while in deductive reasoning, you make inferences by going from general premises to specific conclusions.

There are many different types of inductive reasoning that people use formally or informally.

Here are a few common types:

• Inductive generalization : You use observations about a sample to come to a conclusion about the population it came from.
• Statistical generalization: You use specific numbers about samples to make statements about populations.
• Causal reasoning: You make cause-and-effect links between different things.
• Sign reasoning: You make a conclusion about a correlational relationship between different things.
• Analogical reasoning: You make a conclusion about something based on its similarities to something else.

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Inductive essays: tips, examples, and topics, carla johnson.

• June 14, 2023
• Essay Topics and Ideas , How to Guides

Inductive essays are a common type of academic writing. To come to a conclusion, you have to look at the evidence and figure out what it all means. Inductive essays start with a set of observations or evidence and then move toward a conclusion. Deductive essays start with a thesis statement and then give evidence to support it. This type of essay is often used in the social sciences, humanities, and natural sciences.

The goal of an inductive essay is to look at the evidence and draw a conclusion from it. It requires carefully analyzing and interpreting the evidence and being able to draw logical conclusions from it. Instead of starting with a conclusion in mind and trying to prove it, the goal is to use the evidence to build a case for that conclusion.

You can’t say enough about how important it is to look at evidence before coming to a conclusion. In today’s world, where information is easy to find and often contradictory, it is important to be able to sort through the facts to come to a good decision. It is also important to be able to tell when the evidence isn’t complete or doesn’t prove anything, and to be able to admit when there is uncertainty.

In the sections that follow, we’ll talk about some tips for writing good inductive essays, show you some examples of good inductive essays, and give you some ideas for topics for your next inductive essay. By the end of this article, you’ll know more about how to write an inductive essay well.

What You'll Learn

Elements of an Inductive Essay

Most of the time, an inductive essay has three main parts: an intro, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

The introduction should explain what the topic is about and show the evidence that will be looked at in the essay . It should also have a thesis statement that sums up the conclusion that will be drawn from the evidence.

In the body paragraphs, you should show and explain the evidence. Each paragraph should focus on one piece of evidence and explain how it supports the thesis statement . The analysis should make sense and be well-supported, and there should be a clear link between the evidence and the conclusion.

In the conclusion, you should sum up the evidence and the conclusion you came to based on it. It should also put the conclusion in a bigger picture by explaining why it’s important and what it means for the topic at hand.

How to Choose a Topic for an Inductive Essay

It can be hard to choose a topic for an inductive essay, but there are a few things you can do that will help.

First, it’s important to look at the assignment prompt carefully. What’s the question you’re supposed to answer? What evidence do you have to back up your claim? To choose a topic that is both possible and interesting , you need to understand the prompt and the evidence you have.

Next, brainstorming can be a good way to come up with ideas. Try writing down all the ideas that come to mind when you think about the prompt. At this point, it doesn’t matter if the ideas are good or not. The goal is to come up with as many ideas as possible.

Once you have a list of possible topics , it’s important to pick one that you can handle and that you’re interested in. Think about how big the topic is and if you will have enough time to analyze the evidence in enough depth for the assignment . Also, think about your own passions and interests. If you choose a topic that really interests you, you are more likely to write a good essay .

Some potential topics for an inductive essay include:

– The impact of social media on mental health

– The effectiveness of alternative medicine for treating chronic pain

– The causes of income inequality in the United States

– The relationship between climate change and extreme weather events

– The effects of video game violence on children

By following these tips for choosing a topic and understanding the elements of an inductive essay, you can master the art of this type of academic writing and produce compelling and persuasive essays that draw on evidence to arrive at sound conclusions.

Inductive Essay Outline

An outline can help you to organize your thoughts and ensure that your essay is well-structured. An inductive essay outline typically includes the following sections:

– Introduction: The introduction should provide background information on the topic and present the evidence that will be analyzed in the essay . It should also include a thesis statement that summarizes the conclusion that will be drawn from the evidence.

– Body Paragraphs: The body paragraphs should present the evidence and analyze it in depth. Each paragraph should focus on a specific piece of evidence and explain how it supports the thesis statement . The analysis should be logical and well-supported, with clear connections made between the evidence and the conclusion.

– Conclusion: The conclusion should summarize the evidence and the conclusion that was drawn from it. It should also provide a broader context for the conclusion, explaining why it matters and what implications it has for the topic at hand.

Inductive Essay Structure

The structure of an inductive essay is similar to that of other types of academic essays. It typically includes the following elements:

– Thesis statement: The thesis statement should summarize the conclusion that will be drawn from the evidence and provide a clear focus for the essay .

– Introduction: The introduction should provide background information on the topic and present the evidence that will be analyzed in the essay. It should also include a thesis statement that summarizes the conclusion that will be drawn from the evidence.

– Body Paragraphs: The body paragraphs should present the evidence and analyze it in depth. Each paragraph should focus on a specific piece of evidence and explain how it supports the thesis statement. The analysis should be logical and well-supported, with clear connections made between the evidence and the conclusion.

It is important to note that the body paragraphs can be organized in different ways depending on the nature of the evidence and the argument being made. For example, you may choose to organize the paragraphs by theme or chronologically. Regardless of the organization, each paragraph should be focused and well-supported with evidence.

By following this structure, you can ensure that your inductive essay is well-organized and persuasive, drawing on evidence to arrive at a sound conclusion. Remember to carefully analyze the evidence, and to draw logical connections between the evidence and the conclusion. With practice, you can master the art of inductive essays and become a skilled academic writer.

Inductive Essay Examples

Examples of successful inductive essays can provide a helpful model for your own writing. Here are some examples of inductive essay topics:

– Example 1: The Link Between Smoking and Lung Cancer: This essay could look at the studies and statistics that have been done on the link between smoking and lung cancer and come to a conclusion about how strong it is.

– Example 2: The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health: This essay could look at the studies and personal experiences that have been done on the effects of social media on mental health to come to a conclusion about the effects of social media on mental health.

– Example 3: The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture: This essay could look at the studies and expert opinions on the effects of climate change on agriculture to come to a conclusion about how it might affect food production..

– Example 4: The Benefits of a Plant-Based Diet: This essay could look at the available evidence about the benefits of a plant-based diet, using studies and dietary guidelines to come to a conclusion about the health benefits of this type of diet.

– Example 5: The Effects of Parenting Styles on Child Development: This essay could look at the studies and personal experiences that have been done on the effects of parenting styles on child development and come to a conclusion about the best way to raise a child.

Tips for Writing an Effective Inductive Essay

Here are some tips for writing acompelling and effective inductive essay:

1. Presenting evidence in a logical and organized way: It is important to present evidence in a clear and organized way that supports the thesis statement and the conclusion. Use topic sentences and transitions to make the connections between the evidence and the conclusion clear for the reader.

2. Considering alternative viewpoints: When analyzing evidence, it is important to consider alternative viewpoints and opinions. Acknowledge counterarguments and address them in your essay, demonstrating why your conclusion is more compelling.

3. Using strong and credible sources: Use credible sources such as peer-reviewed journal articles , statistics, and expert opinions to support your argument. Avoid relying on unreliable sources or anecdotal evidence.

4. Avoiding fallacies and biases: Be aware of logical fallacies and biases that can undermine the credibility of your argument. Avoid making assumptions or jumping to conclusions without sufficient evidence.

By following these tips, you can write an effective inductive essay that draws on evidence to arrive at a sound conclusion. Remember to carefully analyze the evidence, consider alternative viewpoints, and use credible sources to support your argument. With practice and dedication, you can master the art of inductive essays and become a skilled academic writer.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. what is an inductive essay.

An inductive essay is an academic writing that starts with a set of observations or evidence and then works towards a conclusion. The essay requires careful analysis and interpretation of evidence, and the ability to draw logical conclusions based on that evidence.

2. What are the elements of an inductive essay?

An inductive essay typically consists of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The introduction provides background information and presents the thesis statement. The body paragraphs present the evidence and analyze it in depth. The conclusion summarizes the evidence and the conclusion drawn from it.

3. How do I choose a topic for an inductive essay?

To choose a topic for an inductive essay, carefully analyze the assignment prompt, brainstorm ideas, narrow down the topic, and select a topic that interests you.

4. What is the difference between an inductive essay and a deductive essay?

An inductive essay starts with evidence and works towards a conclusion, while a deductive essay starts with a thesis statement and provides arguments to support it.

5. How do I structure an inductive essay?

An inductive essay typically follows a structure that includes a thesis statement, introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion.

Inductive essays are an important type of academic writing that require careful analysis and interpretation of evidence to come to a conclusion. By using the advice in this article, you can become a good inductive essay writer. Remember to carefully look at the evidence, think about other points of view, use reliable sources, and stay away from logical errors and biases. In conclusion , learning how to write inductive essays is important for developing critical thinking skills and making arguments that are compelling and convincing. You can make a valuable contribution to your field of study and to society as a whole by looking at the facts and coming to logical conclusions. With practice and hard work , you can learn to write good inductive essays that will help you in school and in your career.

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Inductive Essay Examples

Unlike in a deductive essay, inductive texts explore the topic without arguing for the correctness of the hypothesis. Here you will provide evidence first and suggest your reasoning only in the concluding paragraph. In terms of structure, you move from the particular cases to the general principle.

Induction essay examples are exciting to read for the “suspense:” which inference will the author make in the end? The method is helpful in complex research topics when it is almost impossible to produce a hypothesis before the analysis.

For an inductive essay sample, look through the links below. All of these texts fall under this genre of academic writing.

21 Best Inductive Essay Examples

Response to hurricane disasters.

• Subjects: Disasters Environment
• Words: 1450

Scientific Method in Fire Investigations

• Subjects: Criminal Investigation Law

Taxation Law: UK Inheritance Tax

• Subjects: Law Taxation Law
• Words: 4286

Science Meets Real Life: Studying Student Absence

• Subjects: Sciences Scientific Method
• Words: 1645

Personal Financing Planning Analysis

• Subjects: Economics Regulation of Finance

Walking a Guest: Hospitality Industry Fraud

• Subjects: Business & Corporate Law Law
• Words: 1393

Nurse Role in the Healthcare Provision

• Subjects: Health & Medicine Nursing

Psychological Theories and Tests of Motivation

• Subjects: Applications of Psychology Psychology

Critical Thinking in Everyday Life

• Subjects: Everyday Interactions Sociology

Leadership Style Self-Assessment

• Subjects: Curriculum Development Education

What It Means to Be a Californian

• Subjects: Identity Sociology

Discrimination in Admission Policies Criteria

• Subjects: Education Education Issues

Judy’s Hospital: Patient Admission Process Improvement

• Subjects: Health & Medicine Healthcare Institution
• Words: 1386

Affirmative Action: Achieving Race Equality in School Admissions

• Subjects: Government Politics & Government
• Words: 1489

Good Samaritan Interpretation and Application

• Subjects: Religion Religious Writings

Biblical Living Water Explained

• Subjects: Religion Religious Education

Wire Walking’s History and Examples

• Subjects: Athletes Sports
• Words: 1202

Role of Parents in Physical Education and Sport

• Subjects: Education Education Theories
• Words: 1090

Range of Strategies and Success of the Business

• Subjects: Business Strategy
• Words: 1954

Plato: Piety and Holiness in “Euthyphro”

• Subjects: Philosophical Theories Philosophy

The Single Effect in Edgar Allan Poe’s The Cask of Amontillado

• Subjects: American Literature Literature

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2.3: Inductive or Deductive? Two Different Approaches

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Learning Objectives

• Describe the inductive approach to research, and provide examples of inductive research.
• Describe the deductive approach to research, and provide examples of deductive research.
• Describe the ways that inductive and deductive approaches may be complementary.

Theories structure and inform sociological research. So, too, does research structure and inform theory. The reciprocal relationship between theory and research often becomes evident to students new to these topics when they consider the relationships between theory and research in inductive and deductive approaches to research. In both cases, theory is crucial. But the relationship between theory and research differs for each approach. Inductive and deductive approaches to research are quite different, but they can also be complementary. Let’s start by looking at each one and how they differ from one another. Then we’ll move on to thinking about how they complement one another.

Inductive Approaches and Some Examples

In an inductive approach to research, a researcher begins by collecting data that is relevant to his or her topic of interest. Once a substantial amount of data have been collected, the researcher will then take a breather from data collection, stepping back to get a bird’s eye view of her data. At this stage, the researcher looks for patterns in the data, working to develop a theory that could explain those patterns. Thus when researchers take an inductive approach, they start with a set of observations and then they move from those particular experiences to a more general set of propositions about those experiences. In other words, they move from data to theory, or from the specific to the general. Figure 2.5 outlines the steps involved with an inductive approach to research.

Figure 2.5 Inductive Research

There are many good examples of inductive research, but we’ll look at just a few here. One fascinating recent study in which the researchers took an inductive approach was Katherine Allen, Christine Kaestle, and Abbie Goldberg’s study (2011)Allen, K. R., Kaestle, C. E., & Goldberg, A. E. (2011). More than just a punctuation mark: How boys and young men learn about menstruation. Journal of Family Issues, 32 , 129–156. of how boys and young men learn about menstruation. To understand this process, Allen and her colleagues analyzed the written narratives of 23 young men in which the men described how they learned about menstruation, what they thought of it when they first learned about it, and what they think of it now. By looking for patterns across all 23 men’s narratives, the researchers were able to develop a general theory of how boys and young men learn about this aspect of girls’ and women’s biology. They conclude that sisters play an important role in boys’ early understanding of menstruation, that menstruation makes boys feel somewhat separated from girls, and that as they enter young adulthood and form romantic relationships, young men develop more mature attitudes about menstruation.

In another inductive study, Kristin Ferguson and colleagues (Ferguson, Kim, & McCoy, 2011)Ferguson, K. M., Kim, M. A., & McCoy, S. (2011). Enhancing empowerment and leadership among homeless youth in agency and community settings: A grounded theory approach. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 28 , 1–22. analyzed empirical data to better understand how best to meet the needs of young people who are homeless. The authors analyzed data from focus groups with 20 young people at a homeless shelter. From these data they developed a set of recommendations for those interested in applied interventions that serve homeless youth. The researchers also developed hypotheses for people who might wish to conduct further investigation of the topic. Though Ferguson and her colleagues did not test the hypotheses that they developed from their analysis, their study ends where most deductive investigations begin: with a set of testable hypotheses.

Deductive Approaches and Some Examples

Researchers taking a deductive approach take the steps described earlier for inductive research and reverse their order. They start with a social theory that they find compelling and then test its implications with data. That is, they move from a more general level to a more specific one. A deductive approach to research is the one that people typically associate with scientific investigation. The researcher studies what others have done, reads existing theories of whatever phenomenon he or she is studying, and then tests hypotheses that emerge from those theories. Figure 2.6 outlines the steps involved with a deductive approach to research.

Figure 2.6 Deductive Research

While not all researchers follow a deductive approach, as you have seen in the preceding discussion, many do, and there are a number of excellent recent examples of deductive research. We’ll take a look at a couple of those next.

In a study of US law enforcement responses to hate crimes, Ryan King and colleagues (King, Messner, & Baller, 2009)King, R. D., Messner, S. F., & Baller, R. D. (2009). Contemporary hate crimes, law enforcement, and the legacy of racial violence. American Sociological Review, 74 , 291–315.hypothesized that law enforcement’s response would be less vigorous in areas of the country that had a stronger history of racial violence. The authors developed their hypothesis from their reading of prior research and theories on the topic. Next, they tested the hypothesis by analyzing data on states’ lynching histories and hate crime responses. Overall, the authors found support for their hypothesis.

In another recent deductive study, Melissa Milkie and Catharine Warner (2011)Milkie, M. A., & Warner, C. H. (2011). Classroom learning environments and the mental health of first grade children. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 52 , 4–22. studied the effects of different classroom environments on first graders’ mental health. Based on prior research and theory, Milkie and Warner hypothesized that negative classroom features, such as a lack of basic supplies and even heat, would be associated with emotional and behavioral problems in children. The researchers found support for their hypothesis, demonstrating that policymakers should probably be paying more attention to the mental health outcomes of children’s school experiences, just as they track academic outcomes (American Sociological Association, 2011).The American Sociological Association wrote a press release on Milkie and Warner’s findings: American Sociological Association. (2011). Study: Negative classroom environment adversely affects children’s mental health. Retrieved from asanet.org/press/Negative_Cla...tal_Health.cfm

Complementary Approaches?

While inductive and deductive approaches to research seem quite different, they can actually be rather complementary. In some cases, researchers will plan for their research to include multiple components, one inductive and the other deductive. In other cases, a researcher might begin a study with the plan to only conduct either inductive or deductive research, but then he or she discovers along the way that the other approach is needed to help illuminate findings. Here is an example of each such case.

In the case of my collaborative research on sexual harassment, we began the study knowing that we would like to take both a deductive and an inductive approach in our work. We therefore administered a quantitative survey, the responses to which we could analyze in order to test hypotheses, and also conducted qualitative interviews with a number of the survey participants. The survey data were well suited to a deductive approach; we could analyze those data to test hypotheses that were generated based on theories of harassment. The interview data were well suited to an inductive approach; we looked for patterns across the interviews and then tried to make sense of those patterns by theorizing about them.

For one paper (Uggen & Blackstone, 2004),Uggen, C., & Blackstone, A. (2004). Sexual harassment as a gendered expression of power. American Sociological Review, 69 , 64–92. we began with a prominent feminist theory of the sexual harassment of adult women and developed a set of hypotheses outlining how we expected the theory to apply in the case of younger women’s and men’s harassment experiences. We then tested our hypotheses by analyzing the survey data. In general, we found support for the theory that posited that the current gender system, in which heteronormative men wield the most power in the workplace, explained workplace sexual harassment—not just of adult women but of younger women and men as well. In a more recent paper (Blackstone, Houle, & Uggen, 2006),Blackstone, A., Houle, J., & Uggen, C. “At the time I thought it was great”: Age, experience, and workers’ perceptions of sexual harassment. Presented at the 2006 meetings of the American Sociological Association. Currently under review. we did not hypothesize about what we might find but instead inductively analyzed the interview data, looking for patterns that might tell us something about how or whether workers’ perceptions of harassment change as they age and gain workplace experience. From this analysis, we determined that workers’ perceptions of harassment did indeed shift as they gained experience and that their later definitions of harassment were more stringent than those they held during adolescence. Overall, our desire to understand young workers’ harassment experiences fully—in terms of their objective workplace experiences, their perceptions of those experiences, and their stories of their experiences—led us to adopt both deductive and inductive approaches in the work.

Researchers may not always set out to employ both approaches in their work but sometimes find that their use of one approach leads them to the other. One such example is described eloquently in Russell Schutt’s Investigating the Social World (2006).Schutt, R. K. (2006). Investigating the social world: The process and practice of research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. As Schutt describes, researchers Lawrence Sherman and Richard Berk (1984)Sherman, L. W., & Berk, R. A. (1984). The specific deterrent effects of arrest for domestic assault. American Sociological Review, 49 , 261–272. conducted an experiment to test two competing theories of the effects of punishment on deterring deviance (in this case, domestic violence). Specifically, Sherman and Berk hypothesized that deterrence theory would provide a better explanation of the effects of arresting accused batterers than labeling theory . Deterrence theory predicts that arresting an accused spouse batterer will reduce future incidents of violence. Conversely, labeling theory predicts that arresting accused spouse batterers will increase future incidents. Figure 2.7 summarizes the two competing theories and the predictions that Sherman and Berk set out to test.

Figure 2.7 Predicting the Effects of Arrest on Future Spouse Battery

Sherman and Berk found, after conducting an experiment with the help of local police in one city, that arrest did in fact deter future incidents of violence, thus supporting their hypothesis that deterrence theory would better predict the effect of arrest. After conducting this research, they and other researchers went on to conduct similar experimentsThe researchers did what’s called replication. We’ll learn more about replication in Chapter 3. in six additional cities (Berk, Campbell, Klap, & Western, 1992; Pate & Hamilton, 1992; Sherman & Smith, 1992).Berk, R., Campbell, A., Klap, R., & Western, B. (1992). The deterrent effect of arrest in incidents of domestic violence: A Bayesian analysis of four field experiments. American Sociological Review, 57 , 698–708; Pate, A., & Hamilton, E. (1992). Formal and informal deterrents to domestic violence: The Dade county spouse assault experiment. American Sociological Review, 57 , 691–697; Sherman, L., & Smith, D. (1992). Crime, punishment, and stake in conformity: Legal and informal control of domestic violence. American Sociological Review, 57 , 680–690. Results from these follow-up studies were mixed. In some cases, arrest deterred future incidents of violence. In other cases, it did not. This left the researchers with new data that they needed to explain. The researchers therefore took an inductive approach in an effort to make sense of their latest empirical observations. The new studies revealed that arrest seemed to have a deterrent effect for those who were married and employed but that it led to increased offenses for those who were unmarried and unemployed. Researchers thus turned to control theory, which predicts that having some stake in conformity through the social ties provided by marriage and employment, as the better explanation.

Figure 2.8 Predicting the Effects of Arrest on Future Spouse Battery: A New Theory

What the Sherman and Berk research, along with the follow-up studies, shows us is that we might start with a deductive approach to research, but then, if confronted by new data that we must make sense of, we may move to an inductive approach. Russell Schutt depicts this process quite nicely in his text, and I’ve adapted his depiction here, in Figure 2.9.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• The inductive approach involves beginning with a set of empirical observations, seeking patterns in those observations, and then theorizing about those patterns.
• The deductive approach involves beginning with a theory, developing hypotheses from that theory, and then collecting and analyzing data to test those hypotheses.
• Inductive and deductive approaches to research can be employed together for a more complete understanding of the topic that a researcher is studying.
• Though researchers don’t always set out to use both inductive and deductive strategies in their work, they sometimes find that new questions arise in the course of an investigation that can best be answered by employing both approaches.

Monty Python and Holy Grail :

(click to see video)

Do the townspeople take an inductive or deductive approach to determine whether the woman in question is a witch? What are some of the different sources of knowledge (recall Chapter 1) they rely on?

• Think about how you could approach a study of the relationship between gender and driving over the speed limit. How could you learn about this relationship using an inductive approach? What would a study of the same relationship look like if examined using a deductive approach? Try the same thing with any topic of your choice. How might you study the topic inductively? Deductively?

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Inductive vs Deductive Reasoning | Difference & Examples

Published on 4 May 2022 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on 10 October 2022.

The main difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is that inductive reasoning aims at developing a theory while deductive reasoning aims at testing an existing theory .

Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broad generalisations , and deductive reasoning the other way around.

Both approaches are used in various types of research , and it’s not uncommon to combine them in one large study.

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Inductive research approach, deductive research approach, combining inductive and deductive research, frequently asked questions about inductive vs deductive reasoning.

When there is little to no existing literature on a topic, it is common to perform inductive research because there is no theory to test. The inductive approach consists of three stages:

• A low-cost airline flight is delayed
• Dogs A and B have fleas
• Elephants depend on water to exist
• Another 20 flights from low-cost airlines are delayed
• All observed dogs have fleas
• All observed animals depend on water to exist
• Low-cost airlines always have delays
• All dogs have fleas
• All biological life depends on water to exist

Limitations of an inductive approach

A conclusion drawn on the basis of an inductive method can never be proven, but it can be invalidated.

Example You observe 1,000 flights from low-cost airlines. All of them experience a delay, which is in line with your theory. However, you can never prove that flight 1,001 will also be delayed. Still, the larger your dataset, the more reliable the conclusion.

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When conducting deductive research , you always start with a theory (the result of inductive research). Reasoning deductively means testing these theories. If there is no theory yet, you cannot conduct deductive research.

The deductive research approach consists of four stages:

• If passengers fly with a low-cost airline, then they will always experience delays
• All pet dogs in my apartment building have fleas
• All land mammals depend on water to exist
• Collect flight data of low-cost airlines
• Test all dogs in the building for fleas
• Study all land mammal species to see if they depend on water
• 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed
• 10 out of 20 dogs didn’t have fleas
• All land mammal species depend on water
• 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed = reject hypothesis
• 10 out of 20 dogs didn’t have fleas = reject hypothesis
• All land mammal species depend on water = support hypothesis

Limitations of a deductive approach

The conclusions of deductive reasoning can only be true if all the premises set in the inductive study are true and the terms are clear.

• All dogs have fleas (premise)
• Benno is a dog (premise)
• Benno has fleas (conclusion)

Many scientists conducting a larger research project begin with an inductive study (developing a theory). The inductive study is followed up with deductive research to confirm or invalidate the conclusion.

In the examples above, the conclusion (theory) of the inductive study is also used as a starting point for the deductive study.

Inductive reasoning is a bottom-up approach, while deductive reasoning is top-down.

Inductive reasoning takes you from the specific to the general, while in deductive reasoning, you make inferences by going from general premises to specific conclusions.

Inductive reasoning is a method of drawing conclusions by going from the specific to the general. It’s usually contrasted with deductive reasoning, where you proceed from general information to specific conclusions.

Inductive reasoning is also called inductive logic or bottom-up reasoning.

Deductive reasoning is a logical approach where you progress from general ideas to specific conclusions. It’s often contrasted with inductive reasoning , where you start with specific observations and form general conclusions.

Deductive reasoning is also called deductive logic.

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