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Home / Online Bachelor’s Degree Programs / Accredited Online Criminal Justice & Criminology Degree / Bachelor of Arts in Criminal Justice Resources / What Is Criminology? The Study of Crime and Criminal Minds

What is criminology? The study of crime and the criminal mind What is criminology? The study of crime and the criminal mind What is criminology? The study of crime and the criminal mind

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Tables of Contents

• Criminology Definition and History
• Criminology Theories
• Criminology vs. Criminal Justice

Careers in Criminology: Salary and Job Outlook

• Crime Statistics and Key Insights

In a time when the U.S. criminal justice system is under a microscope, criminologists are playing a key role in establishing a more equitable, science-based understanding of crime, policy, and social justice. Applying their theoretical knowledge and practical experience, professionals in this field support and strengthen the work of law enforcement agencies and legal professionals.

But what is criminology, really? This article will explore the many components of this rapidly evolving discipline and offer insights on how to pursue a variety of criminology careers.

Criminology definition and history

Criminology is the study of crime and criminal behavior, informed by principles of sociology and other non-legal fields, including psychology, economics, statistics, and anthropology.

Criminologists examine a variety of related areas , including:

• Characteristics of people who commit crimes
• Reasons why people commit crimes
• Effects of crime on individuals and communities
• Methods for preventing crime

Origins of criminology

The  roots of criminology  trace back to a movement to reform criminal justice and penal systems more than 200 years ago. The first collection and use of crime statistics in the 19th century then laid the groundwork for generations of increasingly sophisticated tools and methods, leading to our modern use of descriptive statistics, case studies, typologies, and predictive analytics.

18th-century origins of criminal theory

Cesare Beccaria’s “On Crime and Punishments,” published in 1764, called for  fitting the punishment to the severity of the crimes , as explained by the National Criminal Justice Reference Service.

• Punishments for crimes should be “public, prompt, necessary, the minimum possible under the given circumstances, and established by law.”
• Punishments are intended to deter the offender from further criminal activity.
• Severity is based on the level of harm caused by the offense rather than the intent of the offender.

The legal reference website JRank highlights the work of Beccaria and Jeremy Benthem: The motivation for people’s choices is to seek pleasure or avoid pain.  Punishment for a crime  should deter potential choices to break the law by ensuring that the pain of potential punishment is greater than the pleasure derived from committing the crime. This idea spurred the first efforts in the U.S. and Europe to codify and standardize the law.

Mid-20th century development of modern criminology

The mid-20th century development of  “modern” criminology  involved seeking to understand crime’s causes by studying sociological, psychological, and economic conditions. The American Law Institute’s work on the  Model Penal Code  was a 10-year effort completed in 1962. The code established new standards of criminal liability that considered the mental elements of crime.

The code served as a model for penal code revisions in several states. It was also instrumental in charting the federal penal code for the first time. The code inspired other efforts to reform criminal law through criminology research application.

“New Criminology” and the impact of social upheaval on crime

In the 20th century, new approaches to criminology focused on the causes of crime, such as  conflicts between social and economic classes leading to social upheaval , as JRank explains. Social-process criminology emphasizes criminal behavior as something people learn through interaction with others, usually in small groups.

In contrast, control theory focuses on training people to behave appropriately by encouraging law-abiding behavior. Control theory’s basis is the belief that personal bonds give rise to our internal controls, such as conscience and guilt, and our external controls, such as shame, that deter us from breaking the law.

A multidisciplinary approach to criminology

In their research, criminologists consider many perspectives on crime’s causes and effects. This  multidisciplinary approach of criminologists  accepts there is no single answer to why people commit crimes. JRank notes attempts to control bad behavior date back to the earliest civilizations. Today, factors may be biological, psychological, economic, or social. Criminals are motivated by greed, anger, jealousy, pride, and other emotions. They seek material gain; they want control, revenge, or power.

Potential causes of or motivations for criminal activity include:

• Parental relations
• Hereditary and brain activity
• Peer influence
• Drugs and alcohol
• Easy opportunity

Criminology and the legal perspective

Criminologists study crime as an illegal action society punishes through the government’s legal system. Researchers focus on the causes, prevention, and correction of crime generally. By contrast, the legal industry’s perspective of crime emphasizes specific crimes and punishments governed by statutes and regulations, as well as established legal processes.

The legal definition of a crime is  an offense against public law , as UpCounsel explains. To qualify as a crime, the offense must be punishable, whether by fine, loss of freedom, or other method.  Criminologists have broadened the definition of crime  to include conduct that doesn’t violate existing law, as JRank reports. This includes economic exploitation, racial discrimination, and unsafe or unhealthy work environments.

Criminology resources

• The Internet Journal of Criminology  — Links to government organizations, national and international organizations, academic institutions, and other criminology resources
• Critical Criminology  — A compilation of resources that examine law, crime, and justice from the perspective of people of color, women, restorative efforts, and community justice
• S. Department of Justice, National Criminal Intelligence Resource Center  — Links to criminal justice professional associations and groups that assist law enforcement in establishing policies, standards, training, and education

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Criminology Theories: Classical, Positivist, and Chicago School

Research into criminology theories is primarily sociological or psychological.  Sociological theories of criminology  perceive crime as a normal human response to social conditions that are “abnormal and criminogenic,” according to JRank.

Psychological theories of criminology  date back to Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. Crime results from a failure to form healthy and loving attachments to parents. Behavioral psychology introduced the concept of rewards and punishments: A rewarded crime is repeated; a punished crime is not.

Three principal approaches to criminology

Today, three criminology theories predominate: the Classical, Positivist, and Chicago schools.

• The Classical School argues that people freely choose to engage in crime.  Bentham’s utilitarianism theory  states they are driven either by a desire for pleasure or by aversion to pain, as the Oxford University Press states.
• The Positivist School applies scientific theory to criminology. It focuses on factors that compel people to commit crimes.
• The Chicago School states that crime results from “ social disorganization ,” which is defined in the Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice as “the inability of a community to realize common values and maintain effective social controls.”

Criminology’s impact on reducing and preventing crimes

Two statistical programs run by the DOJ demonstrate the  impact that criminological studies have had on responding to, reducing, and preventing crimes .

• The Uniform Crime Reporting program (UCR) collects information from law enforcement agencies across the country on dozens of crimes. It is intended to assist researchers in studying crime among neighboring jurisdictions and those with similar populations or other characteristics.
• The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) analyzes crime incidents, victims, and trends. It collects data on reported and unreported crimes and provides researchers with demographic data on perpetrators and victims.

Research conducted by the Minnesota House Research Department  studied the effectiveness of the theory of criminal deterrence , which dates back to the 18th century. It reached three conclusions:

• Deterrence is most effective for preplanned crimes.
• Making already-long prison sentences even longer does little to deter crime.
• Increasing the likelihood of getting caught is a more effective crime deterrent than increasing punishment.

Criminology and society’s treatment of criminals and victims

Little attention was paid to the needs of crime victims until the 1970s, when the DOJ’s National Institute of Justice (NIJ) determined that a  primary reason for unsuccessful prosecutions  was the poor treatment of witnesses and victims by the criminal justice system. Since that time, legislation and law enforcement programs, including the Violence Against Women Act of 1990, have worked to protect and assist victims and witnesses.

Similarly, criminology research has affected how criminals are treated in custody. The American Bar Association (ABA) has developed  Standards on Treatment of Prisoners  that describe correctional policies and professional standards that comply with constitutional and statutory law.

Criminology has also highlighted the real cost of crimes on individuals, families, and communities. The 2017 report  “Costs of Crime”  from the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) found that new study methods will improve the accuracy of crime cost estimates, particularly in the area of compensating victims for their pain and suffering.

Criminology theory resources

• “Predicting Pathways into Criminal Behavior: The Intersection of Race, Gender, Poverty, Psychological Factors”  investigates the factors involved in women’s involvement in criminal activity, including economic disadvantage related to education and employment.
• The National Institute of Justice discusses mapping in law enforcement in this paper:  “From Crime Mapping to Crime Forecasting: The Evolution of Place-Based Policing” .

Criminology vs. criminal justice: what’s the difference?

The  primary distinction when it comes to criminology vs criminal justice  is the former’s emphasis on the study of crime and the latter’s focus on society’s response to crime, as the Balance Careers explains. Criminal justice applies principles and concepts developed by criminologists to enforcing laws and investigating crimes, as well as to the trial, punishment, and rehabilitation of criminals.

Criminal justice definition

The Legal Dictionary  defines criminal justice  as a set of procedures:

• Investigating criminal conduct
• Gathering evidence of the crime
• Making arrests
• Bringing charges in court
• Raising defenses
• Conducting trials
• Rendering sentences
• Carrying out punishments

By contrast, its definition of criminology emphasizes the scientific and academic aspects of the field’s study of crime, criminal behavior, and law enforcement. Criminal justice includes the work of:

• Criminal courts
• Prisons and other correctional institutions
• Juvenile justice systems

Criminal justice and effective law enforcement

In the 20th century, the  field of criminal justice arose  as an effort to improve the effectiveness of law enforcement in light of expanding due process and other rights for criminal defendants, as Encyclopedia Britannica explains. The study of criminal justice expanded in the 1980s and 1990s in the form of qualitative descriptive analyses of the operations of specific criminal justice agencies.

More recent research in criminal justice emphasizes quantitative studies about the effectiveness of particular crime-fighting strategies and approaches. Researchers have studied whether an abusive spouse’s arrest prevents future incidents of abuse, and whether prison rehabilitation programs are effective in reducing recidivism.

One area of criminal justice research proven to be ineffective is the effort to predict which offenders are most likely to commit other crimes. Not only were models unable to identify habitual offenders, but researchers were questioned about whether such efforts violated people’s constitutional rights. The fear is that offenders may be punished not for what they had done but for what they might do in the future.

Such issues are at the forefront of modern discussions about the relationships between civil rights and law enforcement. With numerous  studies indicating a need to address systemic racism  in many corners of the justice system, future criminologists will play an important part in creating a more equitable framework for crime prevention.

Criminology and criminal justice work together to fight crime

Criminal justice and criminology are distinct fields, but they’re closely linked, theoretically and practically. From the viewpoint of potential criminologists and law enforcement professionals, the big difference is criminology’s focus on science and research, and criminal justice’s emphasis on application and administration.

For example, criminologists respond to a rise in homicides by studying underlying economic, sociological, and psychological conditions. By contrast, criminal justice officials respond by working to prevent future homicides and capture the perpetrators.

The two fields merge in  applied criminology , which studies “real-world” problems relating to crime and criminal justice. It applies criminology concepts to actual criminal justice policy and practice. The goal is to make criminology relevant in addressing crime, victimization, and the relationship between “governmental agendas and knowledge production.”

Criminologists promote crime-fighting efforts via tools such as the  New York Police Department’s CompStat system , which is now used by police departments across the country to  combine crime analysis and geographic information system technologies . Their work suggests innovative ways to improve law enforcement and instill trust in the criminal justice system.

Criminology vs. Criminal Justice: Additional Resources

• Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics
• International Journal Of Criminal Justice Sciences, List of World Agencies/Organizations in Criminal Justice/Criminology
• The Balance Careers, “The Difference Between Careers in Criminology and Criminal Justice”

Typical  employers of criminologists  include law enforcement and other government agencies, university research labs, and other research institutions, as PayScale.com explains. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)  defines criminologists  or penologists as sociologists who specialize in the study of crime. They investigate the social influences of crime on individuals, groups, and organizations.

Career options for criminologists

The Balance Careers  distinguishes criminology positions  as being more academic than those in criminal justice, although there is a great degree of overlap between the two fields. For example, people typically earn a bachelor’s degree in criminology followed by a master’s degree in criminal justice, or vice versa.

Among the daily tasks of criminologists are collecting and examining evidence, visiting crime scenes, attending autopsies, and exploring the psychological aspects of a crime from investigation through conviction and rehabilitation. These tasks require the ability to organize data and evidence, conduct statistical analysis, and write reports.

The range of  positions available to criminologists  include jobs with federal, state, and local law enforcement, as well as public and private research organizations, think tanks, legislative bodies, and public policy bodies, as the Balance Careers reports. Criminologists strive to improve police operations via innovative programs, such as community-oriented policing and predictive policing.

Criminology Positions: Salaries and Employment Outlook

The BLS forecasts that the number of jobs for all sociologists, the category that includes criminologists, will increase by 9% between 2018 and 2028, which is faster than the average growth projected for all occupations. PayScale.com reports that the median annual criminology salary is around $44,000.

These are among the career options available to criminologists.

Forensic Science Technician

Forensic science technicians  assist in criminal investigations . They collect and analyze evidence, including fingerprints, weapons, and body fluids. They photograph and sketch crime scenes, and they catalog and preserve evidence before it is transferred to crime labs. They also work in labs, investigate possible suspects, and consult with experts in forensic medicine.

The BLS reports that the median annual salary of forensic science technicians as of May 2019 was $59,150. The number of jobs is forecast to increase by 14% between 2018 and 2028, which is much faster than the average projected for all occupations.

Probation and Community Control Officer

According to BLS figures, the  median annual salary for probation officers and correctional treatment specialists  was $54,290 as of May 2019. The number of jobs for the position is forecast to increase by 3% between 2018 and 2028, which is lower than the average projected for all occupations.

Probation and community control officers help former offenders transition to productive lives after incarceration. The Balance Careers lists the  duties of probation and community control officers .

• Supervise probationers and parolees, including visiting their homes and meeting with their families
• Collaborate with church groups and community organizations
• Monitor probationers and parolees electronically
• Perform pretrial investigations, submit sentencing recommendations, and testify in court
• Prepare status reports on probationers and parolees, and assist them in job training and job searches

Police Officer

The median annual salary for police officers and detectives as of May 2019 was $65,170, according to the BLS. Jobs for police officers and detectives are expected to increase by 5% between 2018 and 2028, which is equal to the average projected for all occupations.

Police officers are tasked with protecting the lives and property of community residents. The BLS explains the  duties of police officers :

• Respond to emergency and nonemergency situations
• Patrol specific areas
• Issue citations and conduct traffic stops
• Use computers in the field to search for warrants and vehicle registrations
• Conduct investigations at crime scenes
• Collect and secure evidence
• Prepare cases and testify in court

Corrections Officer

The median annual salary of corrections officers as of May 2019 was $47,830, according to BLS figures. The number of positions for corrections officers is forecast to decline by 7% between 2018 and 2028 as a result of expected reductions in prison populations.

Corrections officers oversee people who have been arrested and are awaiting a hearing or trial, as well as people who have been convicted and sentenced to serve time in jail or prison. The BLS notes the  duties of corrections officers :

• Maintain order in jails and prisons by enforcing rules
• Inspect facilities to ensure they meet safety and security standards
• Supervise inmate activities and search them for contraband
• Escort and transport inmates, and report on inmate conduct

Loss Prevention Manager

PayScale.com reports the median annual salary for loss prevention managers is around $52,000. The most common tasks of loss prevention managers are security risk management, safety compliance, inventory control, theft prevention, and security policies and procedures.

A loss prevention manager’s primary responsibility is to  prevent business losses due to internal or external theft, fraud, accidents, mishandling, or other causes , as PayScale.com explains. Other  duties of loss prevention managers  appear on O*Net Online:

• Investigate employee theft and other violations of the company’s loss-prevention policies
• Develop and implement programs to manage inventory, promote safety, and minimize losses
• Ensure that prevention exception reports and cash discrepancies follow corporate guidelines
• Train staff and managers on loss prevention strategies and techniques
• Interview people suspected of shoplifting and other forms of theft

Detective/Criminal Investigator

Also referred to as detectives, criminal investigators are  police officers who gather facts and collect evidence in criminal cases . The BLS notes that criminal investigators often specialize in a single category of crime, such as fraud or homicide. These are the primary duties of criminal investigators:

• Conduct interviews with crime victims, witnesses, suspects, and relevant experts
• Examine police and other records
• Monitor the activities of suspects and participate in raids and arrests
• Write reports, prepare cases for trial, and testify during court proceedings

The median annual salary for detectives and criminal investigators as of May 2019 was $83,170, according to BLS figures. The number of jobs for police officers and detectives is forecast to increase by 5% between 2018 and 2028, which is equal to the average for all occupations.

Fish and Game Warden

The BLS reports that the median annual salary for fish and game wardens as of May 2019 was $57,500. The number of jobs for fish and game wardens is expected to increase by 2% between 2018 and 2028, which is below the average projected for all occupations.

Fish and game wardens are  responsible for enforcing laws related to hunting, fishing, and boating , as the BLS describes. These are among their primary duties:

• Conduct interviews with complainants, witnesses, and suspects
• Patrol fishing and hunting areas
• Participate in search and rescue efforts
• Monitor people suspected of violating regulations relating to fishing and hunting
• Educate the public about laws governing outdoor activities

Private Investigator

The median annual salary for private detectives and investigators as of May 2019 was $50,510, according to BLS figures. The number of jobs for private investigators is forecast to grow by 8% between 2018 and 2028, which is faster than the average growth projected for all occupations.

The work done by private investigators for businesses and individuals mirrors that done by criminal investigators for public law enforcement agencies. These professionals examine records and conduct other research relating to legal, financial, and personal matters. The BLS lists the  duties of private detectives and investigators :

• Conduct criminal and other background checks and verify statements made by individuals
• Interview suspects, witnesses, and experts and perform other research into missing persons
• Search for evidence in online, public, and court records
• Perform surveillance and collect other evidence for clients

Insurance Fraud Investigator

The BLS reports that the median annual salary for claims adjusters, examiners, and investigators was $66,790 as of May 2019. The agency expects the number of jobs for the category to decline by 4% between 2018 and 2028 due to automation of claims processing.

The position of insurance fraud investigator is included in the broad category of claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators who evaluate insurance claims. These are among the  principle duties of insurance fraud investigators , as listed by the BLS:

• Examine and research insurance claims to confirm that they are legitimate
• Conduct interviews with claimants’ doctors, employers, and others to review suspicious claims
• Work with attorneys and other legal professionals to verify information related to claims
• Perform surveillance to identify fraudulent claims resulting from staged accidents, arson, unnecessary medical treatments, and other criminal activity

Crime statistics and key insights

An important role played by criminologists is compiling and reporting on crime statistics.  The New Yorker  highlights both the importance of crime statistics in formulating crime-prevention strategies and enforcement policies and the  difficulty criminologists encounter in accurately measuring crime .

The article describes the challenge in determining whether cannabis use increases or reduces crime levels. Various analyses of crime rate trends in states where cannabis has been legalized have come to conflicting conclusions, pointing to the complexity of arriving at a definitive answer about what contributes to criminal activity. Criminologists use a variety of sources and techniques to try to provide statistics that can accurately portray crime trends and inform criminal policies.

How criminologists support law enforcement

Two of the DOJ’s most effective statistical analysis tools for assisting local crime-fighting efforts are the FBI’s UCR system and Bureau of Justice Statistics’ NCVS, both of which are described above. The systems share a shortcoming: Local jurisdictions disagree on what constitutes a crime. Some jurisdictions only report offenses that involve incarceration, while others include fined infractions.

Criminologists have developed a range of statistics-based tools that support federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies.

• The City-Level Survey of Crime Victimization and Citizen Attitudes analyzes surveys conducted by the DOJ’s Office of Community Oriented Policing Services to  determine people’s perceptions of community policing and issues in their neighborhoods .
• Emergency Room Statistics on Intentional Violence surveys a sample of hospital emergency rooms throughout the U.S. to  identify instances of domestic violence, rape, child abuse, and other intentional injuries .
• The Police-Public Contact Survey interviews a representative sample of people across the country who either reported a crime or were detained in a traffic stop to  gauge their perceptions of the police’s conduct and response during the encounter .

Other organizations involved in the collection, analysis, and dissemination of information about police activities include the Center for Policing Equity’s  COMSTAT for Justice , which is intended to identify bias in policing, and the  U.S. Commission on Civil Rights , whose 2019 report titled  “Police Use of Force: An Examination of Modern Policing Practices”  recommended that  more data on the use of force by police  be made available to law enforcement agencies, and that police be trained in de-escalation techniques, cultural differences, and anti-bias mechanisms.

Criminology’s impact by the numbers

Many of the statistics used and shared by the DOJ and the U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention are compiled by the  U.S. Census Bureau .

• The Annual Survey of Jails reports on the  number of inmates in regional, county, city, and private jails , as well as demographic and criminal justice statistics of the jail population, among other areas related to incarceration.
• The Census of State and Federal Adult Correctional Facilities gathers information on the  operation of the prisons and jails, and the conditions of confinement , such as capacity and crowding, court orders, staff workloads, and safety and security.
• The Survey of Sexual Victimization (formerly the Survey of Sexual Violence) collects data on  sexual assaults in correctional facilities , including state prisons, state juvenile correction facilities, federal prisons, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) detention facilities, and the U.S. military.  

Other sources of information on the impact of criminology research in law enforcement include the  Historical Violence Database  maintained by Ohio State University Criminal Justice Research Center, the University of Michigan’s  National Archive of Criminal Justice Data , the  National Criminal Justice Reference Service , and the University at Albany’s  Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics .

Criminologists: Serving Communities and Society

The work of criminologists touches nearly all aspects of social life. Crime investigation calls for specialized skills and training, sophisticated number-crunching ability, and a great deal of fieldwork interacting with colleagues within and outside criminal justice, and with the public.

Infographic Sources

The Balance Careers, “What Does a Criminologist Do?”

PayScale, “Average Criminologist Salary”

PayScale, “Average FBI Agent Salary”

PayScale, “Average Forensic Scientist Salary”

PayScale, “Average Police Detective Salary”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Employment Statistics, “Detectives and Criminal Investigators”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Forensic Science Technicians”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Police and Detectives”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Sociologists”

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Five reasons to study Criminology

There are many motivating reasons to study criminology. explore five of the best reasons to see why criminology and how it can help you with your future..

1. Help keep society safe

Study Criminology, and you can enter into a professional role that is of high value to society. You could be tackling crime, exploring why people break the law and improving systems in education, rehabilitation and crime prevention. If you want to play a big part in keeping people safe, this could be the degree course for you.

2. Fast-paced and exciting

Criminals and the crimes they commit are continuously changing – people are always looking for new ways to break the law. This means that your work could be dynamic and challenging, with many new research areas appearing regularly.

3. Tailor the course to your interests

Most courses offer total freedom of module selection within a range of criminology-related areas. They often cross over into other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, economics, history and mathematics. You’ll be able to choose modules that match your interests, whether they lie in law enforcement, research policy, crime prevention or corrections, for example.

• READ MORE 
• Search undergraduate courses
• Criminology subject guide

4. Optional sandwich year

Your course may include a sandwich year, where you have the chance to undertake a work placement within a relevant organisation. This could be in the UK or abroad. Placements give you first-hand experience of the professional world where you’ll work on real-life projects. It will significantly enhance your graduate employment prospects.

Some universities also offer the opportunity to study abroad, where you get to live in another country and see how crime is analysed there.

5. Many career pathways

Criminology students have numerous different career options at their fingertips. Exciting roles include in immigration, education, law enforcement, people protection, community planning, advocacy, policing, consulting, public administration and international development.

• What graduates do and earn

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Textbook of Forensic Science pp 1–40 Cite as

Crime and Society: An Introduction to Criminology

• Hansi Bansal 6 ,
• Ashish Badiye 6 ,
• Raju Tandan 7 &
• Neeti Kapoor 6  
• First Online: 29 October 2023

445 Accesses

Over centuries, criminality has been an integral part of societal structure and culture. Criminology is an amalgamation of different disciplines seeking to identify the causes of crime and criminal behavior. The primary focus of criminologists lies on the identification of the patterns, behavior, and sociological aspects of crime. Due to cultural, social, and political changes, society can deem certain behaviours criminal or decriminalize them. This directly impacts the crime rate and the allocation of resources within law enforcement agencies. Criminology is critically engaged in finding solutions to issues related to crime and justice. The cause of a crime is one of the significant areas of criminology, and criminologists identify various factors to explicate why a person commits a crime. This chapter discusses the various fields of criminology, factors responsible for crime and criminal behavior, theories of crime, and the criminal justice system. It also highlights the concepts of juvenile delinquency, punishment, victimology, and their impact on crime. The authors endeavored to present a holistic perspective on the multifaceted dimensions of Crime and Society in a single chapter, notwithstanding the complexity of the subject matter.

• Criminology
• Criminal Behavior
• Criminal Justice System

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Hansi Bansal, Ashish Badiye & Neeti Kapoor

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Bansal, H., Badiye, A., Tandan, R., Kapoor, N. (2023). Crime and Society: An Introduction to Criminology. In: Shrivastava, P., Lorente, J.A., Srivastava, A., Badiye, A., Kapoor, N. (eds) Textbook of Forensic Science . Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1377-0_1

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Why study criminology?

Thinking about studying criminology but need some convincing? We've got five great reasons to study criminology!

What is criminology?  

As you’ll have probably guessed from the name, criminology is the study of crime and criminal behaviour. It explores what crimes are, why people commit them and the impact that crime has on society as a whole. The course will also likely look at topics like crime prevention and rehabilitation. The subject dips into other areas like sociology, social anthropology, psychology and more, bringing in important aspects from these fields. 

Read more about studying criminology at uni

If you’ve ever wanted to ask a criminology student “Why did you choose criminology?” but haven’t had the chance, this article will be able to answer that question for you

Reasons to study criminology  

1. you’ll learn useful skills  .

Studying for a degree in criminology will furnish you with a load of valuable skills for jobs both in the area and further afield. 

You’ll learn how to look at a situation through a critical lens, applying the learnings from your lectures to a scene. Learning about the criminal justice system will help when considering different situations and can be used outside of the criminology sector. It could be handy for knowing your rights as a member of the public, too. 

Not only that, but you’ll also develop transferrable skills that could be used in all manner of industries, like communication, collaboration, problem solving, critical thinking and more. 

2. The job opportunities 

Lots of students will decide to study a subject because they naturally lead into careers that they’re interested in. This is absolutely the case here, as a degree in criminology can open doors to a number of fascinating jobs.  

Criminology graduates can go on to work as crime analysts, police officers and civil servants. Other roles that would benefit from criminology knowledge include the likes of social worker, counsellor and journalist, though some of these roles may need additional qualifications. 

3. It’s a fascinating area of study  

There’s a reason why true crime novels have been so popular for so long – people find it engrossing. Criminology courses cover a variety of subjects which would make for interesting study, like the criminal justice system, global crime, security and more. Having taken an A-level in psychology or sociology can give you an idea about yet more areas that might be covered in a criminology course, and lead to an appreciation of the subject. 

4. Courses are available across the UK  

A great thing about criminology is that universities across the country offer courses in it, meaning you’ll be able to pick where in the UK you want to live while studying this subject. We’ve got some handy resources for universities in England , Wales , Scotland and Northern Ireland if you want to start exploring. 

5. Because you’re interested in it! 

At the end of the day, it’s immensely important to consider what you’re interested in. If you pick a subject that you have no love for, you’ll more than likely end up bored, unhappy or uninspired. If you’re fascinated by criminology, then that is absolutely a solid choice.  

So, has that convinced you to take a deeper look into criminology? Then start exploring criminology courses now ! 

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Criminology Essay Topics

Unveiling the Top 200+ Criminology Essay Topics

16 min read

Published on: May 6, 2023

Last updated on: Jan 30, 2024

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Writing an essay on criminology can be a daunting task, especially when it comes to choosing a topic. With so many areas of study to explore, it can be challenging to know where to start.

Students often struggle to find unique and interesting criminology essay topics that will demonstrate their knowledge of the subject matter.

Without a compelling topic, it's difficult to create a standout essay that will impress professors and earn high grades.

This blog post includes a list of criminology essay topics that are sure to make your writing process much easier. 

Whether you're interested in cybercrime, mass incarceration, or police brutality, we've got you covered. 

With over 200 topics to choose from, you're sure to find one that sparks your interest and suits your assignment requirements.

Let’s get started.

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What is a Criminology Essay?

Criminology essays are a type of academic paper. They focus on topics related to the study of crime, such as its causes and prevention.

A criminology essay requires students to conduct research, analyze data, and provide evidence-based arguments to support their ideas. 

This type of essay is usually assigned to students who are studying criminology or related fields. This includes criminal justice, sociology, or psychology.

Purpose Of Writing a Criminology Essay

The purpose of writing a criminology essay is to analyze and evaluate a particular topic related to the study of crime.

This type of essay requires students to conduct research, and provide evidence-based arguments to support their ideas.

It helps the students to develop critical thinking and research skills that are essential for success in criminology and related fields.

Moreover, writing a criminology essay is a way for students to contribute to the ongoing discourse on crime and its prevention. 

Criminology Essay Topics For College Students

Criminology is a fascinating subject that offers a vast array of topics for students to explore.

Here are some criminology essay topics for college students:

• The impact of social media on cybercrime
• Juvenile justice: rehabilitation vs. punishment
• The effectiveness of community policing in reducing crime
• The link between poverty and crime
• The role of DNA evidence in solving crimes
• Mass incarceration and its impact on communities of color
• The effects of drug addiction on crime rates
• Domestic violence: causes, effects, and prevention
• The ethics of the death penalty
• International crime: human trafficking and drug trafficking

Criminology Essay Topics For University Students

• White-collar crime: causes, impacts, and prevention
• Cybersecurity and cybercrime: protecting individuals and organizations
• Theories of crime: examining the biological, psychological, and sociological perspectives
• The role of the media in shaping public perception of crime
• The impact of race and ethnicity on the criminal justice system
• Capital punishment: examining the ethical, social, and legal implications
• The relationship between mental illness and criminal behavior
• Policing in the 21st century: challenges and opportunities
• The impact of globalization on crime and criminal justice
• The intersection of gender and crime: exploring the experiences of female offenders

Paper Due? Why Suffer? That's our Job!

List of Basic Criminal Justice Topics

• History of criminology and its evolution over time
• Crime and social inequality: examining the relationship
• Economic factors and their impact on crime rates
• Geographic profiling in criminal investigations
• Gender and sexuality in criminal behavior
• Social and cultural factors and their impact on crime
• Deterrence as a criminal justice strategy: effectiveness and limitations
• Incarceration and its impact on families and communities
• Ethics of conducting criminological research
• Globalization and its impact on crime and criminal justice

Criminal Justice Research Paper Topics on Society & Justice

• Impact of mass incarceration on marginalized communities
• Media’s role in shaping public perceptions of crime and criminal justice
• Restorative justice programs and their impact on victims and offenders
• Challenges of providing legal representation to indigent defendants
• Police militarization and its effect on community relations and public trust
• Role of community-based organizations in promoting social justice and reducing crime
• Impact of the War on Drugs on criminal justice and society
• Addressing domestic violence in criminal justice policies and practices
• The impact of mandatory minimum sentencing on the criminal justice system
• The role of mental health services in the criminal justice system

Theories of crime and their relevance to criminal justice

• The role of criminal profiling in criminal investigations
• The impact of technology on crime prevention and investigation
• Restorative justice and its application in the criminal justice system
• The effectiveness of community policing in reducing crime rates
• The challenges of addressing hate crimes in criminal justice policies and practices
• The role of public surveillance in crime prevention and investigation
• The impact of incarceration on recidivism rates
• The use of alternative sentencing in the criminal justice system
• The effectiveness of drug treatment programs in reducing crime rates

Criminology Research & Measurement

• Analyzing the reliability and validity of crime statistics
• The use of forensic science in criminology research
• The impact of racial bias on criminology research and measurement
• The challenges of measuring white-collar crime and its impact on society
• Analyzing the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs in reducing recidivism rates
• The use of experimental designs in criminology research
• The impact of technology on criminology research and measurement
• Analyzing the relationship between social inequality and crime
• The challenges of measuring cybercrime and its impact on society
• The use of qualitative research methods in criminology research

Check out this blg for criminology essay examples !

Criminology Essay Topics on Racism and Discrimination

• The impact of impacts of solitary confinement on criminal justice policies 
• Analyzing the intersection of race, class, and crime
• The role of implicit bias in criminal justice decision-making
• The impact of racial profiling on communities of color
• The effectiveness of diversity and inclusion initiatives in the criminal justice system
• The impact of the school-to-prison pipeline on marginalized communities
• Analyzing the effectiveness of affirmative action in reducing discrimination in criminal justice
• The impact of language barriers on the criminal justice system
• The role of restorative justice in addressing racism and discrimination in the criminal justice system
• The impact of hate crimes on marginalized communities and the criminal justice response

Criminal Law Research Topics

• Analyzing the legal concept of mens rea and its impact on criminal law
• The use of eyewitness testimony in criminal trials: reliability and validity
• The role of expert witnesses in criminal trials: benefits and limitations
• The legal and ethical implications of plea bargaining in criminal cases
• The impact of technology on criminal law: examining the use of DNA evidence in court
• The legal implications of hate crimes: defining and prosecuting bias-motivated offenses
• The challenges of prosecuting and punishing juvenile offenders in criminal court
• Examining the legal and ethical implications of the insanity defense
• Analyzing the legal and social consequences of wrongful convictions
• The impact of international law on domestic criminal justice systems

International Criminal Law Research Topics

• The role of the International Criminal Court in promoting international justice and accountability
• The legal and ethical implications of targeted killings and drone strikes in the fight against terrorism
• Examining the impact of international human rights law on international criminal law
• The use of transitional justice mechanisms in post-conflict societies: a comparative analysis
• The legal and ethical implications of refugee and migrant detention in international law
• The relationship between international criminal law and terrorism: challenges and opportunities
• The role of international law in addressing global environmental crimes and their impact on human security
• The challenges of investigating and prosecuting war crimes and crimes against humanity in conflict zones
• The role of international criminal tribunals in promoting peace and reconciliation in post-conflict societies
• The legal and ethical implications of extraterritorial jurisdiction in United States

Criminology Essay Topics on Types of Crime

• Hate crimes: analyzing patterns and trends
• Organized crime: examining the structure and activities of criminal organizations
• Cybercrime: exploring the challenges of investigating and prosecuting online criminal activity
• Property crime: analyzing causes and prevention strategies
• Violent crime: exploring the factors that contribute to violent behavior
• Sexual assault: examining the prevalence and impact of this type of crime
• Drug-related crime: exploring the connections between drugs and criminal activity
• Financial crime: analyzing white-collar crime and fraud
• Environmental crime: exploring crimes against the environment and the impact on society
• Human trafficking: analyzing the causes, impact, and prevention of this crime

Criminology Essay Research: Theories

• Rational choice theory: analyzing the decision-making process of criminals
• Social disorganization theory: examining the impact of social and economic factors on crime
• Strain theory: exploring the connection between social inequality and criminal behavior
• Routine activities theory: analyzing how the convergence of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of capable guardians lead to crime
• Social learning theory: examining how individuals learn criminal behavior through observation and imitation
• Labeling theory: exploring the impact of social labels on individuals and their involvement in criminal activity
• Feminist criminology: analyzing the impact of gender on criminal behavior and the criminal justice system
• Critical criminology: exploring the role of power and social inequality in criminal behavior
• Life course theory: examining how events throughout an individual's life impact their likelihood of involvement in criminal activity
• Integrated theory: analyzing how multiple criminological theories can be combined to explain criminal behavior

Criminology Essay Topics on Victimization

• Domestic violence: exploring the impact on victims and prevention strategies
• Victim blaming: analyzing the societal attitudes towards victims of crime
• The impact of crime on mental health: exploring the psychological effects of victimization
• Child abuse: analyzing the prevalence and impact of this type of victimization
• Elder abuse: examining the challenges of protecting vulnerable elderly individuals from victimization
• Restorative justice: exploring alternative approaches to addressing victimization
• Human trafficking: examining the experiences of victims and the challenges of identifying and prosecuting offenders
• Hate crimes: exploring the impact on victims and prevention strategies
• The role of victim advocacy in the criminal justice system
• Cyber victimization: analyzing the impact of online victimization and the challenges of addressing it

Hot Criminal Justice Topics 2024

• Mass incarceration: exploring the impact of policies and practices that lead to high rates of imprisonment
• The death penalty: analyzing the ethics and effectiveness of capital punishment
• The war on drugs: examining the impact of drug policies on criminal justice and society
• Racial disparities in the criminal justice system: analyzing the impact of systemic racism on policing, prosecution, and sentencing
• Community policing: exploring alternative approaches to policing and their effectiveness
• Restorative justice: examining alternative approaches to punishment and their impact on individuals and communities
• Mental health and the criminal justice system: analyzing the challenges of addressing mental health needs in the criminal justice system
• Technology and criminal justice: exploring the benefits and challenges of using technology in law enforcement and the criminal justice system
• International criminal justice: examining the challenges of addressing transnational crime and the role of international institutions in promoting justice.

Criminal Justice Research Topics about Court Cases

• The impact of Miranda v. Arizona on police practices
• The role of plea bargaining in the criminal justice system
• The impact of the O.J. Simpson trial on race relations in America
• The impact of the Casey Anthony trial on perceptions of motherhood and crime
• The role of prosecutorial discretion in charging decisions
• The impact of the George Zimmerman trial on perceptions of self-defense laws
• The role of the insanity defense in criminal cases
• The impact of the Scott Peterson trial on media coverage of criminal trials
• The role of eyewitness testimony in criminal cases
• The impact of the Timothy McVeigh trial on domestic terrorism laws

List of Realistic Crime Research Topics

• The impact of social media on cyberbullying and online harassment
• The role of community policing in reducing crime rates
• The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on the criminal justice system
• The effectiveness of drug treatment programs in reducing recidivism rates
• The role of mental health in criminal behavior
• The impact of the war on drugs on minority communities
• The role of restorative justice in the criminal justice system
• The impact of juvenile delinquency on future criminal behavior
• The effectiveness of body-worn cameras in reducing police misconduct
• The role of race and gender in sentencing disparities in the criminal justice system

Reasonable Criminology Research Topics

• The impact of social media on crime rates and criminal behavior
• The effectiveness of community-based programs in reducing recidivism
• Examining the relationship between poverty and crime
• The impact of parental incarceration on children and families
• The role of media in shaping public perception of crime and criminal justice
• The effectiveness of restorative justice practices in reducing crime and recidivism
• The role of education and employment in reducing criminal behavior
• The impact of domestic violence on children and families
• The effectiveness of drug treatment programs in reducing drug-related crime
• The relationship between mental health and criminal behavior

Criminology and Criminal Justice Research Topics

• Crime prevention strategies for reducing property crime
• Gun control and crime prevention: exploring the relationship
• The role of surveillance technology in crime prevention
• The impact of community policing on crime prevention
• The effectiveness of restorative justice practices in achieving justice for victims
• The impact of mandatory sentencing laws on crime prevention and justice
• The role of rehabilitation in achieving justice for offenders
• The impact of hate crime legislation on crime prevention and justice
• The role of technology in preventing cybercrime
• The effectiveness of early intervention programs in preventing juvenile delinquency

Criminology Persuasive Essay Topics

• Should rehabilitation programs be prioritized over punishment in the criminal justice system?
• Can community policing build trust between law enforcement and communities?
• Is the death penalty an effective deterrent to crime?
• Should mandatory minimum sentencing laws be abolished?
• Can restorative justice reduce recidivism rates?
• Should prisons focus on punishment or rehabilitation?
• Is there a correlation between poverty and crime rates?
• Should there be a greater focus on mental health treatment in the criminal justice system?
• Can technology be used to reduce crime rates?
• Should non-violent drug offenders be sentenced to rehabilitation instead of prison?

Criminology Argumentative Essay Topics

• Is solitary confinement a cruel and unusual punishment?
• Does the criminal justice system disproportionately affect marginalized communities?
• Should juveniles be tried as adults for serious crimes?
• Is racial profiling a necessary tool for law enforcement or a violation of civil rights?
• Should police officers be required to wear body cameras?
• Is the use of the death penalty morally justifiable?
• Should hate crimes be punished more severely than other crimes?
• Are “three strikes” laws an effective deterrent to repeat offenders?
• Should the government be allowed to access individuals’ personal data in the interest of national security?
• Is the “not guilty by reason of insanity” defense a valid excuse for criminal behavior?

Easy Essay Topics On Criminology

• The role of race, ethnicity, and class in shaping perceptions of criminality and punishment
• The impact of globalization on crime rates and criminal justice systems
• The effectiveness of drug courts in addressing drug-related crimes
• The role of social media in facilitating criminal activity and how law enforcement can respond
• The impact of technology on policing practices and the criminal justice system as a whole
• The impact of community-based organizations on crime prevention and intervention
• The impact of victim advocacy groups on the criminal justice system
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for adult offenders
• The impact of domestic violence on individuals, families, and society as a whole
• The impact of the “tough on crime” movement on the criminal justice system and society.

How To Choose A Criminology Essay Topic

When it comes to choosing a criminology essay topic, there are several factors to consider. Here are some things to keep in mind:

• Area of Interest

First and foremost, it's important to choose a topic that you are interested in. This will help you stay motivated and engaged throughout the research and writing process.

The topic you choose should be relevant to the field of criminology. It should address a specific aspect of crime, criminal behavior, the criminal justice system, or related topics.

• Originality

While it's fine to build on existing research, choose a topic that is original and hasn't been extensively covered before.

• Feasibility

You should also consider whether the topic you choose is feasible within the constraints of your assignment. Is there enough research material available on the topic? Can you realistically cover the topic within the given word count or time frame?

• Controversy

Finally, you might also consider choosing a topic that is controversial or debatable within the field of criminology. This can help you develop a thought-provoking essay that is likely to catch the attention of your readers.

Tips To Write An Effective Criminology Essay Topic

When it comes to writing an effective criminology essay, it's important to keep the following tips in mind:

Understand the Assignment

Before you start writing, make sure you understand the assignment instructions and the requirements for the essay. This will help you structure your essay and ensure that you meet all the necessary criteria.

Conduct thorough Research

In order to write a well-informed essay, it's important to conduct thorough research on your chosen topic. Use a variety of reputable sources such as academic journals, books, and government reports to gather information and data.

Organize your Ideas

Once you have conducted your research, organize your ideas into a logical and coherent structure. This will help you create a clear and concise argument that is easy for the reader to follow.

Use Evidence To Support Your Argument

When making claims or arguments in your essay, be sure to use evidence and examples to support them. This will add credibility to your essay and help you make a more convincing argument.

Edit and Proofread

Finally, be sure to edit and proofread your essay thoroughly before submitting it. Check for errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation, and make sure your essay is well-organized and flows logically.

By following these tips, you can write an effective criminology essay that is well-researched, well-organized, and convincing.

In conclusion, criminology essay topics are diverse. They range from the causes and effects of crime to theories and policies that shape our criminal justice system.

Selecting a suitable topic and writing an effective essay requires thoughtfulness. Consider your interests, the instructions of the assignment and the wider subject of criminology.

Follow best practices when researching and writing an essay. This will ensure you present a well-informed argument. Your argument will contribute to the conversation about crime and justice.

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Essay on Criminology Student

Students are often asked to write an essay on Criminology Student in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Criminology Student

Who is a criminology student.

A criminology student is a person who studies criminology. Criminology is a field that looks into why people commit crimes. This study also explores how crimes affect society. It is a part of sociology, which is the study of society and human behavior.

What do Criminology Students Learn?

Criminology students learn about different types of crimes and why people commit them. They study laws and how they are used to control crime. They also learn about the justice system, including police, courts, and jails. They study how these systems work to prevent crime.

Why Study Criminology?

Studying criminology is important because it helps us understand crime. This understanding can help prevent future crimes. It can also help us make our society safer. Criminology students can use their knowledge to help make a difference in the world.

Careers in Criminology

After studying criminology, students can work in many fields. They can become police officers, lawyers, or social workers. They can also work in government agencies that deal with crime. These careers can be rewarding and make a real impact on society.

250 Words Essay on Criminology Student

What is criminology.

Criminology is the study of crime. It looks at why people commit crimes and how society responds to these actions. It’s like being a detective, but instead of solving one crime, you try to understand crime as a whole.

A criminology student is someone who studies criminology. They learn about different types of crimes, why people commit them, and how society can prevent them. They also study the laws and systems we use to deal with crime.

What do Criminology Students Study?

Criminology students study many things. They learn about the laws and how they work. They also study the reasons behind crime, like poverty or lack of education. They look at how crime affects victims, families, and communities. They also learn about the police, courts, and prisons, and how they help control crime.

Studying criminology is important for many reasons. It helps us understand why people commit crimes and how we can stop them. It can also lead to many exciting jobs, like working in law enforcement, social work, or legal services.

In conclusion, a criminology student is someone who is curious about understanding crime and its impact on society. They learn about the causes of crime and how to prevent it. This knowledge can lead to many rewarding careers and make a real difference in our communities.

500 Words Essay on Criminology Student

A criminology student is someone who studies criminology. Criminology is a branch of sociology, which is the study of society and human behavior. When you study criminology, you learn about crime, why people commit crimes, and how society responds to these crimes.

What Does a Criminology Student Learn?

Criminology students learn about many different things. They learn about the laws and rules that society has made. They also learn about different types of crimes, such as theft, murder, and fraud. They study why people break these laws and how society can prevent this from happening. This is done by studying past crimes, looking at data and statistics, and using theories to understand criminal behavior.

The Importance of Studying Criminology

Studying criminology is very important. It helps us understand why people commit crimes. This understanding can help us prevent crime and make our society safer. For example, if we know that people are more likely to commit crimes when they are poor or uneducated, we can try to reduce poverty and improve education. This can help reduce crime in our society.

Skills Required for a Criminology Student

Being a criminology student requires certain skills. You need to be good at researching and analyzing data. This is because you will often need to look at information about crimes and criminals, and make sense of it. You also need to be good at critical thinking. This means you need to be able to think deeply about complex issues, and come up with your own ideas and solutions. Finally, you need to have good communication skills. This is because you will often need to present your findings and ideas to others.

The Future of a Criminology Student

After studying criminology, there are many jobs you can do. You could become a police officer, a lawyer, a social worker, or a teacher. You could also work in a prison, helping to rehabilitate criminals. Or, you could work in research, studying crime and helping to develop new ways to prevent it.

In conclusion, being a criminology student is about more than just studying crime. It’s about understanding why people commit crimes, and how we can prevent this. It’s about making our society safer and fairer. And it’s about using your skills and knowledge to make a real difference in the world.

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Home — Application Essay — National Universities — Why I Chose Criminal Justice

Why I Chose Criminal Justice

• University: University of California, Berkeley

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Words: 590 |

Published: Feb 15, 2024

Words: 590 | Pages: 1 | 3 min read

The decision to choose a major that aligns with one's passions and aspirations is of paramount importance. For me, the choice was crystal clear - Criminal Justice. This unique discipline captivates my interest due to its multifaceted nature, societal relevance, and potential to effect positive change.

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From an early age, my fascination with the criminal justice system and its inner workings has been unwavering. I grew up devouring crime novels, binge-watching documentaries, and engaging in intellectual discussions surrounding criminal justice reform. Such exposure sparked a curiosity within me that demanded to be satiated through academic exploration.

Criminal Justice, as a major, provides an opportunity to delve into the complexities of crime, law enforcement, and the legal system. It encompasses various subfields, including criminology, law, and corrections, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms underpinning criminal behavior and its societal implications. Through this major, I aim to develop a holistic perspective on crime, its causes, and how society can effectively respond to it.

Furthermore, criminal justice offers a plethora of career paths, each with its own set of challenges and rewards. From working as a police officer to becoming a public defender or pursuing a career in forensic science, the field encompasses a wide range of professions, ensuring that my passion can be channeled into a meaningful career. This versatility aligns with my desire for continuous growth and the flexibility to explore various avenues within criminal justice.

However, my decision to pursue criminal justice is not solely based on personal interests and career opportunities. It is driven by a deep-rooted conviction to contribute to society and make a positive impact on the lives of others. The criminal justice system, albeit imperfect, plays a crucial role in maintaining order and ensuring justice prevails. Yet, it is no secret that it faces numerous challenges, ranging from issues of bias and inequity to the overburdening of correctional facilities.

By majoring in criminal justice, I aspire to be part of the solution. Through rigorous academic training, I aim to develop the critical thinking skills required to analyze complex criminal justice issues objectively. I want to explore innovative approaches to crime prevention, rehabilitation, and policy-making, with an emphasis on fostering empathy, fairness, and inclusivity throughout the criminal justice system.

Moreover, the interdisciplinary nature of criminal justice excites me. It demands an understanding of psychology, sociology, political science, and law, among other disciplines. This interdisciplinary approach not only broadens my knowledge base but also equips me with a diverse set of tools to address the intricate challenges inherent in the criminal justice system. By merging different fields of study, I believe it is possible to cultivate innovative solutions that promote justice and social harmony.

Lastly, as a college student, I have come to appreciate the importance of education as a catalyst for change. By immersing myself in criminal justice coursework, engaging in meaningful research, and seeking internships and volunteer opportunities, I can actively contribute to the ongoing conversations surrounding criminal justice reform. I envision myself as an advocate for the voiceless, working towards dismantling systemic injustices and fostering a more equitable and just society.

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In conclusion, my decision to major in criminal justice stems from a genuine passion for understanding crime, the desire to effect positive change, and an appreciation for the interplay between various disciplines. It is a field that aligns with my personal values, aspirations, and commitment to making a tangible difference. By immersing myself in the study of criminal justice, I hope to emerge as a well-rounded professional who can contribute meaningfully to the ongoing pursuit of justice and social harmony.

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Why were Trump’s bond documents rejected – and has this impacted his civil fraud appeal?

D ocuments for Donald Trump ’s $175m bond in his New York civil fraud case were rejected and “returned for correction” to the former president due to missing financial information.

A docket appeared on the New York County Supreme Court website on Wednesday, detailing that a “Bond/Undertaking” had been “returned for correction”.

The court said that the reason for the rejection was that some of the documentation filed on behalf of the Republican presidential candidate failed to include a current financial statement, power of attorney or list an attorney-in-fact.

The blunder was first spotted by New York attorney Jeffrey K Levine, who posted a screenshot of the court’s explanation for the rejection, which read: “The court has returned the documents listed below for the following reasons: Please include a current financial statement and Power of Attorney.

“Additionally, please list the name of the Attorney-in-Fact under the signature line on the Undertaking. Please use the ‘Refile Document’ link for Doc. No. 1707 to resubmit the corrected filing. Thank you and have a great day.”

Mr Levine added a comment of his own : “175 million reasons why 1 mistake should not have been made, much less 3!”

On Thursday, Mr Trump resubmitted the documents with the proper information in order for his bond to be accepted.

While there was speculation that it would include some of the former president’s financial records, the missing information actually related to Knight Speciality Insurance Co, which is underwriting the bond, as first noted by MSNBC legal correspondent Lisa Rubin.

The former president posted his $175m bond this week after he was handed an extraordinary lifeline by a New York appeals court, enabling him to pay only a portion of the total $464m judgment against him as bond and granting him a 10-day extension to the original deadline in which to do it.

That came after Judge Arthur Engoron concluded a three-month trial on 16 February by ruling that Mr Trump was liable for a decade-long scheme that saw the value of Trump Organization assets routinely inflated in order to obtain favourable loans from banks and insurers. The former president was ordered to pay $354m in fines and a further $110m plus in interest within 30 days.

As the interest ticked ever-upwards at 9 per cent or $120,000 a day, the exact total he owed by the time the original deadline day of 25 March arrived was closer to $468.1m, with Mr Trump’s lawyers complaining in the interim that he had been unable to find a surety company willing to stump up the cash – after approaching more than 30 – given the sheer scale of the money involved.

After the panel of New York Appellate Division judges intervened to offer the candidate a major concession, he was finally able to raise the money for his bond with the help of California’s Knight Specialty Insurance Company .

The company’s owner Don Hankey is a prolific Republican donor whose Axos Bank has refinanced several property loans for Mr Trump in recent years.

What the $175m bond really buys the candidate is time – several months in fact, as his appeal against the fraud judgement will not take place until September at the earliest , when the court’s autumn term commences.

That, however, does bring the matter uncomfortably close to Election Day on 5 November – a period when many of the candidate’s other legal entanglements likewise threaten to come to a head.

In addition to running for the presidency, Mr Trump is also battling four criminal cases in Washington DC, New York, Georgia and Florida, chewing up an estimated $230,000 per day in legal expenses and struggling to fund time to accommodate both court dates and campaign commitments, a problem that could become ever-more convoluted as the year progresses.

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• Health Care

The Menstrual Mood Disorder You’ve Never Heard About

E ver since she was a teenager, Tanya knew her mood swings were a problem. She had periodic bouts of anger and depression that left her wanting to die. Her life was a roller coaster of highs and lows but doctors couldn’t figure out what was wrong. Five years ago, she decided she’d had enough. She wanted to end her life.

Tanya managed to talk herself out of it and instead did some googling. She stumbled across a website about premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), a menstrual mood disorder, that impacts roughly 3 to 8% of menstruators. PMDD means having severe and debilitating mood swings right around one’s period. Around a third of people with PMDD have attempted suicide, and over  70% have regular suicidal ideation .

“It just hit me,” Tanya told me. “I went through my life and so many moments made sense.” She called her doctor the next day. He sent her to get tested for diabetes.

Tanya finally managed to get a PMDD diagnosis in 2019 at the age of 26, but she was haunted by the question: Why had she never heard of PMDD before and why was it so hard to get a diagnosis?

Although research shows suicidal ideation is linked to specific times during the menstrual cycle, today most people still haven’t heard of PMDD, including doctors. According to a 2022 survey of PMDD patients, over a third said their general practitioners had no knowledge of premenstrual disorders, and about 40% said their mental-health-care providers had no knowledge of premenstrual disorders. But PMDD has been around since periods have been around and we’ve known about it for nearly a century.

So why aren’t we getting people the help they need? The answer, as history shows, is more complicated than we think.

While the menstrual cycle has been notoriously understudied, the first papers on PMDD appeared in 1930s. In the 1950s British physician Dr. Katrina Dalton began studying PMDD —or “premenstrual syndrome” as she called it, and opened a clinic in London . Still, PMDD mostly flew under the radar until 1980, when Dalton served as a medical expert for three women accused of crime. During the trials Dalton showed that the women committed the crimes right before their period, and that their symptoms disappeared with treatment. She was able to get them a reduced sentence.

Overnight there was a media boom around PMS. The magazine Glamour even polled readers about the validity of using PMS as a legal defense: (24% were for, 71% against, and 5% unsure). As a result, the growing awareness around PMS bled over to the medical community. In 1984 psychiatrist Robert Spitzer proposed PMS should be added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), the handbook used by doctors to diagnosis mental health problems. Spitzer was the chair of the committee revising the third version of the DSM, and he’d been getting several invites to conferences about PMS. Adding PMS to the DSM meant that the medical community was recognizing it as a formal disorder that could be diagnosed and treated.

Read More: 5 Foods That Ease PMS Symptoms

However, experts were divided on where to draw the line between PMDD (the severe, debilitating mood swings) and PMS (garden variety grumpiness and irritability). When the Washington Post asked experts about the prevalence of PMS in 1984, estimates ranged from 3% to 90% of women . In a sense, both of these estimates were true: only a few people have severe symptoms, but up to 90% of people do have mild symptoms before their period. It became clear that experts were conflating PMDD and PMS and this was reflected in popular culture. Suddenly, anyone who had a period was seen as unstable. Products with sexist jokes abounded, such as greeting cards that read “What’s the difference between a woman with PMS and a terrorist? Answer: You can negotiate with a terrorist.”

Controversy erupted. A group of feminists spearheaded a campaign to stop PMDD’s inclusion in the DSM. They argued that including PMDD would be tantamount to calling menstruation a mental illness. Much of their reaction was rooted in the atmosphere of the ‘70s and ‘80s as women were fighting for gender equality on several fronts from work to reproductive rights. In the 1970s, for the first time, over half of women were working outside the home. Congress passed Roe v. Wade protecting the right to abortion. However, this equality was also precarious and under threat—conservatives defeated the Equal Rights Amendment which would have prohibited gender discrimination. For feminists, PMDD and the sexist jokes it generated seemed to be another attempt to discredit women and chip away at the progress feminists had made for women’s rights.

One of PMDD’s major critics, Dr. Joan Chrisler, attended a lecture in the 1970s, early on in her career on why there were no great women artists or novelists. The conclusion: women’s creativity declines when they are menstruating. This inspired Chrisler to devote her career to fighting menstrual stigma. In an era rife with sexism, adding PMDD to the DSM set off alarm bells.

Read More: A History of How Employers Have Addressed Women’s Periods

To further complicate matters, in the early 2000s, drug manufacturer Eli Lilly stuck its finger in the pie. Eli Lilly’s patent on its blockbuster drug Prozac, which treated depression, was set to expire and it’s share prices had tanked. The company desperately needed a new market that would buy Prozac.

Eli Lilly landed on PMDD as their next likely market. Early studies already suggested that Prozac could treat PMDD, but the problem was that experts were still debating whether PMDD belonged in the DSM as an official diagnosis at all. Undaunted, Eli Lilly embarked on a massive campaign to market Prozac to people with PMDD. It sponsored a round table discussion on Prozac’s effectiveness for PMDD, which found that at least 60% of patients with PMDD respond to antidepressants. It repackaged Prozac as “Serafem” a play on the word “seraphim”, the angels who guard the throne of God. If that wasn’t enough to drive home the point, they changed Prozac’s green and yellow pills to pink and purple. Finally, they rolled out a series of ads that suggested any woman who was feeling grumpy should consider medication. The ads didn’t distinguish between PMDD and PMS. Rather, they imply any sign of irritability in women should be treated.

This unleashed another wave of furor. Feminists were insulted—and rightfully so. The last thing the women’s movement needed was a drug companies suggesting a woman’s anger is a mental health condition. The media had a field day writing about drug companies “inventing” new diseases and marketing drugs without diagnoses. (Tragically, Prozac actually works on PMDD. Studies have found SSRIs like Prozac can relieve PMDD symptoms in up to twelve hours, even though it takes weeks to work for anxiety and depression.)

In some ways the feminists lost their battle. PMDD eventually did become a diagnosis in the DSM in 2013, nearly three decades after it’d been first debated in the ‘80s. In other ways, they won the war. Dr. Tory Eisenlohr-Moul, a premenstrual mood disorder researcher at the University of Illinois Chicago, estimates that the backlash around PMDD set care back by 10 to 15 years. She pointed out there’s been a chilling effect on the conversation around the link between menstruation and mood. Doctors are afraid to bring it up, because they don’t want patients to think they are sexist.

Yet, in reality, the biggest victims of the fight over PMDD’s existence are people who have PMDD and the people who love them. Today, thousands of people still suffer because they don’t know they have PMDD.

Tanya’s PMDD diagnosis changed her life. While she elected not to try medication, the diagnosis alone helped her understand her breakdowns, and helped her explain what was going on to family and friends. She decided to train in psychotherapy so she can help other people understand PMDD. “My tutor has been a counselor for 10 years and still hasn’t heard of PMDD,” she said. “I want to help people work through this pain.”

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Guest Essay

Trump’s Third Act? American Gangster.

By Samuel Earle

Mr. Earle is the author of “Tory Nation: How One Party Took Over.”

In recent months, Donald Trump has been trying out a new routine. At rallies and town halls across the country, he compares himself to Al Capone. “He was seriously tough, right?” Mr. Trump told a rally in Iowa in October , in an early rendition of the act. But “he was only indicted one time; I’ve been indicted four times.” (Capone was, in fact, indicted at least six times.) The implication is not just that Mr. Trump is being unfairly persecuted but also that he is four times as tough as Capone. “If you looked at him in the wrong way,” Mr. Trump explained, “he blew your brains out."

Mr. Trump’s eagerness to invoke Capone reflects an important shift in the image he wants to project to the world. In 2016, Mr. Trump played the reality TV star and businessman who would shake up politics, shock and entertain. In 2020, Mr. Trump was the strongman, desperately trying to hold on to power by whatever means possible. In 2024, Mr. Trump is in his third act: the American gangster, heir to Al Capone — besieged by the authorities, charged with countless egregious felonies but surviving and thriving nonetheless, with an air of macho invincibility.

The evidence of Mr. Trump’s mobster pivot is everywhere. He rants endlessly about his legal cases in his stump speeches. On Truth Social, he boasts about having a bigger team of lawyers “than any human being in the history of our Country, including even the late great gangster, Alphonse Capone!” His team has used his mug shot — taken after he was indicted on a charge of racketeering in August — on T-shirts, mugs, Christmas wrapping, bumper stickers, beer coolers and even NFTs. They’ve sold off parts of the blue suit he was wearing in that now-infamous photo for more than $4,000 a piece (it came with a dinner with Mr. Trump at his Mar-a-Lago resort).

Commentators have long pointed out that Mr. Trump behaves like a mob boss: The way he demands loyalty from his followers, lashes out at rivals, bullies authorities and flaunts his impunity are all reminiscent of the wiseguys Americans know so well from movies and television. As a real-estate mogul in New York, he seems to have relished working with mobsters and learned their vernacular before bringing their methods into the White House: telling James Comey, “I expect loyalty”; imploring Volodymyr Zelensky, “Do us a favor”; and pressuring Georgia’s secretary of state, “Fellas, I need 11,000 votes.” But before, he downplayed the mobster act in public. Now he actively courts the comparison.

Mr. Trump’s audacious embrace of a criminal persona flies in the face of conventional wisdom. When Richard Nixon told the American public, “I am not a crook,” the underlying assumption was that voters would not want a crook in the White House. Mr. Trump is testing this assumption. It’s a canny piece of marketing. A violent mobster and a self-mythologizing millionaire, Capone sanitized his crimes by cultivating an aura of celebrity and bravery, grounded in distrust of the state and a narrative of unfair persecution. The public lapped it up. “Everybody sympathizes with him,” Vanity Fair noted of Capone in 1931, as the authorities closed in on him. “Al has made murder a popular amusement.” In similar fashion, Mr. Trump tries to turn his indictments into amusement, inviting his supporters to play along. “They’re not after me, they’re after you — I’m just standing in the way!” he says, a line that greets visitors to his website, as well.

Mr. Trump clearly hopes that his Al Capone act will offer at least some cover from the four indictments he faces. And there is a twisted logic to what he is doing: By adopting the guise of the gangster, he is able to recast his lawbreaking as vigilante justice — a subversive attempt to preserve order and peace — and transform himself into a folk hero. Partly thanks to this framing, it seems unlikely that a criminal conviction will topple his candidacy: not only because Mr. Trump has already taken so many other scandals in his stride but also because, as Capone shows, the convicted criminal can be as much an American icon as the cowboy and the frontiersman. In this campaign, Mr. Trump’s mug shot is his message — and the repeated references to Al Capone are there for anyone who needs it spelled out.

In an essay from 1948, “The Gangster as Tragic Hero,” the critic Robert Warshow sought to explain the unique appeal of gangster fables in American life. He saw the gangster as a quintessentially American figure, the dark shadow of the country’s sunnier self-conception. “The gangster speaks for us,” Warshow wrote, “expressing that part of the American psyche which rejects the qualities and the demands of modern life.”

It is easy to see why gangster fables appeal to so many Republican voters today. They are stories of immigrant assimilation and success, laced with anti-immigrant sentiment and rivalry. Their heroes are creatures of the big city — those nests of Republican neuroses — who tame its excesses through force but never forget God or their family along the way. In many ways, minus the murder, they are ideal conservative citizens: enterprising, loyal, distrustful of government; prone to occasional ethical lapses, but who’s perfect?

Mr. Trump knows that in America, crooks can be the good guys. When the state is seen as corrupt, the crook becomes a kind of Everyman, bravely beating the system at its own game. This is the cynical logic that the gangster and the right-wing populist share: Everyone’s as bad as anyone else, so anything goes. “A crook is a crook,” Capone once said. “But a guy who pretends he is enforcing the law and steals on his authority is a swell snake. The worst type of these punks is the big politician, who gives about half his time to covering up so that no one will know he’s a thief.”

It’s a worldview powerful enough to convince voters that even the prized institutions of liberal democracy — a free press, open elections, the rule of law — are fronts in the biggest racket of them all. This conceit has a rich pedigree in reactionary politics. “Would-be totalitarian rulers usually start their careers by boasting of their past crimes and carefully outlining their future ones,” Hannah Arendt warned.

The gangster’s brutality also taps into what Warshow and others of his generation saw as the sadism in the American mind: the pleasure the public takes in seeing the gangster’s “unlimited possibility of aggression” inflicted upon others. The gangster is nothing without this license for violence, without the simple fact that, as Warshow put it, “he hurts people.” He intimidates his rivals and crushes his enemies. His cruelty is the point. The public can then enjoy “the double satisfaction of participating vicariously in the gangster’s sadism and then seeing it turned against the gangster himself.” “He is what we want to be and what we are afraid we may become,” Warshow wrote. Reverence and repulsion are all wrapped up.

Capone’s rise, demise and exalted afterlife don’t hold happy clues for Mr. Trump’s opponents. Dethroning a mob boss is never easy. “He was the 1920s version of the Teflon man; nothing stuck to him,” Deirdre Bair wrote in a 2016 biography of Capone. After he was arrested in 1931 for tax fraud, his mob continued to prosper for another half-century, and Capone himself, who was released after six and a half years in prison for health reasons and died from a stroke and pneumonia in 1947 at age 48, achieved a type of immortality. Mr. Trump will see in his story many reasons to be cheerful. “I often say Al Capone, he was one of the greatest of all time, if you like criminals,” Mr. Trump said in December. It was an interesting framing: “if you like criminals”? Mr. Trump has a hunch, and it’s more than just projection, that many Americans do.

Samuel Earle is the author of “Tory Nation: How One Party Took Over.”

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