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Working Less Is a Matter of Life and Death

By The Editorial Board

The editorial board is a group of opinion journalists whose views are informed by expertise, research, debate and certain longstanding values . It is separate from the newsroom.

Search online “work too much” and you’ll get screenfuls of information about the harmful medical, mental and social consequences of spending too much time on the job, going all the way back to that old saw first recorded in the 17th century, “All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.”

It should be “makes Jack a dead boy,” says the latest contribution to the literature of overwork, this one from the World Health Organization and the International Labor Organization.

A new study by the two groups says that working 55 or more hours a week is a “serious health hazard.” It estimates that long working hours led to 745,000 deaths worldwide in 2016, a 29 percent increase over 2000. Men accounted for 72 percent of the fatalities; the worst concentrations were in the Western Pacific and Southeast Asia, and particularly among 60- to 79-year-olds who had worked long hours after the age of 45.

That might not be particularly relevant for dull old Jack, since in his time people who made it past childhood rarely lived beyond 60 anyway. But for today’s world, these figures render long working hours the biggest occupational health hazard of all. Risk of a stroke rises by 35 percent and of fatal heart disease by 17 percent for those who can’t or won’t pry their nose from the grindstone, compared with people who work 35 to 40 hours a week.

The pandemic, and especially remote work, has created new opportunities to work too hard. The W.H.O. director-general, Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, noted that teleworking has blurred the line between work and home and that people who have survived layoffs at struggling businesses have ended up working longer hours. One survey found an overwhelming majority of American employees have shortened, postponed or canceled vacations during the pandemic.

The red flags about overwork have been waving for years all around the world. Fatigue has been identified as a factor in industrial disasters like the BP oil refinery explosion in Texas City in 2005 and the nuclear accident at Three Mile Island . In Japan, long working hours are so common that “karoshi,” translated as “death by overwork,” is a legally recognized cause of death.

So, work less and live longer and better, right?

Once upon a time, that seemed inevitable. As prosperity increased and automation replaced human labor, people were expected to devote themselves to hobbies and family life. The British economist John Maynard Keynes was so certain industrialized countries were on a steady trajectory toward less work and longer vacations that he predicted people in the 21st century would work just three hours a day — 15 hours a week. “For the first time since his creation man will be faced with his real, his permanent problem,” he wrote in a 1930 essay , “how to occupy the leisure, which science and compound interest will have won for him, to live wisely and agreeably and well.”

Not in the United States, sir.

Americans on average labor for fewer hours than their grandparents, but they still work nearly 40 hours per week — and many take pride in working the longer hours the W.H.O. considers dangerous.

While Europe has imposed a measure of health-protecting leisure on its workers, with the European Union requiring at least 20 working days of vacation per year and many countries mandating a lot more (30 days for the French), the United States remains proudly alone as the “ no-vacation nation .”

That’s what the Center for Economic and Policy Research called the United States in a 2019 study of 21 wealthy nations that found it was the only one without nationally mandated paid vacation or paid holidays. Only 16 states and the District of Columbia have legislated paid sick leave.

Even Americans who do get paid vacation use it sparingly. One study found that more than half did not use all their time off.

Americans, wrote Samuel Huntington in his book “ Who Are We?: The Challenges to America’s National Identity , ” “work longer hours, have shorter vacations, get less in unemployment, disability, and retirement benefits, and retire later, than people in comparably rich societies.”

Many Americans work long hours to make ends meet. Keynes anticipated the prosperity of modern society, but he assumed incorrectly that everyone would enjoy a sufficient share of that prosperity.

What’s even more striking, however, is that affluent Americans are not following the example of grandees of centuries past. Wealthy, college-educated people actually work far more than they did decades ago, and the richest 10 percent work the most.

Rich people in earlier eras demonstrated affluence by ostentatiously not working. They wore white togas or fancy hats or clean gloves. During the last Gilded Age, the “leisure class” spent its days in Downton Abbey-like pursuits, puttering in the rose garden, chasing a fox or getting dressed for dinner.

Today, wealthy Americans show off by working all the time .

Why? One explanation is that people like working, at least in the kinds of jobs that wealthy Americans tend to do. Throughout human history, most people had to work, the work was grim, and they assumed no one would work more than necessary. Aristotle opined, “The reason we labor is to have leisure.” Affluent Americans seem to have decided leisure is best enjoyed in moderation.

Derek Thompson, a staff writer at The Atlantic, has described this workaholism as a new religion in which “the American conception of work has shifted from jobs to careers to callings — from necessity to status to meaning.” When Erin Griffith, a Times reporter, visited several WeWork locations in New York, she found throw pillows imploring tenants to “Do what you love,” neon signs urging “Hustle harder” and murals that “spread the gospel” of #ThankGodIt’sMonday.

But affluent Americans also are motivated by the reality that the rewards for working hard are larger than ever — and in this sternly meritocratic society, so are the consequences of falling behind. People work long hours because so much is at stake: the ability to obtain health insurance, to buy a home, to send children to good schools.

People in other wealthy countries aren’t just entitled to take more vacation. They are able to enjoy their leisure time because they have less to gain, or lose, by putting in a few hours on Saturdays or reading emails in bed.

Putting limits on work isn’t just a perk. It’s a matter of life and death. Less-affluent Americans need to be able to take time off. More-affluent Americans, who tend to focus on the benefits of hard work, should consider the costs, too.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

Follow The New York Times Opinion section on Facebook , Twitter (@NYTopinion) and Instagram .

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Nowadays, Many People Have To Work Longer Time And They Feel Stressful Than Before

by Manjusha Nambiar · Published August 13, 2021 · Updated March 21, 2024

Nowadays, many people have to work longer time, and they feel stressful than before. What are the reasons? What can employers do to make their life easier?

Here is a band 9 IELTS essay on this topic written by one of our students. Need help with IELTS writing? Get your IELTS essays, letters and reports corrected by me .

Band 9 IELTS essay sample

Long working hours are the norm these days. In this age of intense competition and layoffs, people are forced to spend an inordinate amount of time at the workplace. This affects their work-life balance and puts them under tremendous pressure.

Competition has become more intense. To be able to keep their job, employees now have to prove that they are more loyal than their colleagues. This loyalty is usually proven by working long hours. Many employees now work 10 or 12 hours a day. Many employers believe that it is quite normal for employees to spend half of their day in the office. The situation is worse in countries where there are no laws regulating working hours. In India, for example, employers are not penalized for forcing their employees to work overtime. While some companies certainly offer overtime salaries, others do not even do it. They simply expect their staff to work a 12 hour shift.

Unfortunately, working long hours affects the health and overall wellbeing of employees. They feel stressed out all the time. They have no time for their family. Consequently, problems may arise at home. In the long term, prolonged work hours will start affecting the productivity of employees. While companies have the option to sack an underperforming employee and hire another person, this situation is highly disadvantageous for the poor employee.

There are lots of things that employers can do to improve the situation, First, they need to realize that longer working hours does not mean more productivity. The human brain is not designed to work at the optimum level for several hours on end. After a few hours, concentration levels will fall and productivity will get affected. To prevent this situation, employers need to enforce fixed working hours. Of course, there may be situations where employees have to put in more hours. In such situations, it is important to compensate them by offering overtime pay. They should also consider offering other non-monetary incentives. If employees feel that they are adequately rewarded for their hard work, they are less likely to feel resentment towards the employers. Providing employees sufficient training and proper guidelines are other ways to improve their productivity and thus reduce the amount of time they have to spend in the workplace.

In short, by adequately compensating employees for the hours they work, employers can reduce their stress levels to a great extent. It is equally important for the employer to provide a safe working environment with adequate access to training and various tools that enhance productivity.

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Manjusha Nambiar

Hi, I'm Manjusha. This is my blog where I give IELTS preparation tips.

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IELTS Writing 2 Topic: People tend to work longer hours nowadays

Updated On Feb 29, 2024

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The Essay Writing section of the IELTS Writing Module can be a difficult task for many IELTS Aspirants. Thus, it is vital that you polish your essay writing skills before attempting the IELTS.

Below is a sample IELTS Essay for the IELTS Essay topic:

People tend to work longer hours nowadays. People say that working long hours has a negative effect on themselves, their families and the society, so working hours should be restricted. Do you agree or disagree?

Opinion Essay

Introduction

Sentence 1: Introduce the given topic

Sentence 2: Clearly and directly state your point of view with one short and simple sentence

Paragraph 1: It damages relationships with family, disrupts social lives and impedes communication activities. It also causes a feeling of depression and a psychological disturbance that is suffered by many jobholders.

Paragraph 2: Not only it leads  to the low quality of work but also to higher absenteeism and turnover.

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Restate your opinion with a clear and direct sentence

Sample Essay

In the modern world, working continuously for long hours has become a topic for discussion, especially at the time when employees’ benefits have been given a serious thought. Considering the extension of working hours seriously, I am supportive of the argument that long working hours have a negative influence on employees, the organizations they work for, and ultimately upon the general economy and society as a whole. In the forthcoming paragraphs, I will be highlighting my opinion.

For individuals working for longer hours, there are two issues. It not only damages relationships with family, disrupts social lives and impedes communication activities but also causes a feeling of depression, a psychological disturbance that is suffered by many jobholders. It also exerts pressure on the employment market, and in turn, reduces the number of job vacancies.

For corporates, working incessantly, it has destructive effects in the long run. The primary reason is that staff tend to be less productive and are at greater risks of sickness. It would lead not only to the low quality of work but also to higher absenteeism and turnover. Therefore, employers have no choice but to spend much more on recruiting and training new employees. To a country in general, it has chronic impacts, preventing the optimization of resource and human capital.

Although some people might argue that it is reasonable for an employer to expect flexibility during a specific busy period, tolerance of this practice would enable employers to exploit labour and omit the benefits that employees deserve.

In light of the above discussion, working long hours is not acceptable in any manner. In short, this would lead to frequent sick leaves and low productivity, thereby doing more harm than good to people and the corporates as well.

• Psychological disturbance
• Incessantly
• Destructive
• Absenteeism
• In light of

Band 9 Sample Essay

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 The grave competition among businesses and people, at large, has been conspicuously intensifying nowadays, and with it, the working timings have been extending exponentially. This has exacerbated the work-life balance of employees today and hence should be tapered off vigilantly. I will be putting forth my standpoint on this issue in the forthcoming paragraphs of this essay.

As the population grows, struggle blooms and hence, the dearth of employment thrives as per which an employee faintly survives. It is incontrovertible that an individual matches up the pace with employment and all-time sky-rocketing survival thresholds. Even for the businesses to flourish and as the struggle to conquest over everyone else sustains, the employees working in the segment are the ones who are marred the most. This trend not only denudes the working professionals off their own personal lives but also germinates the seedling of various disorders resulting from working incessantly. The time that could have been invested in the happy hours of the family is vigorously being taken over by the working regime. This often points towards incoherence among the family members and obliterates the relationship.

Various underlying health anomalies including hypertension, stress, migraine and even cardiac errata have been resurfacing more than ever in the present time. Secondly, to have its employees drudging ceaselessly, companies often have to bear the losses due to the least outcome and yield from them and hence couldn’t harness the most optimum benefit out of them. This indeed is an improvident usage of the human capital and thereby, squandering the labour, perspiration and time put in for the projects. People working like a trojan today inevitably attenuates on their social fronts and hence halt the most important nuance and the subset of health as a whole. 

Though to some it might look justified for extending the working hours due to the strife in the business world, it makes the employees’ lives drab and lustreless and hence, in the longer marathon, obstructs the growth of them as well as the companies they are working for. 

Conclusively, the inference made is that people work and earn to live and not live to earn, therefore the disproportionate extension of the working schedule is not only a deterrent to the velocities of businesses but also a menace to human diaspora on a whole.

Bonus question:

Nowadays many jobs are more stressful and the working day is longer. What are the reasons for this? What can employers do to help employees?

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Houston has been in the field of IELTS for about eight years and has been associated with IELTSMaterial for the last two years. As an IELTS Expert, her contributions to the articles have been informative and original. Whitney has written about 200 informative articles for IELTSMaterial.com, which enables students to learn from her expertise. Whitney is also a good researcher, and thus any new information about the IELTS test can be found on our website, thanks to her. Whitney completed her graduation in Creative Writing at Glasgow University, Belfast. Having seen her foreign peers struggling to prepare for IELTS to find jobs abroad kindled her, and she began learning the techniques and strategies to crack the IELTS test to help her peers.

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Posted on Mar 30, 2022

As there has been and advancement in the society and economy, there has been a drastic increase in the work load to sustain the growth. It involves working for extremely long hours to achieve the desired result. It is argued that working long hours has negative impact on lives and should be restricted and I agree with this notion.

Firstly, working long hours ruins an individual’s work life balance. It plays a destructive role in shifting an individuals priority from his family and health to solely work. It causes a rift in families especially with young kids that need a parents attention. As a result, it has an impact on a person mental health . Working long hours sets a precedent in the society that it is the sole pathway to success and achieve one’s dream thus creating a herd mentality driven by working long hours.

Secondly, working hours does not always guarantee success. The concept of diminishing returns explains that the more an individual works, his ability to produce top quality result decreases. It increases the chances of mistakes exponentially, leading to constant rework. In spite of the workload , we need to limit working hours and focus on innovative methods to deal with the quantum of work. Restricting work hours would allow individuals to find means to complete work efficiently. Companies would be forced to develop and focus on tools that allow the quantum of work to be completed in a limited time. This would lead to great technological advancements such as the concept of supply chain management that makes work more efficient.

In conclusion, restricting work hours would lead to effective output, more family bonding and healthier and productive workforce.

Posted on Mar 31, 2022

Band Score – 5

Concentrate on the correct usage of articles, nouns, verb forms, subject verb agreement and punctuation.

Since it is an opinion essay, you are required write about one line of contrast in a separate body after presenting two body paragraphs supporting your views.

Pay attention to spellings/ words in a context and proper spacing between words.

Use C2 level of words.

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The Effect of Long Working Hours and Overtime on Occupational Health: A Meta-Analysis of Evidence from 1998 to 2018

Associated data.

There has been no subsequent meta-analysis examining the effects of long working hours on health or occupational health since 1997. Therefore, this paper aims to conduct a meta-analysis covering studies after 1997 for a comparison. A total of 243 published records were extracted from electronic databases. The effects were measured by five conditions, namely, physiological health (PH), mental health (MH), health behaviours (HB), related health (RH), and nonspecified health (NH). The overall odds ratio between long working hours and occupational health was 1.245 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.195–1.298). The condition of related health constituted the highest odds ratio value (1.465, 95% CI: 1.332–1.611). The potential moderators were study method, cut-point for long weekly working hours, and country of origin. Long working hours were shown to adversely affect the occupational health of workers. The management on safeguarding the occupational health of workers working long hours should be reinforced.

1. Introduction

The study of factors affecting occupational health is important to safeguard employees through control of occupational diseases and accidents and to eliminate hazards that threaten the health of workers. Such studies are necessary in order to maintain the quality of work and working environments and to develop a society which ultimately achieves sustainable development [ 1 ]. Long working hours are a ubiquitous phenomenon amongst most organisations and companies where the length of time spending on work, comprising main tasks of job, related tasks, commuting, and travel, is too long and detrimental to the health of workers directly or indirectly [ 2 ]. Epidemiological studies have shown the negative effects of long working hours on the risks of cardiovascular diseases [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]; chronic fatigue, stress [ 7 ]; depressive state, anxiety, sleep quality, all-cause mortality, alcohol use and smoking [ 3 ]; and self-perceived health, mental health status, hypertension, and health behaviours [ 8 ]. Similar results have been found for long working hours by other studies, for instance, myocardial infarction [ 9 ], poor physical health and injuries [ 10 ], alcohol consumption, smoking, physical inactivity [ 11 ], and depression [ 12 ].

1.1. Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases

Many studies have investigated the effects of different working hours on the occurrence of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases [ 4 , 9 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. A U-shaped relationship between the risk of suffering from myocardial infarction and working hours for Japanese workers was found [ 17 ]. Those working less than 7 h per day or more than 11 h per day were at greater risk of experiencing myocardial infarction than with those working 7 to 11 h. Researchers also found that workers in Europe, Japan, Korea, and China who work more than 50 h per week had an increased risk of cerebrocardiovascular diseases [ 13 , 17 ], myocardial infarction [ 4 , 9 , 15 ], and coronary heart disease [ 16 , 19 ]. However, some findings differ from such results in that working more than 50 h per week decreased the risk of ischemic heart diseases [ 20 ] and myocardial infarction [ 9 ]. A meta-analysis conducted by Kang et al. [ 21 ] indicated that the odds ratio of the effect of long working hours on cardiovascular diseases was 1.37. Another meta-analysis conducted by Virtanen et al. [ 19 ] had reported the effect of long working hours on coronary heart disease with a relative risk of 1.39. In the meta-analysis of Kivimäki et al. [ 22 ], the risk ratios of the effect of long working hours on coronary heart disease and stroke were 1.13 and 1.33, respectively. The results for working hours and cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases are not entirely agreed yet.

1.2. Hypertension

The relationship between the chance of suffering from high blood pressure and the duration of working hours has been studied [ 8 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ]. Working more than 61 h per week [ 23 , 24 ] showed an increased risk of suffering from elevated systolic blood pressure. By contrast, a few studies suggest that there is a decreased risk of hypertension for those working more than 8 h per day [ 24 ] or working 60 h or more per week [ 25 ]. Furthermore, Tarumi et al. [ 26 ] demonstrated that there is no linkage between circulatory system diseases, hypertension and long working hours. The results regarding risk of experiencing hypertension as a result of long working hours are not consistent.

1.3. Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is one of the diseases shown to be related to long working hours. It is associated with daily diet and long working hours, and long working hours may cause workers to the change their eating habits [ 28 , 29 ]. However, some studies have suggested a negative relationship between diabetes mellitus and working hours [ 29 ]. The relationship between overtime working and diabetes mellitus is not very straightforward.

1.4. Depression and Anxiety

Several studies have found an association between depression and long working hours [ 12 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. Working more than 34 h per week [ 33 ], 55 h per week [ 34 ], and 48 h per week [ 30 ] increased the chance of experiencing depression and anxiety. A recent study by Ogawa et al. [ 32 ] investigated the effects of long working hours on depression symptoms for Japanese residents and found that compared with the residents working less than 60 h per week, those working 80 to 99.9 h per week and more than 99.9 h per week had a 2.83 and 6.96, respectively, greater risk of experiencing depression. By contrast, other studies have found that working 41 to 55 h per week [ 34 ] and 41 to 52 h per week [ 12 ] was associated with a decreased risk of suffering from depression and anxiety compared with those working less than 41 h per week. Further, it has been reported that female workers have a higher risk of experiencing depression and anxiety than male workers when working the same number of hours [ 33 ]. Apart from when working long hours, the results about the effect of long work hours to depression and anxiety are not entirely clear.

1.5. Work Stress

Some studies have demonstrated that long work hours contribute to psychological stress and work stress [ 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 ]. Working 10 or more hours per day [ 37 ], 40 or more overtime hours per month [ 38 ], and 60 or more hours per week [ 36 ] tended to create stressful feelings. Lee et al. [ 36 ] found that working more than 45 h per week decreased the risk of psychological stress. The relationship between working long hours and work stress requires more investigation.

1.6. Health Behaviours

Health behaviours, for instance, smoking, alcohol consumption and physical inactivity, are associated with long working hours [ 33 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ]. Shield [ 33 ] investigated male and female working populations working more than 34 h per week in Canada from 1994 to 1997. The findings were that increased rates of smoking, drinking and physical inactivity for male workers were 9%, 34% and 43%, respectively, during the period studied, and the increased rates of smoking, drinking and physical inactivity for female workers were 7%, 25% and 41%, respectively. However, Park et al. [ 41 ] indicated that there was no difference in smoking amongst three groups of engineers in term of their working hours, ranging from less than 60 h per week, 60 to 70 h per week, and more than 70 h per week. Some studies have reported a significant decrease in physical activity for workers on overtime [ 41 , 42 ]. Further, it has been reported that long working hours are not related to physical inactivity [ 33 , 39 ]. The literature has not reported consistent findings on the relationship between overtime work and health behaviours.

1.7. Sleep and Fatigue

Long working hours or overtime work reduce the time for sleep resulting in fatigue [ 30 , 39 , 43 ]. A normal duration for sleep is about 7 to 8 h per night, which can lower the risk of acute myocardial infarction, cerebrocardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus and high blood pressure, as well as reducing working injuries and mistakes [ 44 , 45 , 46 ]. Furthermore, a significant detrimental effect on quality of sleep is brought about by long working hours [ 30 , 47 ]. Some studies have found that sleep deprivation is directly linked to cardiovascular diseases and high blood pressure [ 27 , 48 ]. Therefore, the duration and quality of sleep of workers may lead to exhaustion and various illnesses. However, by contrast, Bannai and Tamakoshi [ 3 ] found that working more than 40 to 60 h per week decreased the risk of problems related to sleep. The results on sleep and working hours are not consistent.

1.8. Occupational Injury

Excessive working hours increase the risk of occupational injury. Studies on the effect of long working hours on occupational injury have shown that overtime working increased the risk of occupational injuries [ 10 , 49 , 50 , 51 ]. Further, a study found that working 12 or more hours per day and 60 or more hours per week increased the risk of occupational injury [ 49 ]. Grosch et al. [ 10 ] reported an increase in occupational injuries when working more than 70 h per week compared to those working 41 to 69 h per week.

1.9. Aim of the Study

Long working hours have been a controversial issue starting from 1980s, when it was reported that a Japanese design engineer died of brain haemorrhage due to working 2600 h per year [ 52 ]. Subsequently, the governments of Japan, Korea and Taiwan recognised that the number of deaths from overwork among workers was increasing. This phenomenon of ‘working to death’ was also reported to have occurred in many organisations and factories in China [ 53 ]. Long working hours became a focal issue among Western countries, for examples, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, France and Germany [ 54 ]. This interest in long working hours resulted in studies to investigate the impact of long working hours on the health of workers in a variety of industries, for various health symptoms, and for ranges of social status [ 5 , 19 , 55 ]. In general, the findings were that long working hours have adverse effects on health. In spite of the importance of long working hours, apart from the meta-analysis conducted by Sparks and Cooper [ 5 ] discovering a slightly positive correlation between various health syndromes and long working hours, there has been no subsequent meta-analysis examining the effects of long working hours on health or occupational health. The issue of long working hours is of great importance in every society, and therefore, it is necessary to investigate the effects of long working hours on the health of workers to identify any changes in the severity of such effect after the previous study conducted in 1997. Further, few studies have addressed the effects of working class, i.e., collar colour occupations, on the association between long working hours and occupational health. It has been argued that occupation is a factor in health inequality among workers [ 56 , 57 ]. Therefore, the influence of occupation on the association between long working hours and occupational health needs to be investigated.

In this paper, a meta-analysis was conducted to synthesise the data from studies from 1998 to 2018 on the effects of working long hours on the occupational health of employees. The purpose here was to examine the relationship between the length of work hours and the occupational health of workers.

2.1. Literature Search and Selection

The literature to be selected for the meta-analysis was obtained from several electronic databases by browsing keywords related to long working hours and occupational health for the period 1998 and 2018. The selection of this period was due to the shortage of comprehensive analysis on the effects of working long hours on health prior to the study by Sparks and Cooper [ 5 ]. The published research for the analysis of the effects of long working hours on occupational health was collected from Google Scholar and Medline (PubMed) by searching the following keywords: (long work hours OR overtime) AND (occupational health OR heart diseases OR cardiovascular disease OR stroke OR diabetes OR blood pressure OR injuries OR pain OR stress OR depression OR anxiety OR exhaustion OR sleep OR smoke OR alcohol OR physical activity). All published papers extracted for the meta-analysis were in English. The abstracts of the published papers selected were screened, and the references were all manually checked to identify if the studies cited and described in the papers were appropriate for conducting this meta-analysis. A total of 1423 papers were collected for inclusion in this stage.

Subsequently, the studies were examined to ensure that they fulfilled certain criteria for meta-analysis. First, only studies investigating the daytime workers with the provision of working hours were extracted. Therefore, the studies involving night shift-work schedule and overtime without providing contract hours or regular working hours, for instance, Akerstedt et al. [ 58 ] and Sato et al. [ 38 ], were excluded from further analysis. Second, papers providing insufficient data for the calculation of odds ratios with 95% confidence interval, such as Shields [ 33 ], Beckers et al. [ 59 ] and Jeon et al. [ 60 ], were excluded. Forty-eight published papers were ultimately selected at this stage. Figure 1 shows the flow diagram of paper extraction for this meta-analysis.

Flow diagram of the study selection process.

2.2. Coding Procedures

The selected studies fulfilling the inclusion criteria were coded into different categories. Regarding the attributes of the participants, four categories were adopted to describe the information extracted, namely, number of participants, country of origin, gender, and working class. The category of number of participants involved the total sample size with, if available, the number of males and females. The category of working class included white collar occupations (management and professional), pink collar occupations (nursing, teaching, and service-oriented work) and blue collar occupations (physical and manual labour workers). The features of the studies were coded into five categories, namely, study design, diagnosis method, reference working hours, different working hours and health measure. Case-control study, cross-section study and prospective cohort study were the main study designs selected, and the follow-up years were extracted for available prospective cohort studies. Self-reports and health or medical examinations were the major diagnosis methods used to evaluate the health conditions of the participants in the studies. The reference working hours were the working hours determined by the authors of a study as the base for an odds ratio of 1.00. The working hours in each selected study were considered for analysing their effects on the occupational health of workers. In the meta-analysis, only the working hours longer than the reference working hours and their corresponding odds ratios were included in the analysis. The category of health measure was to identify occupational health conditions. The occupational health conditions were coded into five categories: (1) physiological health (PH), (2) mental health (MH), (3) health behaviours (HB), (4) related health (RH), and (5) nonspecified health (NH). The classification of the occupational health conditions was based on the meta-analysis conducted by Sparks et al. [ 5 ], who explained that the occupational health problems arising from long working hours covered a broad spectrum of health measures and that length of working hours will influence various aspects of health in different ways. Therefore, the health measures were sorted to identify the relationship between different length of working hours and various aspects of health. Physiological health refers to the functions of the body which can be affected by a large variety of diseases and disabilities [ 61 ]. Mental health is the subjective recognition of potential competence to cope with stresses in life [ 1 ]. Health behaviours involve a number of activities for the prevention of diseases and the enhancement of well-being, including healthy diets, exercises, no smoking and no alcohol drinking [ 62 , 63 ]. Regarding related health, according to Sparks et al. [ 5 ], sleep and fatigue are not easily categorised into physiological health or mental health. Hence, related health was defined to cover health measures associated with sleep and fatigue. Further, injury can result from chronic accumulated exhaustion [ 64 ], which cannot be categorised as physiological or mental aspects of health [ 1 , 65 , 66 ]. Therefore, injury and hurt were placed in the category of related health. For situations where health measures were not specified, the category of nonspecified health was applied. The odds ratios with 95% confidence interval between working hours and health measures were calculated to identify relationships between working hours and health measures.

2.3. Meta-Analysis

Statistical analysis on the relationships of different lengths of working hours and occupational health conditions (PH, MH, HB, RH and NH) based on odds ratios was used for the meta-analysis. There are two common statistical models in meta-analysis, namely, the fixed effects model and random effects model. The random effects model was adopted in the meta-analysis here due to the variety of effects in the studies caused by different variables, such as study designs, method of data collection and adjustment for the results involved in the studies [ 67 ]. The odds ratios produced by the random effects model were obtained from the meta-analysis. The consistency of the results was tested by the heterogeneity indicator, I-squared (I 2 ) statistic. The value of I 2 shows the variations of the studies in term of percentage [ 68 , 69 ]. The greater the value of I 2 , the more considerable the heterogeneity, and a value of zero means homogeneity. Furthermore, the publication bias of the five effect sizes was tested by the trim and fill analysis in which an asymmetry shape in the funnel plots implied the existence of publication bias [ 70 ]. The vertical axis with precision was used to detect publication bias in the meta-analysis [ 71 ]. Seven variables (gender, diagnosis method, study design, cut-off point for long working hours, working class, country of origin and health measure) were selected to identify possible effects on heterogeneity [ 72 ].

3.1. Characteristics of Selected Papers

Forty-eight papers were selected for this meta-analysis before the coding procedures. The odds ratio (OR) for two papers [ 73 , 74 ] could not be generated by the Comprehensive Meta Analysis software (Biostat, Inc., Englewood, NJ, USA) used because log values for lower and upper limits were not symmetric. Therefore, these two records were excluded, and data from the remaining 46 papers with 243 records were used for the meta-analysis. Amongst the 46 papers, 12 were used in a previous meta-analysis conducted by Kang et al. [ 21 ], Virtanen et al. [ 19 ] and Kivimäki et al. [ 22 , 75 ]. Kang et al. [ 21 ] selected the effects with the longest working hours in each target. However, in this paper, the effects of the working hours being longer than the reference working hours in each health-related illness were extracted for conducting the meta-analysis. Virtanen et al. [ 19 ] focused on the comparison of the effect sizes in prospective studies and case-control studies. However, this paper examined the effects of a prospective cohort study, case-control study and cross-sectional study. Further, there were two meta-analyses using both published and unpublished data conducted by Kivimäki et al. [ 22 , 75 ]. Kivimäki et al. [ 75 ] investigated the influence of socioeconomic status stratification on the overall effect size. Nevertheless, the effect of working class was explored in this paper. Kivimäki et al. [ 22 ] assessed effect sizes by categorising the weekly working hours into five groups. However, a cut-off point for weekly working hours and daily working hours was adopted to evaluate the effects. The results of the meta-analysis reported here are shown in Table S1 , which gives information and odds ratios for each record based on the coding procedures criteria. Table 1 summarises the percentage contributions of the characteristics of each of the selected 46 papers to this analysis. As can be seen, 26.09% of the papers were published between 1998 and 2007 and 73.91% between 2008 and 1998. For study design, the percentages of case-control study, cross-sectional stud, and prospective cohort study were 10.87%, 54.35% and 34.78%, respectively. There were 61.59% of studies in Asian countries, namely: Japan (36.59%), Korea (19.57%) and China (5.43%). The remaining 38.41% studies were Western countries, namely: the United Kingdom (15.94%), Spain (4.35%), the United States (6.52%), Finland (0.72%), Australia (1.09%), Denmark (4.35%), Sweden (2.17%), Italy (2.17%) and New Zealand (1.09%). The percentages of the number of males and females in the studies were 58.73% and 41.27%, respectively. The total sample size for the meta-analysis was 814,084 participants. Of the 46 papers, the study of O’ Reilly and Rosato in 2013 [ 76 ] contributed the largest number to the sample size (414,949). The study of Fukuoka et al. [ 9 ] contributed the smallest number to the sample size (97) in their case-control study.

Characteristics of the 46 papers analysed.

3.2. Random-Effects Model of Long Working Hours and Occupational Health Conditions

The coding procedures for classification of the health measures for the meta-analysis were conducted to compare the five occupational health conditions: physiological health (PH), mental health (MH), health behaviours (HB), related health (RH) and nonspecified health (NH). Table 2 shows the number of records, odds ratios with 95% confidence interval, the heterogeneity of the random-effects model and the adjustment for publication bias for each occupational health condition. The number of records on conditions of physiological health, mental health, health behaviours, related health and nonspecified health were 85, 55, 35, 54 and 14, respectively. The overall odds ratio between long working hours and occupational health conditions was 1.245 (95% CI: 1.195–1.298). Of the five conditions, related health had the highest odds ratio of 1.465 (95% CI: 1.332–1.611), followed in decreasing values by mental health (OR: 1.366; 95% CI: 1.238–1.507), physiological health (OR: 1.177; 95% CI: 1.102–1.257), health behaviours (OR: 1.110; 95% CI: 1.004–1.204), and the smallest odds ratio was nonspecified health (OR: 1.065; 95% CI: 0.942–1.204).

Results of meta-analysis between long working hours and occupational health conditions and the adjustment for publication bias.

PH = physiological health, MH = mental health, HB = health behaviours, RH = related health, NH = nonspecified health, OR = odds ratio.

The presence of publication bias was assessed by the trim-and-fill analysis. To adjust the publication bias in the meta-analysis, new data points were imputed to the funnel plot to achieve a homogeneous result. Publication bias was found for the conditions of physiological health, mental health and related health (see Table 2 ). For physiological health, six new data points were imputed in the funnel plot, and the odds ratio decreased to 1.118 (95% CI: 1.041–1.200). Twelve new data points were imputed to the condition of mental health, and the odds ratio decreased to 1.197 (95% CI: 1.072–1.336). There were seven new data points for the related health condition to adjust for the presence of publication bias, which produced a smaller odds ratio of 1.323 (95% CI: 1.188–1.473). The conditions of health behaviours and nonspecified health showed homogeneous results. Figure 2 shows the adjustment for the publication bias for the conditions of physiological health, mental health and related health.

Funnel plot of precision by log odds ratio of long working hours on occupational health. Hollow circles are original data and solid circles are imputed data after adjustment for publication bias. ( a ) Physiological health, ( b ) mental health, ( c ) related health.

The statistic of I 2 was used to examine heterogeneity ( Table 2 ). The value of I 2 for the conditions of physiological health, mental health, health behaviours, related health and nonspecified health were 67.13%, 55.73%, 59.66%, 68.68% and 63.54%, respectively. Considering that 50% represented a substantial heterogeneity [ 68 , 69 ], the heterogeneity was a problem for these five conditions. Therefore, moderator analysis was conducted to identify the potential sources of the heterogeneity.

3.3. Moderator Analysis

A moderator analysis was conducted to investigate the possible sources of the heterogeneity using a meta-regression ( Table 3 ). The moderators selected for the meta-regression analysis were gender (only for studies that reported separate effect sizes for males and females), diagnosis method, study design, cut-off point for long working hours (excluding studies that investigated working hours overlapping the cut-off point for long working hours of 50 working hours per week, or 10 working hours per day), working class, country of origin and health measure. The hypothesis for the effect size variations caused by these seven factors was tested by the p -values of meta-regression. The meta-regression p -values for the gender, study design, cut-off point for long working hours, working class and country of origin, were 0.055, 0.209, 0.000, 0.000, 0.517 and 0.000, respectively. The effects of health measures were grouped in five categories (PH, MH, HB, RH and NH). The condition of nonspecified health was precluded because there was only one subgroup. The meta-regression p -values of PH, MH, HB and RH were 0.000, 0.407, 0.521 and 0.048, respectively. The effects of study design, cut-off point for long working hours, country of origin and health measure in the conditions of physiological health and related health were statistically significant. The effect size was not influenced by gender, diagnosis method, working class, mental health or related health.

The association of long working hours with occupational health in relation to gender, diagnosis, study design, cut-off point for long working hours, working class, country of origin and health measure for the conditions of physiological health, mental health, health behaviours, related health and nonspecified health (effect sizes adjusted, when appropriate, for age, gender, educational level and occupation).

** p -value < 0.01. * p -value < 0.05.

For study design, the effects were statistically significant for case-control study and cross-sectional study ( p < 0.001), with odds ratios of 1.811 and 1.338, respectively. The impact of long working hours on occupational health was stronger for case-control study than for cross-sectional study.

For cut-off point for long working hours, the effects were statistically significant for ‘>50 h/week or >10 h/day’ and ‘≤50 h/week or ≤10 h/day’ ( p < 0.01), with odds ratios of 1.420 and 1.097, respectively. The workers working more than 50 h per week or more than 10 per day had a higher risk of experiencing occupational health problems than those working 50 or less hours per week or 10 hours or less per day.

For country of origin, the effects were statistically significant for the subgroups of Asian countries and Western countries ( p < 0.001), with odds ratios of 1.321 and 1.180, respectively. The four subgroups in Asian countries were: ‘China’, ‘China and Japan’, ‘Japan’ and ‘Korea’. The participants in the study conducted by Tayama and Munakata [ 77 ] involved both Chinese and Japanese without specifying the proportions. Therefore, this study was regarded as an individual subgroup in the analysis. The effects were statistically significant in the subgroups ‘China’, ‘Japan’ and ‘Korea’ ( p < 0.001), with odds ratios for the subgroups of 1.745, 1.333 and 1.237, respectively. China showed the strongest effect for long working hours on occupational health. The eight subgroups in the Western countries subgroup were: ‘Australia and New Zealand’, ‘Denmark’, ‘Finland’, ‘Italy’, ‘Spain’, ‘Sweden’, the ‘United Kingdom’ and the ‘United States’. The effects were statistically significant for the subgroups ‘Australia and New Zealand’, ‘Spain’, ‘the United Kingdom’ and ‘the United States’ ( p < 0.05), with odds ratios of 1.230, 1.248, 1.083 and 1.274, respectively. The United States showed the strongest effect for long working hours on occupational health.

For the health measure category, among the five physiological illnesses in the condition of physical health, the effects were statistically significant for the subgroups ‘cardiovascular heart diseases’ and ‘metabolic syndrome’ ( p < 0.01), with odds ratios of 1.539 and 1.110, respectively. Long working hours were more strongly associated with cardiovascular heart diseases than with metabolic syndrome. In the related health condition, the effects were statistically significant in the subgroups of fatigue, injury, poor sleep quality, short sleep duration and sleep disturbance ( p < 0.05), with odds ratios of 1.439, 1.276, 1.276, 1.909 and 1.395, respectively. Out of the five health problems, short sleep duration was the most severe health problem associated with working long hours.

The effects of working class on the relationship between long working hours and each condition (PH, MH, HB, RH and NH) were examined. The meta-regression p -values for physiological health, mental health, health behaviours, related health and nonspecified health were 0.485, 0.595, 0.216, 0.001 and 0.161, respectively. The effect of working class on the condition of related health was statistically significant. The effect was statistically significant in the subgroup of blue collar occupations, with an odds ratio of 1.366. Table 4 shows the moderating effect of working class on the association between long working hours and the five conditions (physiological health, mental health, health behaviours, related health and nonspecified health).

Moderating effect of working class on the association of long working hours with physiological health, mental health, health behaviours, related health and nonspecified health (effect sizes adjusted, when appropriate, for age, gender, educational level and occupation).

* p -value < 0.01.

4. Discussion

This meta-analysis synthesising 243 records from 46 papers with 814,084 participants from 13 countries demonstrated that long working hours had a positive relationship with occupational health problems. The aggregated odds ratio for the effect of long working hours on occupational health was 1.245 (95% CI: 1.195–1.298). Amongst the five occupational health conditions, the condition ‘related health’ showed the strongest association with long working hours; the health measures in this category were short sleep duration, sleep disturbance, sleep problem, exhaustion and injuries.

4.1. The Effects of Long Working Hours on Sleep, Fatigue and Injuries

Based on the odds ratios of the five health measures for the condition of related health, short sleep duration had the highest odds ratio and is the problem to be most concerned about with regard to long working hours. Studies referred to in this meta-analysis were concerned with investigating the relationship between long working hours and short sleep duration [ 8 , 47 , 48 , 78 ]. The length of hours defined for short sleep was less than 6 h per day by Artazcoz et al. [ 8 ] and Ohtsu et al. [ 78 ], and less than 7 h per day by Virtanen et al. [ 48 ]. These four studies demonstrated that the longer the working hours, the higher risk of suffering from insufficient sleep for both male and female workers. Virtanen et al. [ 48 ] found that the odds ratios for both males and females working more than 55 h per week were higher than those working 41 to 55 h per week. Nakashima et al. [ 47 ] found that the values for odds ratios between long working hours and short sleep duration were proportional to the relationship with the working hours. Artazcoz et al. [ 8 ] showed that the odds ratio between working 51 to 60 h per week and short sleep duration was higher than the odds ratio for working 41 to 50 h per week. Interestingly, this study also showed that female workers had a higher chance of experiencing short sleep duration than male workers when both worked 51 to 60 h per week. The problems suffered by female workers were more severe than for male workers when working long hours. Conversely, the result from Ohtsu [ 78 ] conflicted with that from Artazcoz [ 8 ] in that male workers tended to experience the problem of short sleep duration more than female workers while working from 9 h to less than 11 h per day. Several studies have reported that the length of sleep for females was longer than for males [ 79 , 80 , 81 ]. However, some researchers suggested that female workers do more unpaid work than males, for example, housework, which reduces the duration of sleep for female workers [ 82 , 83 ]. The effect of long working hours on short sleep duration based on the gender difference needs to be further investigated. In addition, the studies just investigated the relationship between working hours and sleep hours, which might potentially neglect other causes of short sleep, such as spending much time on leisure and social activities [ 84 ]. Research suggests that short sleep duration seriously threatens the health of workers. Many researchers have examined the adverse effects of short sleep duration. Short sleep duration increases the risk of suffering from cardiovascular heart diseases [ 85 ], coronary heart diseases [ 86 , 87 ], obesity [ 88 , 89 , 90 ], hypertension [ 91 ] and type 2 diabetes mellitus [ 92 , 93 ]. The consciousness on the importance of sleep of the workers should be enhanced. Fatigue was the items in the condition of related health constituting the second highest value of odds ratio. One of the reasons resulting in fatigue or exhaustion was undoubtedly insufficient sleep [ 85 ]. Exhaustion adversely influences the performance of workers and the productivity of organisations [ 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 ]. Sleep disturbance was also a health problem yielding a significant effect in the conditions of related health and involves difficulty in falling asleep, insomnia and disorder during different stages of sleep [ 98 ]. Sleep disturbance affects the mental health, circadian rhythms and cognitive function of workers [ 99 , 100 ]. In the long-term, sleep disturbance can lead to cardiovascular diseases, obesity and diabetes [ 101 ]. The impacts resulting from the problem of sleep are intimately linked with various physiological and mental health problems defined as occupational health problems by the World Health Organization. To ensure the good duration of sleep for workers, guidelines should be provided to publicise the most appropriate sleeping hours as well as to raise public consciousness on the importance of the duration and quality of sleep.

4.2. Effects of Moderators

This meta-analysis evaluated the effects of various moderators to identify the associations between such moderators and long working hours, and the consequences for occupational health. Health measure is a significant moderator on the effect sizes of the conditions of physiological health and related health. In the condition of physiological health, a considerable increase was found in the effect size of cardiovascular heart diseases and a slight increase was found in the effect size of metabolic syndrome. This finding means that workers working long hours have a higher risk of suffering from cardiovascular heart diseases and metabolic syndrome compared to those not working long hours. Some studies have demonstrated that the risk of cardiovascular heart diseases was caused by increase in weekly work hours [ 102 , 103 ]. Yu [ 104 ] reported that long working hours, especially 60 or more per week, increased the risk of metabolic syndrome. In the condition of related health, a significant increase in the effect sizes of fatigue, injury, poor sleep quality, short sleep duration and sleep disturbance was found. This indicates that workers are more likely to experience health problems when working long hours. This result is consistent with the study of Afonso et al. [ 30 ], which demonstrated that longer work hours resulted in poorer sleep quality and more severe sleep disturbance. Similarly, Son et al. [ 105 ] reported that the main factor affecting sleepiness was long working hours. Akerstedt et al. [ 58 ] noted that long working hours resulted in sleep disturbance and fatigue. Lombardi et al. [ 106 ] also pointed out that increase in working hours led to a decrease in daily sleep hours and an increased risk of work-related injury.

The statistically significant effects of study design showed that the method of case-control study was a stronger estimator than cross-sectional study for the impact of working long hours on occupational health. This result may be due to the characteristics of the study methods in terms of the selection of the participants. For a case-control study, a number of participants with certain diseases or situations should be selected as the case group, and a number of participants without the diseases or situations should be selected as the control group. With case-control study design, the associated risk factors and diseases may be promptly identified, and establishment of causation is more powerful than in a cross-sectional study [ 107 ]. The problem of cross-sectional studies is the nonrepresentative sampling due to the existence of bias between participants and nonparticipants [ 107 ]. Thus, case-control study design yields a stronger association between long working hours and occupational health than cross-sectional study design. The nonsignificant effect of a prospective cohort study may be due to a relatively low bias method of selecting participants.

Country of origin has a significant influence on the overall effect size. It was found that the effects of long working hours on the occupational health of Asian workers were more severe than for Western workers. A few studies have reported that workers in Asian Countries have longer working hours than workers in Western countries [ 108 , 109 ]. Overwork seems to be common in China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan, and it has been reported that many workers in these countries and cities suffer from cardiovascular heart diseases and cerebrovascular diseases due to overwork [ 110 , 111 , 112 ]. The governments of Japan, Korea and Taiwan have formulated and established a series of regulations to prevent death from overwork, for instance, the implementation of standard working hours [ 113 ]. Working hours in these countries became shorter in the wake of the establishment of such standard working hours. However, the definition of standard working hours is still a controversial issue, and many workers have requested that standard working hours should be shorter [ 114 ]. Standard working hours have still not been established in many countries [ 115 ]. The issue of working hours is unavoidable in the long-term struggle among governments, employers and employees. The establishment of standard working hours should be a first step towards resolving the problem of long working hours.

The cut-off point for long working hours has a significant effect on the overall effect size. Workers working more than 50 h per week or more than 10 h per day had a higher chance of experiencing occupational health problems than those working 50 or less hours per week or 10 or less hours per day. This finding supports the previous study of Virtanen et al. [ 19 ] that reported that the risk of coronary heart disease for those working more than 50 h per week was higher than those working 50 h or less per week. However, the odds ratio of working more than 50 h per week or more than 10 h per day in this study was 1.420, which was lower than the odds ratio of 2.37 reported by Virtanen et al. [ 19 ]. Further investigation is needed on this odds ratio discrepancy for the effects of long working hours on occupational health. Virtanen et al. [ 19 ] only investigated the association between long working hours and coronary heart disease. The meta-analysis reported here covered different types of occupational health illnesses, making comparisons difficult.

There were no significant effects for gender or diagnosis method. This result for diagnosis method agrees with the finding of Kivimäki et al. [ 22 ] that diagnosis method had no significant effect on the association of long working hours with health. Here, there was also no significant effect for working class.

For the effect of working class on the association between long working hours and the five conditions (PH, MH, HB, RH and NH), working class only constitutes a significant influence on the effect size of related health (sleep problem, chronic exhaustion, and occupational injury) in which the blue collar occupations had a higher risk of suffering from health problems than white and pink collar occupations. This finding might be due to the low control over own working time [ 116 ]. This is an important issue for future research.

4.3. Comparison of Previous Meta-Analysis

In a previous meta-analysis conducted by Sparks et al. [ 5 ], they found a small positive correlation between long hours of work and health, and the value of the correlation of psychological health was higher than for physiological health. In the study reported here, it was found that long working hours increased the chance of suffering from occupational health problems by 24.3%, and the chance of suffering from the mental health problems was higher than that of suffering physiological health problems. These results were in agreement with the study by Sparks et al. [ 5 ]. However, the difference was that this study covered broader health measures than the study by Sparks et al. [ 5 ]. This broader coverage may reflect the issue that more occupational health problems were caused by long working hours and reported on in the review period (1998–2018) used here. In addition, it was found in the study reported here that the effect of long working hours on cardiovascular heart diseases had a higher odds ratio of 1.56 (95% CI: 1.344–1.824) than in the study by Kang et al. [ 21 ] in 2012 (OR: 1.37; 95% CI: 1.11–1.70). A major difference between the work reported in this analysis and the analysis by Kang et al. [ 21 ] was that in this analysis, more studies on the effect of long working hours on cardiovascular heart diseases were involved than were in Kang et al. [ 21 ]. This meta-analysis was conducted with the addition of the more recent studies of Fukuoka et al. [ 9 ], Virtanen et al. [ 117 ], Cheng et al. [ 13 ], Jeong et al. [ 118 ] and Ma et al. [ 119 ]. The increase of odds ratio from this meta-analysis to that of Kang et al. [ 21 ] suggests that the risk of suffering from cardiovascular heart diseases for overtime workers has increased in recent years, though more work is required to clarify the issue. The study of Virtanen et al. [ 117 ] could not be compared with the study reported here, as coronary heart disease was considered as just one of the diseases in the category of cardiovascular heart diseases in this study. A meta-analysis conducted by Kivimäki et al. [ 75 ] examined the relationship between long working hours and the risk of type 2 diabetes by socioeconomic status stratification. Kivimäki et al. [ 75 ], reported only that the effect size of the low socioeconomic status group was robust with a risk ratio of 1.29 (95% CI: 1.06–1.17) and null for the high socioeconomic status group. In the study reported here, it was found that the odds ratio of the effect of long working hours on the risk of type 2 diabetes was 0.855 (95% CI: 0.497–1.472). The discrepancy in the results between these two studies might be because 82.6% (19 of 23) of the papers used in the meta-analysis by Kivimäki et al. [ 75 ] were unpublished. Further, socioeconomic status includes various demographic variables such as income, educational level and occupation. These variables for socioeconomic status make it difficult to compare results from different studies [ 120 ]. For instance, an individual with a high educational level should belong to the high socioeconomic status group. However, a high educational level might not imply a high-income level (high socioeconomic status group). To avoid this contradiction, this study adopted working class instead of socioeconomic status stratification. However, comparing with the meta-analysis conducted by Kivimäki et al. [ 22 ], in the study here, coronary heart disease and stroke were categorised in the same group, cardiovascular heart diseases, and thus, no comparisons could be made. Further, 78.26% (18 of 23) of the selected papers in the study of Kivimäki et al. [ 22 ] were unpublished, whereas the meta-analysis reported here only included published papers. The reason was that unpublished data involved the privacy concerns of employers and employees and, therefore, the companies and agencies involved had not given permission for the data to be made public.

4.4. Theoretical Implications

There is increasing attention on the effects of long working hours on various types of occupational health problems, and a relatively large amount of related publications over the past decade was seen. Compared with the types of health problems caused by long working hours in the meta-analysis of Sparks and Cooper in 1997 [ 5 ], a relatively larger amount of different types of health problems caused by long working hours was identified in this meta-analysis. This reflected that long working hours seem to become a perilous act threatening the health of workers. Based on the results of this meta-analysis, the strongest association between long working hours and short sleep duration was found. Interconnected relationships between various types of occupational health problems were shown. Short sleep duration was shown to adversely affect the physical and mental health of workers working for long hours. In addition, gender difference on the sleep duration was also a significant finding in this study. In many countries, male and female workers may have different roles in their daily lives. This can affect the time allocation for their work and other life aspects. There is still a dispute on which gender tends to have a relatively short sleep duration in view of different specific roles between males and females. Further, working class, a commonly neglected factor in past studies, was found to be a significant factor for the difference of length of working hours in this study. It was found that blue collar workers had a higher risk of experiencing the occupational health problems than white and pink collar workers.

4.5. Practical Implications

This study provides evidence for governments, employers and employees about the negative effects of long working hours on the health of workers. Governments should clearly recognise the importance of maintaining the health of workers because the productivity of the workforce is what sustains the development and enhancement of society and the economy. Governments should work to establish standard working hours as a useful step towards safeguarding the health and well-being of workers. If no maximum working hours or standard working hours have been established, the health of workers is threatened by the negative health effects of long working hours. Governments should regularly review working hours and monitor the compliance of companies and employers. Furthermore, companies and employers must recognise that their workers regularly work long hours, recognise the effects on occupational health and endeavour to improve the situation. In addition, employees must be made aware of whether they are working long hours and recognise the potential effects on their physical and mental health wellbeing. Short sleep duration and fatigue are strongly associated with long working hours, and if employees regularly get too little sleep (6 h or less per day), or have chronic fatigue syndrome, they should regulate their daily routine to prevent physical or mental deterioration.

4.6. Limitations

This meta-analysis had several limitations. The studies included were all in English. Some studies published in other languages satisfied the selection requirement. Future analyses will include studies in other languages to conduct a more generalisable result. Further, the odds ratios in each study were adjusted by different control variables, for instance, age, gender, education, health behaviours and marital status, which might affect the final effect sizes. Therefore, the control variables need to be considered for the extraction of odds ratios in each study. The measurement of health problems was through self-reporting, from clinical examination health reports and annual body checks. For those studies containing self-reported health problems, the result may not be as accurate as for those containing health examinations by clinics or hospitals. Some studies combined the result from male and female workers without stating the proportions. However, different proportions of males and females involved in the data might influence the result. In future studies on the effect of long working hours on occupational health, the genders should be better distinguished and reported. Furthermore, in order to provide a unified result and prevent the deviated effects caused by different work schedules, studies investigating the workers with shift work or night work schedule were excluded, and only studies investigating the daytime workers were included in this meta-analysis. Different work schedules may cause different types and extents of detrimental effects on the occupational health of workers. Focusing on the investigation on one type of work schedule can minimise certain work-schedule biased health effects. Thus, the effects of long working hours on the occupational health of night workers and workers of different work shifts were not considered or evaluated in this meta-analysis. In addition, most studies did not classify the workers into an exhaustive working class. It is difficult to analyse the effect of working class on the relationship between long working hours and occupational health. Therefore, a comprehensive working class is suggested for the future studies investigating this issue. In addition, the global economic crisis has been shown as a significant cause leading to long working hours and overtime among organisations in past studies [ 121 , 122 ]. Thus, the extents and effects of dynamics of economic crisis on the association between long working hours and occupational health can be evaluated in future studies.

5. Conclusions

This meta-analysis synthesised 243 records from 46 papers published from 1998 to 2018 to examine the effect of long working hours on the occupational health of workers. Five conditions were classified for occupational health, namely, physiological health, mental health, health behaviours, related health and nonspecified health. The odds ratios and adjustments for publication bias were computed for each condition. The result demonstrated that employees working long hours were vulnerable to suffering from diverse types of occupational health problem. The condition ‘related health’ constituted the highest odds ratio and the health measures included in this condition were short sleep duration, fatigue, sleep disturbance, sleep problem and injury. Workers working long hours had a higher chance of experiencing occupational health problems, and short sleep duration yielded the strongest association with long working hours among the health measures in the related health condition. The findings emphasise the deleterious effects of long working hours on occupational health.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/16/12/2102/s1 , Table S1: The information and odds ratios of the 46 papers (sorted in year of publication).

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, K.W.; methodology, K.W.; software, K.W.; validation, K.W; formal analysis, K.W.; investigation, K.W.; resources, K.W.; data curation, K.W.; writing—original draft preparation, K.W.; writing—review and editing, K.W. and A.H.S.C.; visualisation, K.W.; supervision, K.W., A.H.S.C. and S.C.N.; project administration, K.W., A.H.S.C. and S.C.N.

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Report summary: Working Long Hours: a Review of the Evidence, Volume 1 – Main Report

The overall aim of this study was to bring together research that looked at working time patterns in the UK and made comparisons with the EU and other developed countries, with a view to explaining why the UK workforce had some of the longest working hours in Europe.

Interest in this topic was stimulated by the debate within government, industry and other organisations about the effectiveness of long hours working, particularly with respect to organisational performance and increasing productivity. It was commissioned against the background of increasing demands for better work-life balance and new government measures to tackle long hours working; most notably the Working Time Regulations (WTR) that came into force on 1 October 1998.

Methodology

This report was based on a review of the research literature and secondary analysis of established social survey series: 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Survey (WERS98); the Labour Force Survey (LFS) including the European Community Labour Force Survey (ECLFS); and the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS). It also provided case studies of UK firms that were ‘matched’ with similar EU firms (from France, Germany and Sweden) to ‘test-out’ and ‘contextualise’ survey evidence.

Surveys are used to collect evidence on patterns of working hours. However, comparing evidence from different surveys is not unproblematic, since there are often significant differences between them in how working hours are defined (eg whether it is based on actual or usual hours worked, whether it refers to the main job only or includes other jobs, whether it includes time working at home or in travel to and from work, etc.) There may also be differences in how information is collected (eg whether it is based on recall or on detailed work diaries). These, and other factors related to survey design, can make for difficulties in drawing comparisons, especially when the divergent findings are apparent. These difficulties are evident when comparing the findings of the UK surveys presented in this study. They are compounded in the case of cross-national surveys and case study research when linguistic and cultural factors are also brought into play. Notwithstanding, the overall findings showed a great deal of consistency

What are 'long hours'?

The review of the research literature showed that what constituted ‘long hours working’ was very much subject to debate. People’s own assessments seemed to be based upon their own direct experience, such that long hours working was perceived as a significant departure from their normal working week. However, for the purpose of this report, it was defined as more than 48 hours a week, in line with the WTR.

Most of the research literature and survey data reviewed pre-dated the introduction of the WTR. These findings should not, therefore, be used to draw conclusions either about employers’ or employees’ compliance with, or the impact of, the Working Time Regulations 1998.

Who is working long hours?

• Eleven per cent of employees in the UK were working long hours (over 48 hours a week).
• There were clear gender differences. Men were significantly more likely to work long hours than women.
• Men with children were slightly more likely to work longer hours than those without, while women with children were less likely to work long hours than those without.
• There were also clear life-cycle differences, with people aged between 30 and 49 being the most likely to work long hours.
• Managers, professionals and operative and assembly workers were those occupations most likely to work long hours. Amongst women who worked long hours, two-thirds were in managerial and professional occupations (23 per cent and 40 per cent respectively).
• Some research suggested that there were significant differences in the incidence of long hours working across the managerial grades, with top managers the most likely to be working over sixty hours a week.
• Over two-thirds of managerial and professional long hours workers were neither paid nor given time-off in lieu. This contrasts sharply with craft and skilled, services, operative and assembly workers, where well over half were compensated in some way for working extra hours (WERS98).
• The sectors with a particularly high incidence of long hours working were construction, transport, communication and agriculture, forestry and fishing. The incidence of long hours working was higher in the private sector than the public sector.

Are things getting better?

• The proportion of UK employees working long hours had increased over the previous decade, notwithstanding that between 1988 and 1998 the basic average weekly standard hours fell for both men and women (from 40.2 to 39.3 and 37.4 to 36.8, respectively).
• The increase in long hours working was primarily due to the increased use of overtime both paid and unpaid. The large rise in unpaid overtime among women was likely to reflect the increase in the numbers of women employed in managerial and professional occupations.
• Over one-third of men with children in the household worked more than 50 hours per week in 1998, which was a six per cent rise over the previous decade (Harkness, LFS).
• The incidence of long working hours increased over the decade 1988 to 1998 following a period of long-term decline. Uniquely, in the UK this had been accompanied by a growing polarisation in working hours, with some groups working longer and others working shorter hours.

Reasons given for long hours working

• Manual and non-manual workers gave significantly different reasons for long hours working. The reasons given for long hours working depended greatly on whether overtime was paid or not paid (WERS98).
• Paid overtime was most commonly found amongst manual occupations. Where overtime was paid, the main reason given for overtime working was to ‘increase pay’, while the second most important reason was related to the need to meet the requirements of the job (WERS98).
• Unpaid overtime was most common amongst manual and professional workers. Where overtime was unpaid, the main reasons given for overtime working were related to the requirements of the job (WERS98).
• Amongst managerial and professional workers, there was a clear association between the amount of overtime worked and current levels of pay. This lends support to the view that managers and professional staff work long hours in anticipation/expectation of higher earnings in the future (BHPS). (However, more detailed statistical analysis suggests that the link between hours worked and earnings may be more complex).
• The review of the research literature, backed up by the findings from the case studies, suggested that a major reason for long hours working, particularly when it was unpaid, was the volume of work. Factors perceived to be associated with increasing volumes of work relate to new organisational initiatives (including flattening organisational structures due to de-layering, increases in project based working, a greater emphasis on customer focus, meetings culture), staff shortages (including demands upon specialist staff), IT/email overload, and increasing need for some employees to travel for their work.
• The review of the research literature suggested that the attitudes and expectations of managers and, in some cases, workgroup members could be critical in engendering a long hours culture where ‘being present’ was valued as a sign of commitment to work. The case studies suggested that cultural pressures were likely to be particularly prevalent amongst employers of non-manual workers, where the behaviour and attitudes of managers and work colleagues combinde to push up the level of unpaid overtime.
• Other reasons given for long hours working included job insecurity, employee preference, occupational commitment and career enhancement.
• Overall, the research findings showed that many people working long hours did so for a combination of reasons, which could be difficult to disentangle, especially in an organisation or part of an organisation where a long hours culture wass perceived or was known to prevail.

The international context

Eu member states.

• Average working hours in the UK were mid-range across all EU member states when all employees (full-time and part-time employees) were included.
• However, simple international comparisons can be misleading. In particular, the UK position (mid-range) was distorted by the fact that, compared with most other EU states, the UK employed a high proportion of part-time women workers (working fewer than 30 hours a week).
• Amongst full-time employees, the UK showed high levels of long hours working (over 48 hours a week), especially amongst men, where the UK had the highest level of long hours working in the EU. Just over one-fifth (22 per cent) of UK men working full-time worked long hours, compared with an average of one-tenth (11 per cent) across the other EU member states.
• Full-time male managers worked the longest hours in the UK and across the EU member states as a whole. However, (on average) UK managers did not work longer hours than their EU counterparts.
• In the craft, trade, operative and elementary occupations a significantly higher proportion of full-time male employees worked over 48 hours, than in any other EU member state.
• Professional women in the UK worked a higher proportion of long hours than their EU counterparts, though EU women managers were more likely to work long hours than women managers in the UK.
• The UK had comparatively high concentrations of long hours working in the production sectors, in contrast to other EU states, where it was more concentrated in the service sector, particularly hotels and catering.
• Overall, between 1992 and 1999 (on average) there had been very little change in the proportions of long hours working both in the UK and the rest of the EU.

Selected non-European developed economies (USA, Australia and Japan)

• In the USA, a quarter of men and a tenth of women were working more than 48 hours a week. These proportions had risen over recent decades. In common with EU member states, managers were the most likely to work long hours.
• In Australia, around one-third of men were working long hours, which represented a significant increase from one-fifth in 1984. Also, 15 per cent of women worked more than 48 hours a week. As with the USA and EU member states, long hours work in Australia was concentrated amongst managers. However, it was also to be found amongst trades, sales and operative workers.
• In Japan, 36 per cent of men and 15 per cent of women worked over 48 hours per week in 1994. For men this represented a significant cutback in long hours working over the previous decade, when over half of men worked over 48 hours per week in 1984.

Reasons for international differences

The USA, Australia and Japan had significantly higher proportions of long hours working than non-English EU speaking countries. The UK (along with Ireland) appeared to be mid-range, although tended more towards non-EU developed countries. Notwithstanding these generalised national differences, it was clear that long hours working is endemic amongst managerial and professional employees. Research suggested two main reasons for these inter-country variations:

• income inequality: where income inequality was high there was a higher incidence of paid long hours working amongst manual workers (arguably to compensate for relatively low hourly rates)
• statutory and contractual regulation: in particular the existence of working hours legislation pre-dating the European Working Time Directive (Luxembourg, France, Netherlands and Spain) and collective contractual agreements (Germany and Sweden) that reduced working hours.

Cultural factors were also cited. However, the research evidence was limited mainly to Japan.

Employee satisfaction with long hours

In the UK, research showed that dissatisfaction with long hours working and preferences for shorter working hours increased with the number of hours worked. However, this pattern concealed important differences. In particular:

• Women were less likely to be satisfied with their job overall, the more hours they worked. The reverse was true for men. However, satisfaction with promotion prospects increased the more hours that were worked, particularly for women.
• Women, particularly those working long hours, were more likely to want to reduce their working hours.
• The UK case studies suggested that manual workers working long hours, who were able significantly to boost their pay through overtime working, were not only satisfied with their (long) hours but also were resistant to attempts to reduce working hours.

Impact of long hours on employers and employees

Employment and productivity.

There were considerable theoretical and methodological difficulties in measuring the impact of long hours working on organisational performance. Overall, however, on the basis of the evidence, it was not possible to establish conclusively whether long hours working had beneficial, detrimental or neutral overall effects. There was some recent evidence suggesting that reductions in long hours might be a factor associated with increases in employment or productivity. However, it was difficult to isolate the impact of reducing working hours per se, since reductions in long hours working were typically accompanied by other developments, such as changes in work organisation, new capital investment, etc.

Work performance

The review of the research literature showed that long hours working, especially when coupled with sleep disruption, caused deterioration of task performance, because it had detrimental effects on such things as rates of error, pace of work and social behaviour. However, there was no conclusive evidence that long hours working led to lower levels of overall work or organisational performance. Moreover, if it did, it was difficult to establish the working time duration thresholds at which any such effects set in, especially as this was likely to vary significantly according to individual characteristics. The UK case study research suggested that some employers had serious concerns about the adverse impact of long working hours on productivity and quality of output.

Health and safety

The review of the research literature showed clear grounds for concern about the adverse effect of long hours working and (the frequency of) health and safety incidents. However, most of this research focused upon specific occupations (eg long distance lorry drivers, the medical professions), which precluded more general conclusions being drawn.

Motivation, absence and turnover

The review of the research literature showed that there was little robust statistical evidence on the effects of long hours working on employee motivation, absence and turnover. However, self-reporting and organisational case studies suggested that long working hours had a negative effect on motivation, absence and turnover. The analysis of WERS98 revealed a significant association between long hours working and higher staff turnover. However, it was not clear whether long hours working was leading to higher staff turnover or whether high rates of staff turnover made it necessary for remaining employees to work longer hours. The UK case study research showed that some employers were particularly concerned that working long hours might lead to higher levels of sickness absence and staff turnover.

The review of the literature showed that there was a considerable body of research looking at the influence of work patterns on employee health, although most of this focused on employees working unsocial hours or shift patterns, rather than long working hours per se. Here the cumulative research evidence showed that there were associations between long hours working and health outcomes, such as mental health and cardio-vascular problems. The UK case study research suggested a link between long hours working and minor ill-health problems, particularly for non-manual workers.

Work-life balance

The review of the research literature and the UK case studies suggested that many, but by no means all, long hours workers were unhappy with their work-life balance and that their working patterns had a negative impact on their domestic relationships. However, there was no robust statistical evidence that long hours workers were significantly more likely than employees with standard or alternative working hours (eg shift and rotating shift workers, flexible workers, etc.) to perceive that their working arrangements had a detrimental effect on their work-life balance.

Were women more likely to be disadvantaged by long hours working?

The review of the research literature suggested that in organisations characterised by systemic long hours working, women’s careers might be restricted. However, there were few systematic studies to try and establish such a link. The analysis of the BHPS suggested that:

• Partnered women who worked long hours still carried the burden for the main household tasks of cleaning and cooking. This was rare for partnered men working long hours. This might have been part of the explanation why women were more likely than men to be dissatisfied with long hours working.
• Women working long hours were much more likely than those who did not work long hours to report poor health. For women, there was also an association between long hours working and higher levels of mental stress, especially if it was over a sustained period (over a year) and they had a partner. In contrast, men who worked long hours reported being healthier than men who worked shorter hours. However, this might have been the result of healthier people being able to work longer hours and those with ill health having to work fewer hours, rather than long hours working leading to better health.
• Working people’s satisfaction with various aspects of their lives, for example, health, social life and leisure pursuits, tended to decrease with the number of hours worked. Again, this negative effect was much more marked amongst women than men.

Overall, the findings suggested that long hours working put women under greater amounts of pressure and had a greater negative impact on their health, well-being and satisfaction with life than it did for men.

Perceived benefits of long hours working

Little conclusive evidence was available on the benefits of long hours working. However, the review of the research literature and the case studies suggested that, in at least some UK workplaces, manual workers saw positive benefits from long hours working, in that it provided opportunities to increase their earnings, at least in the short term. Also, managers and professional staff saw the benefits of long hours working in improved promotion prospects and/or in providing for greater job security.

Conclusions

• Long hours working was associated with (but was not proved to cause) various negative effects, such as decreased productivity, poor performance, health problems, and lower employee motivation.
• More men than women worked long hours.
• Women were more likely than men to suffer health related problems, if they worked long hours.
• The most common reasons for working long hours were to increase pay (where overtime was paid) or to meet the needs of the job (where it was not paid).

Related publications

•  Working Long Hours: a Review of the Evidence

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• Oct 22, 2022

Many people work long hours, leaving little time for leisure activities - Task 2 Band 9 Essay Sample

Updated: Mar 16

You should spend about 40 minutes on this task.

Write about the following topic:

Many people work long hours, leaving little time for leisure activities.

Does this situation have more advantages or more disadvantages?

Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own knowledge and experiences.

You should write at least 250 words.

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Model Essay 1

In an era dominated by the relentless pursuit of success, many find themselves engrossed in work, significantly curtailing leisure time. This essay posits that the disadvantages of such a lifestyle outweigh its advantages, focusing on the impact on mental health and personal relationships.

The relentless chase for professional achievements often comes at a steep cost to one's mental well-being. Extended work hours can lead to chronic stress, a precursor to numerous psychological issues, including anxiety and depression. The human brain, akin to a machine, necessitates downtime for rejuvenation. Without sufficient leisure activities, which serve as a mental respite, individuals are prone to a burnout, characterized by emotional exhaustion and reduced accomplishment feeling. For instance, a study by the American Psychological Association highlights a direct correlation between leisure deprivation and increased stress levels, underscoring the necessity of balance for mental health.

Moreover, the erosion of personal relationships is a significant consequence of excessive work. Time is a finite resource, and when work monopolizes it, opportunities for nurturing relationships significantly dwindle. Familial bonds and friendships require dedicated attention and time, essential ingredients that become exceedingly scarce when work demands take precedence. This imbalance can lead to a profound sense of isolation and loneliness, further exacerbating mental health issues. The narrative of a successful entrepreneur who, despite professional triumphs, faces familial estrangement vividly illustrates this predicament, highlighting the often overlooked emotional cost of such imbalance.

In conclusion, hard work is crucial for success, yet the sacrifice of leisure time significantly harms mental health and personal relationships. Achieving a balance between work and leisure is vital for a fulfilling life, underscoring the importance of leisure in maintaining well-being and relationships.

Model Essay 2

In today's fast-paced society, the balance between work and leisure is increasingly skewed towards the former, often at the expense of personal well-being. This essay argues that while dedication to one's career is admirable, the resultant marginalization of leisure time is predominantly detrimental, impacting mental health and social connections detrimentally.

The crux of the issue lies in the adverse effects on mental health stemming from excessive work. Psychological research consistently evidences the link between prolonged working hours and elevated stress levels, which can escalate into more serious conditions such as anxiety and depression. Notably, the brain, much like any organ, requires periods of rest to maintain optimal function. The absence of leisure activities, which act as a form of psychological decompression, deprives individuals of this essential recovery time. An illustrative example is found in the tech industry, where high-profile cases of burnout have shed light on the need for leisure to sustain creativity and productivity.

Equally concerning is the impact of extensive work hours on personal and familial relationships. The scarcity of time available for social interactions severely leads to a weakening of bonds that are absolutely crucial for emotional support and well-being. The narrative of a dedicated healthcare professional, who regrettably misses significant family milestones due to unyielding work commitments, serves as a poignant testament to this growing issue. These instances vividly underscore the invaluable role that leisure time plays in nurturing and preserving relationships, contributing significantly to a well-rounded and genuinely fulfilling life.

In conclusion, striving for professional success should not overshadow the importance of leisure, crucial for mental well-being and relationships. A balanced approach between work and leisure is vital for overall life satisfaction. This essay underscores the need to prioritize leisure for a harmonious life.

Sample Essay 3

The increasing trend of extended work hours or overtime has resulted in limited time for leisure. This essay posits that while the primary advantage of this is increased income, there are more disadvantages as this trend causes many diseases in the future.

The financial benefit of working long hours is straightforward - the more time one invests in their job, the more money they can earn. This can provide greater financial security and stability, allowing individuals to live a more comfortable lifestyle and potentially achieve their materialistic goals. In many developing countries, people are willing to work extended hours or overtime to increase their income and improve their standard of living. The correlation between work hours and financial gain is undeniable, making it an attractive option for many people looking to improve their financial situation. For example, in many developing countries, people are sacrificing leisure time to work overtime and earn extra money to maintain a better standard of living or achieve their materialistic aspirations. In this sense, working long hours can provide individuals with a direct and tangible financial benefit.

However, the trend of extended work hours results in limited time for leisure activities, which can have adverse effects on one's health. Prolonged sedentary behaviour, a common by-product of working long hours, can lead to the onset of diseases such as cardiovascular diseases or obesity. For instance, studies have shown that an increasing number of people are becoming overweight due to a lack of physical activity caused by excessive work, resulting in a sedentary lifestyle. This highlights the importance of striking a balance between work and leisure, as the long-term effects of neglecting leisure activities can be detrimental to one's health. By prioritizing leisure pursuits, individuals can maintain a healthy lifestyle, preventing the development of diseases caused by prolonged sedentary behaviour.

In conclusion, while longer work hours may provide financial stability, it is imperative to recognize the potential harm it may cause to one's health in the long term.

Sample Essay 4

All over the world, people’s lifestyles are transforming with their busy work schedules. Though some people consider such a development result in a better income for families, in my opinion, they lead to a lack of communication between family members on the long run. The following paragraphs will elucidate why the disadvantages of these alterations outweigh the advantages.

Nowadays, the long working hours due to fast-paced environment of people’s lives has been damaging familial interactions, and it is becoming almost impossible for parents to spend some quality time together with their children. These days, as the general level of income is relatively lower, most of the parents are required to work full time to stretch out their salaries all through the months. In other words, parents need to spend major share of their days at workplaces, to ensure a better earning. At the end of the day, by the time they arrive home, children have finished with the day and gone for beds. As a result, parents and children cannot have the valuable time together which is must for the children’s proper raising.

In addition, parents would lose the chance to listen to their children or build a strong emotional connection with them. For example, dinner was one of the most important meals in the traditional families, it used to give both parents and children a chance to interact closely and convey messages to the Kids regarding the right manners or other valuable lessons. But this incredible chapter is becoming obsolete because of the unprecedentedly extended working hours. As a result, lesser parental time is not only depriving children from gaining a proper growth, but also it is breeding childhood traumas which can eventually lead to a mental illness in their adult life as well.

To conclude, with the advent of modernisation and the resulting financial strain, parents are getting heavily involved in their professional aspects and earning better money, but it has an extremely detrimental impact on their children’s proper growth. This is how the disadvantages of working for long hours are obviously outweighing its advantages.

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Essay 63 – Many people work long hours

Gt writing task 2 / essay sample # 63.

You should spend about 40 minutes on this task.

Write about the following topic:

Many people work long hours, leaving very little time for leisure activities.

Does this situation have more advantages or more disadvantages?

Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own knowledge or experience.

Write at least 250 words.

Model Answer: [View – it has more disadvantages.]

Many people toil at jobs for extensive hours, thereby having hardly any time for leisure pursuits. Just like everything else, working long hours also has its pros and cons. However, I opine that the disadvantages of working long hours outstrip its advantages.

There are myriad positive aspects of working long hours. One key benefit is increasing earning which gives people’s budget a boost, helping them clear their debts and other expenses. They can also set aside some money for a pension plan. Apart from this, it can help to move up the promotion ladder. In this cut-throat corporate world, putting in extra hours is an excellent approach to impress upper-tier management. Take my brother as an example, he won his well-deserved promotion to chief executive due to working longer hours.

On the contrary, the drawbacks of working longer hours cannot be overlooked. Fast and foremost, people with sedentary working hours can severely ruin both physical and mental health. In simple words, it increases the risk of heart disease and is as detrimental to health as smoking. Likewise, many research work has discovered that intense stress of work can cause depression, insomnia, and other mental health concerns. Secondly, it can lead to job dissatisfaction as excessive overtime can drain energy and creativity, which in turn reduces productivity and one may stagnate in career. Last but not least, working longer hours significantly reduces personal time; which translates into less sleep, less time for family members and socializing. A recent study shows that excessive overtime can cause serious family-conflict and the divorce rate augments accordingly.

In fine, although there are significant benefits to working long hours, it is clear that the downsides outweigh the good points. On balance, we should maintain a healthy work-life balance because it is the key to health, relationships, productivity and ultimately work performance.

One Comment to “Essay 63 – Many people work long hours”

Essay Answer: People, these days, do not spend much time on leisure activities and keep on working for long hours. In my opinion, this situation brings more disadvantages. This will probably give rise to health issues, poor performance at work, and unhealthy social and personal life.

A couple of consequences can be provided to display the bad aspects of working long hours and having no or little time for leisure activities. Firstly, long working hours may be the reason for both physical and mental health issues among many working people. This is because people are so focused on their work that they neither do any exercises nor have healthy diets. In fact, this will ultimately lead to immense stresses and poor performance in offices. Secondly, these people will gradually lose the social life and have a troublesome personal life. For instance, Mr Kumal in my office, who works really long hours every day, has very fewer friends compared to others. He never allocates time out of his busy schedule to talk with friends and this has tremendously hurt his social life.

Moreover, some people believe that working long hours means there is a scope for more earning and timely accomplishment of office works. But, in my mind, health is always important than wealth, and it is necessary to look after health issues rather than earning some more money. If an employee’s health condition deteriorates, he or she will no longer be able to work and earn. This would lead to even more devastating situations. And according to many experts, it is better to have some solid investment plans to make money instead of working overtime.

To conclude, working long hours just to accomplish work on time or make more money means we are walking towards the situation where our health would be affected sooner than expected. In addition, it will hamper our personal and social life. So it is expected that employees would work sincerely during their recommended working hours and avoid working for long hours by all means.

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People tend to work longer hours nowadays. Working long hours has a negative effect on themselves, their family and the society so working long hours should be restricted. Do you agree or disagree.

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Ielts essay # 1288 - many people work long hours, leaving little time for leisure, ielts writing task 2/ ielts essay:, many people work long hours, leaving very little time for leisure activities., does this situation have more advantages or more disadvantages.

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The Impact of Right-to-Work Laws on Long Hours and Work Schedules

Unions play a crucial role in determining wages and employment outcomes. However, union bargaining power may also have important effects on non-pecuniary working conditions. We study the effects of right-to-work laws, which removed agency shop protection and weakened union powers on long hours and non-standard work schedules that may adversely affect workers' health and safety. We exploit variation in the timing of enactment across US states and compare workers in bordering counties across adopting states and states that did not adopt the laws yet. Using the stacked approach to difference-in-differences estimates proposed by Cengiz et al. (2019), we find evidence that right-to-work laws increased the share of workers working long hours by 6%, while there is little evidence of an impact on hourly wages. The effects on long hours are larger in more unionized sectors (i.e. construction, manufacturing, and transportation). While the likelihood of working non-standard hours increases for particular sectors (education and public administration), there is no evidence of a significant increase in the overall sample.

I have read the NBER disclosure policy and attest that this acknowledgment discloses all sources of funding and all material and relevant financial relationships. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

MARC RIS BibTeΧ

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Breaking Bad: When Overworking Becomes Problematic

Can you have too much of an admirable quality.

Posted March 13, 2024 | Reviewed by Davia Sills

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• As working hard is perceived as a virtue, overworking can be a difficult habit to break.
• Overwork leads to a drop in productivity, stress, and burnout.
• Breaking unhealthy habits for overwork and creating a healthier work-life balance are goals worth working on.

Most of us consider working hard a virtue. We value and admire those who work endlessly and rarely take time for themselves. We come by our devotion to work honestly. We are taught from an early age that in order to achieve goals and make something of ourselves, we need to work hard and that hard work is a virtue.

The reality is that there are times in our working lives when we feel it is important to go that extra mile to show our value to employers, teachers, or mentors. Going above and beyond what is expected of us signals our value as an employee, our commitment to a task or goal, and our willingness to do what needs to be done to get ahead.

The downside of overwork

There are times when going that extra mile or burning the midnight oil to make that impossible deadline is counterproductive. As many a productive high achiever will tell you, the employee who works efficiently and effectively and out-performs colleagues is often rewarded with an increased workload .

According to a 2022-23 Aflac Workforces Report, 59 percent of workers report experiencing “at least moderate level of burnout . Furthermore, while people are working longer hours than ever and experiencing high levels of burnout , according to 2023 Pew research , close to half of American workers take less time off than they are entitled to.

The expanding workweek

While the 40-hour work week has long been the norm, the number of hours a week the average employee works is increasing. A 2021 Gallup survey found that the average full-time employee works 44 hours a week and that a whopping 41 percent work 45 or more hours each week. Remote and hybrid workplaces —where employees work at least some of the time from home—can lead to overwork and eat into time with family, time to relax, and even time to sleep.

Numerous studies report that overwork can lead to a drop in productivity. A 2019 Sanford University study reports that working over 50 hours a week results in a sharp decline in productivity .

Stress, burnout, and disconnection

Falling into habits of overwork can result in chronic stress and burnout. The impacts of chronic workplace stress and burnout include physical symptoms like fatigue, hypertension, difficulty concentrating, irritability, changes in appetite , insomnia , headaches, and—in the long-term—an increased risk of type 2 diabetes and serious heart issues. Mental health symptoms related to chronic stress and burnout include depression , anxiety , feelings of detachment, isolation, a decline in job satisfaction, and disconnection from friends and family members.

Working toward work-life balance

Renowned singer-songwriter Hoyt Axton—best known for having penned the song “Joy to the World”—offers a humorous take on overwork in a song that poses the question: Work your fingers to the bone, what do you get? The answer, and the song’s title: “Boney fingers!”

Though there are occasions when we are unable to avoid working longer hours than usual, falling into regular, long-term patterns of overworking can damage our work-life balance, which negatively impacts our physical and mental health, our relationships with others, and our ability to stay connected to ourselves.

How to combat overwork and achieve a greater work-life balance

Breaking unhealthy habits around overwork and striving to create a healthier work-life balance are goals worth working on. Here are eight steps to help break patterns of overwork:

• Bring awareness to your habits around overwork: Awareness is the first step to creating positive change. Tune in to what keeps you working into the wee hours.
• Realize that your resources of time and energy are finite and that habitually dedicating the lion’s share of your limited resources to your working life negatively impacts your relationships and your health.
• Prioritize your workplace tasks, goals, and responsibilities: Be realistic about what you hope to, need to, and can achieve in the course of a day, a week, and within a deadline.
• Ask for help when timelines, responsibilities, and commitments are unrealistic: It is important to be realistic about the time, resources, and support required to meet deadlines, achieve goals, and manage workloads. Talk with team leaders and managers when expectations are unrealistic and require more resources.
• Consider taking your talents elsewhere. If you are constantly struggling with impossible deadlines and managers who are unresponsive to your input or concerns, consider seeking a healthier, more supportive working environment.
• Pay attention to your reasons for overworking. Are you overworking to achieve a goal or to feel worthy and of value?
• Schedule downtime: As those of us who overwork understand, what gets scheduled gets done. Start scheduling leisure activities with family, time for friends, and time to pursue activities that bring you joy.
• Seek the help of a mental health professional: If you are struggling to break entrenched habits of overwork, a therapist can help you address underlying issues, explore your set and maintain healthy boundaries , and create a sustainable work-life balance.

Monica Vermani, C. Psych., is a clinical psychologist specializing in the treatment of trauma, stress, mood and anxiety disorders, and the author of A Deeper Wellness .

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The Issue of Long Working Hours Among Nurses

The primary objective of the medical and nursing profession is to provide quality healthcare services to all patients to achieve positive patient outcomes. The high quality of healthcare depends on the efficiency of the healthcare system and the impact of nursing practices on the general health conditions of the patients. There are various determinants of healthcare quality, most of which are nurse-centered. The nurse-centered factors are the issues the nurses experience daily and hinder them from providing the expected care. This report will address the issue of the long working hours.

Definition of the Issue/Problem

The problem of the long working hours is common and long-standing. Traditionally, the nurses worked on shifts for eight hours per day. That was the globally recommended time shift until recently, when the nurses had to work twelve hours. The change in shift time among the nurses provoked a heated debate on its efficiency and impact on the quality of healthcare service delivery. Research conducted in the School of Nursing at the University of Pennsylvania revealed that among 23,000 participants, who were both nursing students and practitioners, almost 70% worked on shifts for an average of 12.5 hours. In addition, research by Townsend and Anderson reveals that more than 75% of the healthcare facilities in the US have either adopted or are in the process of adopting the 12-hour shifts.

The long working hours have a significant impact on both the nurses and the patients. It has been reported that long working hours increase the rate of nurses’ burnout and fatigue, which reduces their productivity. On the other hand, patients receive lower-quality services from nurses working twelve hours, which means they experience reduced health outcomes.

The main causes of the long working hours include:

• The staff shortage.
• The need to cut expenditures of healthcare facilities.
• The personal decisions of a nurse to work overtime to increase their income.

The effects of the long working hours include:

• Growing nurse fatigue.
• Little rest during the working days.
• Increasing chances of patient dissatisfaction.
• Reduced nurse productivity.

In addition, long working hours harm the quality of nursing practices. The main purpose of this paper is to address the issue of long working hours among nurses and to find possible solutions to this problem.

The Significance of the Issue

The manifestation of the issue.

The disadvantages of the long working hours outweigh the benefits. Several studies investigated the impact of long shifts on the performance of the nurses. The findings of these research works show clearly that they cause a problem. The first indicator is that the quality of the nurses’ health services suffers. It was identified that since the twelve-hour shift was introduced two decades ago, the quality of health services in the hospitals that accepted that proposal has reduced by 15%. In addition, the health outcomes of the patients treated by nurses who continuously work for more than eight hours are 10% lower than those who work less than eight-hour shifts. Therefore, long working hours have influenced the healthcare profession profoundly for the past two decades.

Factors that Led to the Development of the Issue

Several factors led to the adoption long working hours within the healthcare system. First, there needs to be more staff in the healthcare facilities. The population of the US is more than 320 million people, but only 3.8 million registered nurses are available. This number of nurses cannot cater to the rising healthcare needs when each nurse works eight hours. Consequently, the only solution is to increase the shift time so that one nurse might stay longer and provide healthcare services to more patients. Secondly, many hospitals face a financial crisis due to underfunding. As a result, they need to receive the necessary funds to employ the required number of nurses and to meet patients’ demands. These hospitals end up overworking the nurses by increasing their shift time. Lastly, some nurses decide to work overtime to earn extra money. This usually emerges since nurses spend more than they earn. Therefore, the nurses work longer, sometimes fifteen hours in one day. Therefore, this issue can be solved if these factors are addressed.

Impact of the Issue

The long working hours impact the patients, the nurses, the quality of nursing care, and its costs. First, the long working hours might increase the chance of injury in both the patient and the nurse. According to Dall’Ora, Griffiths, Ball, Simon, and Aiken, patient and nurse injuries grow exponentially if a nurse works more than nine hours. In addition, injuries are more common during the night shifts than during the day shifts. Secondly, the quality of nursing care among the nurses who work for more than eight hours is lower than the performance of the nurses working on 8-hour shifts. This is evident from the fact that the health outcomes of patients treated by nurses on long working shifts are usually less promising than those provided by nurses on shorter shifts. In addition, the nursing practice suffers from the negative influence of long working hours because nurses working more than eight hours tend to create health problems and medical errors often related to hospital-acquired infections. Berkman et al. suggests nurses suffer from cardiovascular and metabolic disorders when facing a work-family conflict due to long working hours. The nurses working long hours also experience fatigue which may result in fatigue-related accidents. These failures and medical errors increase medical costs because higher expenditure arises from correcting the incurred mistakes. The medical expenditure resulting from these errors has grown in the US over the past few decades.

Social Justice Considerations

Health and social justice mean that every patient can receive quality healthcare services, irrespective of their social or financial background. As aforementioned, financial constraints are considered to be one of the contributing factors to the long working hours. The most affected healthcare facilities are local public hospitals. People with low incomes tend to attend these hospitals, assuming they are at a higher chance of receiving low-quality services from the nurses working long shifts. This challenge does not face the rich because they can afford healthcare services from elite and well-funded hospitals. Therefore, it is evident that the long working hours create a social injustice among poor and low-income people.

Review of the Literature/Discussion

Issue/problem.

The problem of long working hours has been described as when nurses willingly or unwillingly work for shifts that exceed eight hours. Sometimes, the nurses work up to eighteen hours during one shift. This problem has a significant negative impact on both the nurses and the patients. In addition, the nursing profession is adversely affected because the quality of nursing care is compromised. Therefore, the impact of the long working hours has interested various nursing researchers.

Causes and Effects

The causes and effects of long working hours have been extensively researched. For instance, Dall’Ora et al. argue that the most common cause is that the hospitals adopt the long shifts strategy due to the nursing shortage. According to this paper, more than 65% of the hospitals in the US, especially the ones in rural areas, need to be more staffed. It forces them to overwork the available nurses by increasing their shift time to twelve hours so that they can meet the healthcare demand. In addition, the need for overtime among nurses has been a major cause. Some nurses willingly work overtime so that they can earn extra money. There are several effects of long working hours, most of which are negative. A survey conducted by Lo et al. shows that long working hours significantly increase the likelihood of needlestick injuries by 45% and the likelihood of the nurse experiencing sharps injuries by 56%. In addition, the twelve-hour shifts have been profoundly influencing the sleeping patterns of the nurses. This problem has become the most common among nurses with young children. Long working hours have also negatively affected patient outcomes. In this regard, the healthcare conditions among the patients treated by nurses working on a twelve-hour shift were worse than those treated on an eight-hour shift. Unfortunately, no research investigates the impact of long working hours on the cost of nursing services.

Possible Solutions/Recommendations

One of the solutions to this problem is the adoption of the state’s nurse work-hour regulations. The state’s regulations on the mandatory reduction of overtime and long shifts have reduced the problem of long working hours. Another recommendation is that hospital management adopts flexible working hours. In this regard, the management can consider giving a day’s leave to the nurses who work long hours or allowing the nurses to work shorter shifts after a long shift. These strategies help reduce the effects and consequences of long working hours and overtime.

Positives and Negatives of the Solutions/Recommendations

The positive impact of the first recommendation concerning the state’s regulations on the mandatory reduction of overtime and long shifts is that the healthcare providers will follow the strategy because there are legal implications for individuals and organizations that will violate it. The disadvantage of this solution is that it can result in numerous court cases, especially from private hospital owners who object to the regulations. This would delay its implementation. The positive impact of the second recommendation on flexible working hours is that it will improve patients’ and nurses’ outcomes because fatigue-related errors will be reduced. The nurses who take a day off or work shorter shifts do not suffer from fatigue caused by long working hours; thus, they are more productive. The drawback of this solution is that it might be misused by some nurses and hospital management that might not be willing to implement it because it needs to be legally supported.

Intended and Unintended Consequences of the Solutions/Recommendations

The intended consequence of the first solution is that it will be successful due to its legal foundation. However, the unintended consequence is that it might reduce the delivery of healthcare services in short-staffed hospitals. These hospitals could not provide healthcare services when required because the number of nurses would be limited. The intended consequence of the flexible working hours solution is that it would improve the productivity of nurses due to reduced fatigue, but its unintended consequence is that some nurses might be willing to overwork to be able to take more days off.

In conclusion, the literature review shows that the issue of long working hours is a serious problem that needs to be addressed and solved. The identified causes of the long working hours include the nurse shortage and the need for nurses to work overtime to provide for their families. However, the long working hours negatively impact the patients and the nurses. The likelihood of the nurses experiencing needlestick and sharps injuries increases with the long working shifts. In addition, the long working hours interrupt the sleeping patterns of the nurses and aggravate the patients’ outcomes. The recommended solutions include the state’s regulations on the mandatory reduction of overtime and long shifts and the hospital management adopting flexible working hours. The government should increase the number of registered nurses in hospitals by providing funding and promoting education and research in nursing. The intended positive consequence of this recommendation is that it will solve the overtime issue, while the positive unintended consequence is that the private hospitals might not have the resources to match the public hospitals, thus forcing them out of the market. The only limitation might be that there would need to be more funds to implement this solution fully.

📎 References:

1. American Sentimental University. (2014). 12-hour nursing shifts vs. 8-hour nursing shifts: Which is best? 2. Bae, S. H., & Fabry, D. (2014). Assessing the relationships between nurse work hours/overtime and nurse and patient outcomes: Systematic literature review. Nursing Outlook, 62(2), 138-156. 3. Bae, S. H., & Yoon, J. (2014). Impact of states’ nurse work hour regulations on overtime practices and work hours among registered nurses. Health Services Research, 49(5), 1638-1658. 4. Berkman, L. F., Liu, S. Y., Hammer, L., Moen, P., Klein, L. C., Kelly, E., … & Buxton, O. M. (2015). Work-family conflict, cardiometabolic risk, and sleep duration in nursing employees. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 20(4), 420-433. 5. Caruso, C. C., Baldwin, C. M., Berger, A., Chasens, E. R., Landis, C., Redeker, N. S., … & Trinkoff, A. (2017). Position statement: Reducing fatigue associated with sleep deficiency and work hours in nurses. Nursing Outlook, 65(6), 766-768. 6. Clendon, J., & Walker, L. (2016). Nurses aged over 50 and their perceptions of flexible working. Journal of Nursing Management, 24(3), 336-346. 7. Dall’Ora, C., Griffiths, P., Ball, J., Simon, M., & Aiken, L. H. (2015). Association of 12 h shifts and nurses’ job satisfaction, burnout and intention to leave: findings from a cross-sectional study of 12 European countries. BMJ Open, 5(9), e008331. 8. Lo, W. Y., Chiou, S. T., Huang, N., & Chien, L. Y. (2016). Long work hours and chronic insomnia are associated with needlestick and sharps injuries among hospital nurses in Taiwan: A national survey. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 64, 130-136. 9. Martin, D. M. (2015). Nurse fatigue and shift length: A pilot study. Nursing Economics, 33(2), 81. 10. Rhéaume, A., & Mullen, J. (2018). The impact of long work hours and shift work on cognitive errors in nurses. Journal of Nursing Management, 26(1), 26-32. 11. Townsend, T., & Anderson, P. (2013). Are extended work hours worth the risk? American Nurse Today, 8(5), 8-11.

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My Work Rights

Young workers in nj: rights and protections for workers under 18.

New Jersey’s  Child Labor Law protects you by limiting the number of hours you can work and the type of work you can do. Among other requirements, the law states:

• All minors working in NJ must have an employment certificate, also known as "working papers," or a special permit (see below) for each job they work
• All minors must be given a 30-minute meal break after 6 continuous hours of work. Breaks less than 30 minutes do not count as an interruption of continuous work.
• Minors may not work more than 6 consecutive days in a week.
• Workers under 16 may not work more than 40 hours a week and 8 hours a day, with certain exceptions for agricultural work.
• During the school year, minors under 16 may only work outside of scheduled school hours.
• Workers 16 and up may work up to 50 hours in one week and up to 10 hours a day only between the last day of school and Labor Day.
• Wages and payments
• Hours of work
• Injured on the job and need help?
• Safety and health
• Minimum wage and overtime

Workers under 18 are entitled to minimum wage in the following jobs:

• Food service (restaurant)
• Hotel/motel
• Beauty culture
• Laundry/cleaning/dyeing
• Light manufacturing apparel
• First processing of farm products

Certain types of employers are not required to pay minors minimum wage. For more information, read the law here . Please refer to New Jersey's Minimum Wage Chart for scheduled increases. Note : this chart shows planned increases. Actual increases may differ based on inflation, or if the federal government increases the federal minimum wage beyond the state’s minimum wage, or both. 

Click here to view detailed information all obligations you have toward employees regarding wage and hour law compliance.

Minors under 16 are not allowed to work more than 40 hours per week.

Workers ages 16 and 17 may work up to 50 hours per week during the period between the last day of the school year until Labor Day.

Workers ages 16 and 17 are only eligible for overtime in the following jobs:

• Hotel and motel
• Restaurants

In any other job, workers ages 16 and 17 can work up to 50 hours per week, but are exempt from overtime rate.

Overtime pay is set at 1½ times a worker’s regular hourly wage for hours worked over 40 hours per week.

If you are under the age of 16, you may not work more than 40 hours per week, except in agriculture (see the section on agricultural work to learn more).

If you are 16 or older, you may work up to 50 hours per week during the period between the last day of the school year and Labor Day.

If you are 16 or 17, you are only eligible for overtime rate in the following jobs:

• Hotel and motels

In any other job, employers can require workers ages 16 and 17 to work up to 50 hours per week, but are not required to pay overtime.

Your employer could be required to pay overtime under the federal Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). Information on rights under the FLSA can be found here .

Tipped work

Tipped workers are entitled to minimum wage! To make sure you're getting the money you've earned, you'll have to crunch some numbers , including your tips.

Agricultural work

If you are under 12, you may not work in agriculture.

If you are over the age of 12, you may work 10 hours per day and 6 days per week during the hours you are not required to be in school. If you are 16 and up, you may work 10 hours per day and 6 days per week during school hours.

If you are under 16, you may use standard domestic type machines, office machines, standard types of poultry feeders, egg graders, egg washers, egg coolers, and milking machines. If you are 16 and up, you may also drive tractors and operate all machinery except power-driven woodworking machinery, grinding, abrasive, polishing or buffing machines, guillotine action cutting machines, operation or repair of elevators or other hoisting apparatus, corn pickers, power-driven hay balers or power field choppers, compactors, circular saws, band saws and guillotine shears.

Click here to learn more about agricultural jobs for young workers.

Paid sick time

Since October 29, 2018, the  New Jersey Earned Sick Leave Law allows employees to collect 1 hour of earned sick leave for every 30 hours worked, up to 40 hours each year. The law lets employers create policies that provide additional leave time.

Permitted jobs for minors

Below are lists of permitted occupations jobs for minors. This list is not comprehensive. Note: these jobs are subject to non-performance of dangerous activities and illegal jobs.

At 12 years old, you may engage in the following work:

• Newspaper delivery over residential routes. (may start at 11 years of age)
• Farming in all of its branches
• Nursery work
• Raising of livestock, bees, fur-bearing animals or poultry
• Theatrical productions (no minimum age limit)

At 14 years old, you may engage in the following work:

• Clerical and office jobs in industrial wholesale, retail, service, and professional establishments
• Sales persons
• Distributors
• Demonstrators
• Delivery jobs other than with a motor vehicle
• Newspaper and magazine delivery over non-residential routes
• Restaurant jobs
• Soda fountain jobs
• Mercantile store jobs
• Supermarket and food store jobs
• Amusement industry jobs
• Standard office type machine operators
• Standard domestic type machine operators
• Hospital and health agency jobs
• Library attendants
• Professional assistants
• Counselors at camps, beach attendants, lifeguards, caddies, pinsetters
• Domestic helpers, maids, cooks, cleaners, baby-sitters, janitors
• Singers, models, entertainers, dancers, and theatrical work
• All jobs listed for 12-year-olds (as mentioned in the above section), and many other jobs

At 16 years old, you may engage in the following work:

• Factory machine operators *
• Power lawn mower operators
• Power tool operators *
• Tractor operators
• Machinery operators *
• Mechanic jobs
• All jobs listed for 12- and 14-year-olds, and most other jobs

* Except those specifically prohibited

Illegal jobs for minors

The lists below are not comprehensive.

Note : the work accident rate incidence is twice the average for workers under 18. If you have a question about a specific occupation, call the Division of Wage and Hour Compliance at (609) 292-2305.

Prohibited products:

• Paints, colors, white and red lead (manufacture and packing only)
• Dangerous or poisonous acids and dyes
• Injurious quantities of toxic or noxious dust, gases, vapors, or fumes
• Benzol or any benzol compound which is volatile, or which can penetrate the skin
• Explosives (manufacture, transportation or use only)
• Toxic and hazardous substances
• Radioactive substances and ionizing radiation
• Carcinogenic substances
• Corrosive materials
• Highly inflammable substances

Prohibited machinery:

• Power-driven woodworking machinery (supervised bona-fide apprentices may do this work)
• Grinding, abrasive, polishing, or buffing machines
• Punch presses and stamping machines with over 1/4-inch clearance
• Guillotine action cutting machines
• Corrugating, crimping, or embossing machines
• Paper lace machines
• Dough brakes or mixing machines in bakeries or cracker machinery
• Calendar rolls or mixing rolls in rubber manufacturing
• Centrifugal extractors or mangles in laundries or dry-cleaning establishments
• Operation or repair of elevators or other hoisting apparatus (they may operate the push button type)
• Corn pickers, power-driven hay balers, or power field choppers
• Circular saws, band saws, guillotine shears
• Minors under 16 may use standard domestic type machines or appliances, standard office machines, standard types of poultry feeders, egg graders, egg washers, egg coolers, and milking machines but may not use other power-driven machinery such as power tools, power lawn mowers, power woodworking and metal worker tools and power-driven meat slicing and meat grinding machines or conveyors

Prohibited establishments:

• Ore reduction works, smelters, hot rolling mills, furnaces, foundries, forging shops or any other place in which the heating, melting, or heat treatment of metals is carried on
• Mines and quarries
• Establishments where alcoholic liquors are distilled, rectified, compounded, brewed, manufactured, bottled, or sold for consumption on the premises *
• Pool and billiard rooms
• Junk and scrap metal yards
• Disorderly houses

* See  Child Labor Law  for exceptions

Prohibited activities:

• Oiling, wiping, or cleaning machinery in motion or assisting therein
• Steam boilers carrying a pressure above 15 pounds
• Construction work
• Fabrication or assembly of ships
• Transportation of payrolls off the employer's premises
• Demolition of buildings, ships, or heavy machinery
• Indecent or immoral exposure
• Most occupations in slaughtering, meat packing, processing, or rendering

Misclassified as an independent contractor (1099) or paid cash off the books

Misclassification is the practice of illegally categorizing employees as independent contractors.

Misclassification is illegal regardless of whether it was intentional or due to a mistaken belief that workers are independent contractors. Misclassification can also happen when an employer requires an employee to form an LLC or franchise before getting a job.

When you are paid cash off the books, that also means that your employer is not giving you access to employment-based protections like access to social security insurance, unemployment insurance, temporary disability insurance and family leave insurance.

Whether misclassified as independent contractor or paid cash off the books, you’re not at fault, but you could be deprived of work rights and other benefits. Misclassified employees may be entitled to financial award as part of employer penalties.

Learn more here .

Working Papers for minors

If you are under 18 and work in New Jersey, you must have working papers. Click here to learn more and start an application.

• You cannot work more than 6 consecutive days
• You must be given a 30-minute meal break after 6 continuous hours of work. Breaks of less than 30 minutes do not count as an interruption of a continuous work period.
• You must have valid working papers including written parental permission (subject to change effective 6/1/2023).

During school weeks

If you are 16 or 17:

• No more than 40 hours per week
• No more than 8 hours per day
• No more than 6 consecutive days in a work week
• Not before 6am or after 11pm
• Not before 6am or after midnight on Fridays and Saturdays or days not followed by a school day

If you are 14 or 15:

• No more than 18 hours per week
• No more than 3 hours per day on school days
• No more than 8 hours per day on Saturday or Sunday
• Not before 7am or after 7pm with limited exceptions

If you are 12 or 13:

• Not before 7am or after 7pm

During non-school weeks

During the period beginning on the last day of the minor’s school year and ending on Labor Day, a minor between 16 and 18 years of age may work up to 50 hours in one week and up to 10 hours in one day.

• No more than 50 hours per week
• No more than 10 hours per day
• Not before 6am or after 3am in restaurant and seasonal amusements
• Not before 7am or after 9pm from the last day of school to Labor Day
• No more than 40 hours a week
• No more than 6 consecutive days in a work pay week

School-sponsored cooperative learning experiences

Training site experiences may not exceed 5 hours on any day that school is in session, nor may the combination of school and work exceed 8 hours on any day that school is in session.

Know your rights

All employees in New Jersey injured on the job are eligible to receive workers’ compensation benefits. An employee’s age does not disqualify them from receiving workers’ compensation benefits.

In NJ, minors injured on the job can receive workers’ compensation benefits regardless of legal employment status. Workers under 18 injured on the job are eligible to receive:

• Medical Benefits
• Temporary Disability Benefits
• Permanent Partial Benefits
• Permanent Total Benefits
• Death Benefits (paid to a minor’s dependents, parents, or legal guardians if they die because of their work-related injury or illness)

If you are employed illegally, you may be entitled to extra benefits depending on the circumstances.  These are extra benefits that are not available to adult employees.

If an employer forces you to work in an unsafe and illegal environment, you will be entitled to twice the amount of worker's compensation benefits. The employer, and not their insurance provider, will pay this penalty.

If you were employed in violation of child labor laws, you can also bring a civil suit in Superior Court against your employer. A civil suit may recover compensation beyond that which is available under a workers’ compensation claim. Some examples are compensation for pain and suffering, and loss of enjoyment of life.

Learn more about what to do if you’re injured at work here .

Public sector employees

The Office of Public Employees Occupational Safety and Health (OPEOSH) conducts general and targeted inspections and investigations to ensure workplace safety. The OPEOSH has the authority to order the correction of any safety or health hazards identified during an inspection. These services are delivered by a staff of safety professionals.

If you are a public sector employee, click here to learn more about this program and other services, including filing a health and safety complaint.

Private sector employees

The Occupational Safety Training Program provides occupational safety training for private sector employers and employees. The training is delivered by experienced consultants who will customize courses for employers when needed. The safety training staff receive training through an OSHA Training Institute Education Center to keep abreast of changes in OSHA Standards.

If you are a private sector employee, click here to learn more about these training resources.

As a private sector employee, you can file a workplace health and safety complaint with federal OSHA .

File a wage claim | Presentar un reclamo de salario

If you believe that your employer has not properly paid you, or you have a complaint against an employer for violating a NJ Labor Law enforced by the Division of Wage and Hour Compliance, file a wage complaint:

• Online through our secure system
• By mail or fax

Your identity and other personally identifiable information are protected from disclosure to your employer and others, with limited exceptions.  For more information,  click here .

If you choose to file anonymously, you must do so by mail. Learn more here .

If you are not sure whether the Division of Wage & Hour Compliance will be able to help you with your complaint,  email us  for help.

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Six workers presumed dead after crippled cargo ship knocks down Baltimore bridge

• LATEST DEVELOPMENTS:
• Six workers presumed dead
• Search and rescue operations suspended

BIGGER DISASTER AVERTED

'SHOCKING SIGHT'

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Reporting by Joseph Campbell, Andy Sullivan, Andrea Shalal, David Shephardson, Steve Holland, Christian Schmollinger, Rich McKay, David Shepardson, Gabriela Borter, Shubham Kalia, Harshita Meenaktshi, Shreya Biswas, Jyoti Narayan, Kat Jackson, Jonathan Saul; Writing by Doina Chiacu and Ros Russell; Writing by Steve Gorman; Editing by Josie Kao, Howard Goller and Stephen Coates

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Andy covers politics and policy in Washington. His work has been cited in Supreme Court briefs, political attack ads and at least one Saturday Night Live skit.

Gabriella Borter is a reporter on the U.S. National Affairs team, covering cultural and political issues as well as breaking news. She has won two Front Page Awards from the Newswomen’s Club of New York - in 2020 for her beat reporting on healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic, and in 2019 for her spot story on the firing of the police officer who killed Eric Garner. The latter was also a Deadline Club Awards finalist. She holds a B.A. in English from Yale University and joined Reuters in 2017.

Taiwan hit by strongest quake in 25 years, four deaths reported

A 7.2 magnitude earthquake rocked Taiwan on Wednesday, the strongest tremor to hit the island in at least 25 years, killing four people, injuring dozens and sparking a tsunami warning for southern Japan and the Philippines that was later lifted.