writing a counter argument

How to Write a Counter Argument (Step-by-Step Guide)

Have you been asked to include a counter argument in an essay you are writing? Unless you are already an experienced essay writer, you may have no idea where to even start. We're here to help you tackle your counter argument like a pro.

What Is a Counter Argument?

A counter argument is precisely what it sounds like — an argument that offers reasons to disagree with an essay's thesis statement. As you are writing your essay, you will likely pen multiple supporting arguments that outline precisely why readers should logically agree with the thesis. In a counter argument paragraph, you show that you also understand common reasons to believe differently.

In any given essay, you may write one or more counter arguments — and then, frequently, immediately refute them. Whether you are required to include a counter argument or you simply want to, always include:

• A simple statement explaining the counter argument. As it will likely follow paragraphs in which you fleshed out your argument, this can start with words like "Some people are concerned that", or "critics say", or "On the other hand".
• Then include further reasoning, data, or statistics.
• Following this, you will want to discredit the counter argument immediately.

Why Include a Counter Argument?

Including a counter argument (or multiple, for that matter) in an essay may be required, but even in cases where it is not, mentioning at least one counter argument can make your essay much stronger. You may, at first glance, believe that you are undermining yourself and contradicting your thesis statement. That's not true at all. By including a counter argument in your essay, you show that:

• You have done your research and are intimately familiar with each aspect of your thesis, including opposition to it.
• You have arrived at your conclusion through the power of reason, and without undue bias.
• You do not only blindly support your thesis, but can also deal with opposition to it.

In doing so, your essay will become much more reasoned and logical, and in practical terms, this likely means that you can count on a higher grade.

How To Write a Counter Argument (Step-by-Step Guide)

You have been laboring over your essay for a while, carefully researching each aspect of your thesis and making strong arguments that aim to persuade the reader that your view is the correct one — or at least that you are a solid writer who understands the subject matter and deserves a good grade for your efforts.

If you are passionate about the topic in question, it can be hard to decide how to incorporate a counter argument. Here's how to do it, step-by-step:

1. Brainstorm

You have already researched your topic, so you know on what grounds people most frequently oppose your argument. Write them down. Pick one, or a few, that you consider to be important and interesting. Formulate the counter argument as if you were on the opposing side.

2. Making the Transition

Your counter argument paragraph or paragraphs differ from the rest of your essay, so you will want to introduce a counter argument with a transition. Common ways to do this are to introduce your counter argument with phrases like:

• Admittedly, conversely, however, nevertheless, or although.
• Opponents would argue that...
• Common concerns with this position are...
• Critics say that...

3. Offering Evidence

Flesh the counter argument out by offering evidence — of the fact that people hold that position (where possible, quote a well-known opponent), as well as reasons why. Word your counter argument in such a way that makes it clear that you have carefully considered the position, and are not simply belittling it. This portion of your counter argument will require doing additional research in most cases.

4. Refute the Counter Argument

You are still arguing in favor of your main thesis. You will, therefore, not just want to describe the opposing side and leave it at that — you will also thoughtfully want to show why the opposing argument is not valid, in your opinion, and you will want to include evidence here, as well.

5. Restate Your Argument

After refuting your counter argument, you can go ahead and restate your argument. Why should people believe what you have to say, despite any opposition?

How To Write A Good Counter Argument

As you're writing a counter argument, you might run into some difficulties if you fervently believe in the truth of your argument. Indeed, in some cases, your argument may appear to you to be so obvious that you don't understand why anyone could think differently.

To help you write a good counter argument, keep in mind that:

• You should never caricature the opposing viewpoint. Show that you deeply understand it, instead.
• To do this, it helps if you validate legitimate concerns you find in an opponent's point of view.
• This may require quite a bit of research, including getting into the opposing side's mindset.
• Refute your counter argument with compassion, and not smugly.

Examples of Counter Arguments with Refutation

Still not sure? No worries; we have you covered. Take a look at these examples:

• Many people have argued that a vaccine mandate would strip people of their individual liberties by forcing them to inject foreign substances into their bodies. While this is, in a sense, true, the option of remaining unvaccinated likewise forces other people to be exposed to this virus; thereby potentially stripping them of the most important liberty of all — the liberty to stay alive.
• The concern has been raised that the death penalty could irreversibly strip innocent people of their lives. The answer to this problem lies in raising the bar for death penalty sentences by limiting them to only those cases in which no question whatsoever exists that the convicted party was truly guilty. Modern forensic science has made this infinitely easier.

In short, you'll want to acknowledge that other arguments exist, and then refute them. The tone in which you do so depends on your goal.

What is a counter argument in a thesis?

A counter argument is one that supports the opposing side. In an essay, it shows that you understand other viewpoints, have considered them, and ultimately dismissed them.

Where do I place the counter argument in an essay?

Place the counter argument after your main supporting arguments.

How long should the counter argument be?

It may be a single paragraph or multiple, depending on how important you believe the counter argument to be and the length of the essay.

What is the difference between a counter argument and a rebuttal?

A counter argument describes the opposing side in some detail before it is refuted. In a rebuttal, you may simply oppose the opposition.

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Writing a Paper: Responding to Counterarguments

Basics of counterarguments.

When constructing an argument, it is important to consider any counterarguments a reader might make. Acknowledging the opposition shows that you are knowledgeable about the issue and are not simply ignoring other viewpoints. Addressing counterarguments also gives you an opportunity to clarify and strengthen your argument, helping to show how your argument is stronger than other arguments.

Incorporating counterarguments into your writing can seem counterintuitive at first, and some writers may be unsure how to do so. To help you incorporate counterarguments into your argument, we recommend following the steps: (a) identify, (b) investigate, (c) address, and (d) refine.

Identify the Counterarguments

First you need to identify counterarguments to your own argument. Ask yourself, based on your argument, what might someone who disagrees counter in response? You might also discover counterarguments while doing your research, as you find authors who may disagree with your argument.

For example, if you are researching the current opioid crisis in the United States, your argument might be: State governments should allocate part of the budget for addiction recovery centers in communities heavily impacted by the opioid crisis . A few counterarguments might be:

• Recovery centers are not proven to significantly help people with addiction.
• The state’s money should go to more pressing concerns such as...
• Establishing and maintaining a recovery center is too costly.
• Addicts are unworthy of assistance from the state. 

Investigate the Counterarguments

Analyze the counterarguments so that you can determine whether they are valid. This may require assessing the counterarguments with the research you already have or by identifying logical fallacies . You may also need to do additional research.

In the above list, the first three counterarguments can be researched. The fourth is a moral argument and therefore can only be addressed in a discussion of moral values, which is usually outside the realm of social science research. To investigate the first, you could do a search for research that studies the effectiveness of recovery centers. For the second, you could look at the top social issues in states around the country. Is the opioid crisis the main concern or are there others? For the third, you could look for public financial data from a recovery center or interview someone who works at one to get a sense of the costs involved. 

Address the Counterarguments

Address one or two counterarguments in a rebuttal. Now that you have researched the counterarguments, consider your response. In your essay, you will need to state and refute these opposing views to give more credence to your argument. No matter how you decide to incorporate the counterargument into your essay, be sure you do so with objectivity, maintaining a formal and scholarly tone . 

Considerations when writing:

• Will you discredit the counteragument by bringing in contradictory research?
• Will you concede that the point is valid but that your argument still stands as the better view? (For example, perhaps it is very costly to run a recovery center, but the societal benefits offset that financial cost.)
• Placement . You can choose to place the counterargument toward the beginning of the essay, as a way to anticipate opposition, or you can place it toward the end of the essay, after you have solidly made the main points of your argument. You can also weave a counterargument into a body paragraph, as a way to quickly acknowledge opposition to a main point. Which placement is best depends on your argument, how you’ve organized your argument, and what placement you think is most effective.
• Weight . After you have addressed the counterarguments, scan your essay as a whole. Are you spending too much time on them in comparison to your main points? Keep in mind that if you linger too long on the counterarguments, your reader might learn less about your argument and more about opposing viewpoints instead. 

Refine Your Argument

Considering counterarguments should help you refine your own argument, clarifying the relevant issues and your perspective. Furthermore, if you find yourself agreeing with the counterargument, you will need to revise your thesis statement and main points to reflect your new thinking. 

Templates for Responding to Counterarguments

There are many ways you can incorporate counterarguments, but remember that you shouldn’t just mention the counterargument—you need to respond to it as well. You can use these templates (adapted from Graff & Birkenstein, 2009) as a starting point for responding to counterarguments in your own writing.

• The claim that _____ rests upon the questionable assumption that _____.
• X may have been true in the past, but recent research has shown that ________.
• By focusing on _____, X has overlooked the more significant problem of _____.
• Although I agree with X up to a point, I cannot accept the overall conclusion that _____.
• Though I concede that _____, I still insist that _____.
• Whereas X has provided ample evidence that ____, Y and Z’s research on ____ and ____ convinces me that _____ instead.
• Although I grant that _____, I still maintain that _____.
• While it is true that ____, it does not necessarily follow that _____.

Graff, G., & Birkenstein, C. (2009). They say/I say: The moves that matter in academic writing (2 nd ed.). Norton.

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Counterarguments

A counterargument involves acknowledging standpoints that go against your argument and then re-affirming your argument. This is typically done by stating the opposing side’s argument, and then ultimately presenting your argument as the most logical solution. The counterargument is a standard academic move that is used in argumentative essays because it shows the reader that you are capable of understanding and respecting multiple sides of an argument.

Counterargument in two steps

Respectfully acknowledge evidence or standpoints that differ from your argument.

Refute the stance of opposing arguments, typically utilizing words like “although” or “however.”

In the refutation, you want to show the reader why your position is more correct than the opposing idea.

Where to put a counterargument

Can be placed within the introductory paragraph to create a contrast for the thesis statement.

May consist of a whole paragraph that acknowledges the opposing view and then refutes it.

• Can be one sentence acknowledgements of other opinions followed by a refutation.

Why use a counterargument?

Some students worry that using a counterargument will take away from their overall argument, but a counterargument may make an essay more persuasive because it shows that the writer has considered multiple sides of the issue. Barnet and Bedau (2005) propose that critical thinking is enhanced through imagining both sides of an argument. Ultimately, an argument is strengthened through a counterargument.

Examples of the counterargument structure

• Argument against smoking on campus:  Admittedly, many students would like to smoke on campus. Some people may rightly argue that if smoking on campus is not illegal, then it should be permitted; however, second-hand smoke may cause harm to those who have health issues like asthma, possibly putting them at risk.
• Argument against animal testing:  Some people argue that using animals as test subjects for health products is justifiable. To be fair, animal testing has been used in the past to aid the development of several vaccines, such as small pox and rabies. However, animal testing for beauty products causes unneeded pain to animals. There are alternatives to animal testing. Instead of using animals, it is possible to use human volunteers. Additionally, Carl Westmoreland (2006) suggests that alternative methods to animal research are being developed; for example, researchers are able to use skin constructed from cells to test cosmetics. If alternatives to animal testing exist, then the practice causes unnecessary animal suffering and should not be used.

Harvey, G. (1999). Counterargument. Retrieved from writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/counter- argument

Westmoreland, C. (2006; 2007). “Alternative Tests and the 7th Amendment to the Cosmetics Directive.” Hester, R. E., & Harrison, R. M. (Ed.) Alternatives to animal testing (1st Ed.). Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.

Barnet, S., Bedau, H. (Eds.). (2006). Critical thinking, reading, and writing . Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Contributor: Nathan Lachner

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Writing Resources

Counterargument.

This handout is available for download in DOCX format and PDF format .

When you write an academic essay, you make an argument: you propose a thesis and offer evidence and reasoning to suggest why the thesis is true. When you counter-argue, you consider a possible argument against your thesis or some aspect of your logic. This is a good way to test your ideas early on, while you still have time to revise them. And in the finished essay, it can be a persuasive and disarming tactic. It allows you to anticipate doubts and pre-empt possible objections; it presents you as someone who weighs alternatives before arguing for one, who confronts difficulties instead of ignoring them, who is more interested in discovering the truth than winning a point.  

Not every objection is worth entertaining, of course, and you shouldn't include one just to include one. But some imagining of other views, or of resistance to one's own, occurs in most good essays. And instructors are glad to encounter counterargument in student papers, even if they haven't specifically asked for it.

The Turn Against

Counterargument in an essay has two stages: you turn against your argument to challenge it and then you turn back to re-affirm it. You first imagine a skeptical reader, or cite an actual source, who might resist your argument by pointing out:

• a problem with your demonstration, e.g., that a different conclusion could be drawn from the same facts, a key assumption is unwarranted, a key term is used unfairly, certain evidence is ignored or played down
• one or more disadvantages or practical drawbacks to what you propose
• an alternative explanation or proposal that makes more sense

You introduce this “turn against” with a phrase like One might object here that... or It might seem that... or It's true that... or Admittedly,... or Of course,... or with an anticipated challenging question: But how...? or But why...? or But isn't this just...? or But if this is so, what about...? Then you state the case against yourself as briefly but as clearly and forcefully as you can, pointing to evidence where possible. (An obviously feeble or perfunctory counterargument does more harm than good.)

The Turn Back

Your return to your own argument—which you announce with a but , yet , however , nevertheless or still —must likewise involve careful reasoning, not a flippant or nervous dismissal. In reasoning about the proposed counterargument, you may:

• refute it, showing why it is mistaken—an apparent but not real problem
• acknowledge its validity or plausibility, but suggest why on balance it's relatively less important or less likely than what you propose, and thus doesn't overturn it
• concede its force and complicate your idea accordingly; restate your thesis in a more exact, qualified, or nuanced way that takes account of the objection; or start a new section in which you consider your topic in light of it. (This will work if the counterargument concerns only an aspect of your argument; if it undermines your whole case, you need a new thesis.)

Where to Put a Counterargument

Counterargument can appear anywhere in the essay, but it most commonly appears:

• as part of your introduction—before you propose your thesis—where the existence of a different view is the motive for your essay, the reason it needs writing
• as a section or paragraph just after your introduction, in which you lay out the expected reaction or standard position before turning away to develop your own
• as a quick move within a paragraph, where you imagine a counterargument not to your main idea but to the sub-idea that the paragraph is arguing or is about to argue
• as a section or paragraph just before the conclusion of your essay, in which you imagine what someone might object to what you have argued

Watch that you don't overdo it! An occasional counterargument will sharpen and energize your essay, but too many will weaken it by obscuring your main idea or hinting that you're ambivalent.

Counterargument in Pre-Writing and Revising

Good thinking constantly questions itself, so having an inner debate during the drafting stage can help you settle on a case worth making. As you consider possible theses and begin to write your draft, ask yourself: how might an intelligent person plausibly disagree with you or see matters differently? When you can imagine an intelligent disagreement, you have an arguable idea.

Others can be of assistance here, too! If you ask people around you what they think of topic X and/or stay alert for uncongenial remarks in class discussions, etc., you'll encounter a useful disagreement somewhere. Awareness of this disagreement, however you use it in your essay, will force you to sharpen your own thinking as you write. If you come to find the counterargument more persuasive than your thesis, consider making it your thesis and turning your original thesis into a counterargument. And finally, if you manage to draft an essay without imagining a counterargument, make yourself imagine one before you revise and see if you can integrate it.

Adapted from Gordon Harvey, The Elements of the Academic Essay, 2009.

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Collaboration, information literacy, writing process, counterarguments – rebuttal – refutation.

• © 2023 by Roberto León - Georgia College & State University

Ignoring what your target audience thinks and feels about your argument isn't a recipe for success. Instead, engage in audience analysis : ask yourself, "How is your target audience likely to respond to your propositions? What counterarguments -- arguments about your argument -- will your target audience likely raise before considering your propositions?"

Counterargument Definition

C ounterargument refers to an argument given in response to another argument that takes an alternative approach to the issue at hand.

C ounterargument may also be known as rebuttal or refutation .

Related Concepts: Audience Awareness ; Authority (in Speech and Writing) ; Critical Literacy ; Ethos ; Openness ; Researching Your Audience

Guide to Counterarguments in Writing Studies

Counterarguments are a topic of study in Writing Studies as

• Rhetors engage in rhetorical reasoning : They analyze the rebuttals their target audiences may have to their claims , interpretations , propositions, and proposals
• Rhetors may develop counterarguments by questioning a rhetor’s backing , data , qualifiers, and/or warrants
• Rhetors begin arguments with sincere summaries of counterarguments
• a strategy of Organization .

Learning about the placement of counterarguments in Toulmin Argument , Arisotelian Argument , and Rogerian Argument will help you understand when you need to introduce counterarguments and how thoroughly you need to address them.

Why Do Counterarguments Matter?

If your goal is clarity and persuasion, you cannot ignore what your target audience thinks, feels, and does about the argument. To communicate successfully with audiences, rhetors need to engage in audience analysis : they need to understand the arguments against their argument that the audience may hold.

Imagine that you are scrolling through your social media feed when you see a post from an old friend. As you read, you immediately feel that your friend’s post doesn’t make sense. “They can’t possibly believe that!” you tell yourself. You quickly reply “I’m not sure I agree. Why do you believe that?” Your friend then posts a link to an article and tells you to see for yourself.

There are many ways to analyze your friend’s social media post or the professor’s article your friend shared. You might, for example, evaluate the professor’s article by using the CRAAP Test or by conducting a rhetorical analysis of their aims and ethos . After engaging in these prewriting heuristics to get a better sense of what your friend knows and feels about the topic at hand, you may feel more prepared to respond to their arguments and also sense how they might react to your post.

Toulmin Counterarguments

There’s more than one way to counter an argument.

In Toulmin Argument , a counterargument can be made against the writer’s claim by questioning their backing , data , qualifiers, and/or warrants . For example, let’s say we wrote the following argument:

“Social media is bad for you (claim) because it always (qualifier) promotes an unrealistic standard of beauty (backing). In this article, researchers found that most images were photoshopped (data). Standards should be realistic; if they are not, those standards are bad (warrant).” 

Besides noting we might have a series of logical fallacies here, counterarguments and dissociations can be made against each of these parts:

• Against the qualifier: Social media does not always promote unrealistic standards.
• Against the backing : Social media presents but does not promote unrealistic standards.
• Against the data : This article focuses on Instagram; these findings are not applicable to Twitter.
• Against the warrant : How we approach standards matters more than the standards themselves; standards do not need to be realistic, but rather we need to be realistic about how we approach standards.

In generating and considering counterarguments and conditions of rebuttal, it is important to consider how we approach alternative views. Alternative viewpoints are opportunities not only to strengthen and contrast our own arguments with those of others; alternative viewpoints are also opportunities to nuance and develop our own arguments. 

Let us continue to look at our social media argument and potential counterarguments. We might prepare responses to each of these potential counterarguments, anticipating the ways in which our audience might try to shift how we frame this situation. However, we might also concede that some of these counterarguments actually have good points.

For example, we might still believe that social media is bad, but perhaps we also need to consider more about 

• What factors make it worse (nuance the qualifier)?
• Whether or not social media is a neutral tool or whether algorithms take advantage of our baser instincts (nuance the backing )
• Whether this applies to all social media or whether we want to focus on just one social media platform (nuance the data ) 
• How should we approach social standards (nuance the warrant )?

Identifying counterarguments can help us strengthen our arguments by helping us recognize the complexity of the issue at hand.

Neoclassical Argument – Aristotelian Argument

Learn how to compose a counterargument passage or section.

While Toulmin Argument focuses on the nuts and bolts of argumentation, a counterargument can also act as an entire section of an Aristotelian Argument . This section typically comes after you have presented your own lines of argument and evidence .

This section typically consists of two rhetorical moves :

Examples of Counterarguments

By introducing counterarguments, we show we are aware of alternative viewpoints— other definitions, explanations, meanings, solutions, etc. We want to show that we are good listeners and aren’t committing the strawman fallacy . We also concede some of the alternative viewpoints that we find most persuasive. By making concessions, we can show that we are reasonable ( ethos ) and that we are listening . Rogerian Argument is an example of building listening more fully into our writing. 

Using our social media example, we might write: 

I recognize that in many ways social media is only as good as the content that people upload to it. As Professor X argues, social media amplifies both the good and the bad of human nature.

Once we’ve shown that we understand and recognize good arguments when we see them, we put forward our response to the counterclaim. In our response, we do not simply dismiss alternative viewpoints, but provide our own backing, data, and warrants to show that we, in fact, have the more compelling position. 

To counter Professor X’s argument, we might write:

At the same time, there are clear instances where social media amplifies the bad over the good by design. While content matters, the design of social media is only as good as the people who created it.

Through conceding and countering, we can show that we recognize others’ good points and clarify where we stand in relation to others’ arguments.

Counterarguments and Organization

Learn when and how to weave counterarguments into your texts.

As we write, it is also important to consider the extent to which we will respond to counterarguments. If we focus too much on counterarguments, we run the risk of downplaying our own contributions. If we focus too little on counterarguments, we run the risk of seeming aloof and unaware of reality. Ideally, we will be somewhere in between these two extremes.

There are many places to respond to counterarguments in our writing. Where you place your counterarguments will depend on the rhetorical situation (ex: audience , purpose, subject ), your rhetorical stance (how you want to present yourself), and your sense of kairos . Here are some common choices based on a combination of these rhetorical situation factors:

• If a counterargument is well-established for your audience, you may want to respond to that counterargument earlier in your essay, clearing the field and creating space for you to make your own arguments. An essay about gun rights, for example, would need to make it clear very quickly that it is adding something new to this old debate. Doing so shows your audience that you are very aware of their needs.
• If a counterargument is especially well-established for your audience and you simply want to prove that it is incorrect rather than discuss another solution, you might respond to it point by point, structuring your whole essay as an extended refutation. Fact-checking and commentary articles often make this move. Responding point by point shows that you take the other’s point of view seriously.
• If you are discussing something relatively unknown or new to your audience (such as a problem with black mold in your dormitory), you might save your response for after you have made your points. Including alternative viewpoints even here shows that you are aware of the situation and have nothing to hide.

Whichever you choose, remember that counterarguments are opportunities to ethically engage with alternative viewpoints and your audience. 

The following questions can guide you as you begin to think about counterarguments:

• What is your argument ? What alternative positions might exist as counterarguments to your argument?
• How can considering counterarguments strengthen your argument?
• Given possible counterarguments, what points might you reconsider or concede?
• To what extent might you respond to counterarguments in your essay so that they can create and respond to the rhetorical situation ?
• Where might you place your counterarguments in your essay?
• What might including counterarguments do for your ethos ?

Recommended Resources

• Sweetland Center for Writing (n.d.). “ How Do I Incorporate a Counterargument? ” University of Michigan. 
• The Writing Center (n.d.) “ All About Counterarguments .” George Mason University. 
• Lachner, N. (n.d.). “ Counterarguments .” University of Nevada Reno, University Writing and Speaking Center. 
• Jeffrey, R. (n.d.). “ Questions for Thinking about Counterarguments .” In M. Gagich and E. Zickel, A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing. 
• Kause, S. (2011). “ On the Other Hand: The Role of Antithetical Writing in First Year Composition Courses .” Writing Spaces Vol. 2.
• Burton, G. “ Refutatio .” Silvae Rhetoricae.

Toulmin, S. (1958). The Uses of Argument. Cambridge University Press.

Perelman, C. and Olbrechts-Tyteca, L. (1971). “The Dissociation of Concepts”; “The Interaction of Arguments,” in The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation (pp. 411-459, 460-508), University of Notre Dame Press.

Mozafari, C. (2018). “Crafting Counterarguments,” in Fearless Writing: Rhetoric, Inquiry, Argument (pp. 333-337), MacMillian Learning

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Argumentative Essays: The Counter-Argument & Refutation

An argumentative essay presents an argument for or against a topic. For example, if your topic is working from home , then your essay would either argue in favor of working from home (this is the for  side) or against working from home.

Like most essays, an argumentative essay begins with an introduction that ends with the writer's position (or stance) in the thesis statement .

Introduction Paragraph

(Background information....)

• Thesis statement : Employers should give their workers the option to work from home in order to improve employee well-being and reduce office costs.

This thesis statement shows that the two points I plan to explain in my body paragraphs are 1) working from home improves well-being, and 2) it allows companies to reduce costs. Each topic will have its own paragraph. Here's an example of a very basic essay outline with these ideas:

• Background information

Body Paragraph 1

• Topic Sentence : Workers who work from home have improved well-being .
• Evidence from academic sources

Body Paragraph 2

• Topic Sentence : Furthermore, companies can reduce their expenses by allowing employees to work at home .
• Summary of key points
• Restatement of thesis statement

Does this look like a strong essay? Not really . There are no academic sources (research) used, and also...

You Need to Also Respond to the Counter-Arguments!

The above essay outline is very basic. The argument it presents can be made much stronger if you consider the counter-argument , and then try to respond (refute) its points.

The counter-argument presents the main points on the other side of the debate. Because we are arguing FOR working from home, this means the counter-argument is AGAINST working from home. The best way to find the counter-argument is by reading research on the topic to learn about the other side of the debate. The counter-argument for this topic might include these points:

• Distractions at home > could make it hard to concentrate
• Dishonest/lazy people > might work less because no one is watching

Next, we have to try to respond to the counter-argument in the refutation (or rebuttal/response) paragraph .

The Refutation/Response Paragraph

The purpose of this paragraph is to address the points of the counter-argument and to explain why they are false, somewhat false, or unimportant. So how can we respond to the above counter-argument? With research !

A study by Bloom (2013) followed workers at a call center in China who tried working from home for nine months. Its key results were as follows:

• The performance of people who worked from home increased by 13%
• These workers took fewer breaks and sick-days
• They also worked more minutes per shift

In other words, this study shows that the counter-argument might be false. (Note: To have an even stronger essay, present data from more than one study.) Now we have a refutation.

Where Do We Put the Counter-Argument and Refutation?

Commonly, these sections can go at the beginning of the essay (after the introduction), or at the end of the essay (before the conclusion). Let's put it at the beginning. Now our essay looks like this:

Counter-argument Paragraph

• Dishonest/lazy people might work less because no one is watching

Refutation/Response Paragraph

• Study: Productivity  increased by 14%
• (+ other details)

Body Paragraph 3

• Topic Sentence : In addition, people who work from home have improved well-being .

Body Paragraph 4

The outline is stronger now because it includes the counter-argument and refutation. Note that the essay still needs more details and research to become more convincing.

Working from home may increase productivity.

Extra Advice on Argumentative Essays

It's not a compare and contrast essay.

An argumentative essay focuses on one topic (e.g. cats) and argues for or against it. An argumentative essay should not have two topics (e.g. cats vs dogs). When you compare two ideas, you are writing a compare and contrast essay. An argumentative essay has one topic (cats). If you are FOR cats as pets, a simplistic outline for an argumentative essay could look something like this:

• Thesis: Cats are the best pet.
• are unloving
• cause allergy issues
• This is a benefit >  Many working people do not have time for a needy pet
• If you have an allergy, do not buy a cat.
• But for most people (without allergies), cats are great
• Supporting Details

Use Language in Counter-Argument That Shows Its Not Your Position

The counter-argument is not your position. To make this clear, use language such as this in your counter-argument:

• Opponents might argue that cats are unloving.
• People who dislike cats would argue that cats are unloving.
• Critics of cats could argue that cats are unloving.
• It could be argued that cats are unloving.

These  underlined phrases make it clear that you are presenting  someone else's argument , not your own.

Choose the Side with the Strongest Support

Do not choose your side based on your own personal opinion. Instead, do some research and learn the truth about the topic. After you have read the arguments for and against, choose the side with the strongest support as your position.

Do Not Include Too Many Counter-arguments

Include the main (two or three) points in the counter-argument. If you include too many points, refuting these points becomes quite difficult.

If you have any questions, leave a comment below.

- Matthew Barton / Creator of Englishcurrent.com

Additional Resources :

• Writing a Counter-Argument & Refutation (Richland College)
• Language for Counter-Argument and Refutation Paragraphs (Brown's Student Learning Tools)

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23 comments on “ Argumentative Essays: The Counter-Argument & Refutation ”

Thank you professor. It is really helpful.

Can you also put the counter argument in the third paragraph

It depends on what your instructor wants. Generally, a good argumentative essay needs to have a counter-argument and refutation somewhere. Most teachers will probably let you put them anywhere (e.g. in the start, middle, or end) and be happy as long as they are present. But ask your teacher to be sure.

Thank you for the information Professor

how could I address a counter argument for “plastic bags and its consumption should be banned”?

For what reasons do they say they should be banned? You need to address the reasons themselves and show that these reasons are invalid/weak.

Thank you for this useful article. I understand very well.

Thank you for the useful article, this helps me a lot!

Thank you for this useful article which helps me in my study.

Thank you, professor Mylene 102-04

it was very useful for writing essay

Very useful reference body support to began writing a good essay. Thank you!

Really very helpful. Thanks Regards Mayank

Thank you, professor, it is very helpful to write an essay.

It is really helpful thank you

It was a very helpful set of learning materials. I will follow it and use it in my essay writing. Thank you, professor. Regards Isha

Thanks Professor

This was really helpful as it lays the difference between argumentative essay and compare and contrast essay.. Thanks for the clarification.

This is such a helpful guide in composing an argumentative essay. Thank you, professor.

This was really helpful proof, thankyou!

Thanks this was really helpful to me

This was very helpful for us to generate a good form of essay

thank you so much for this useful information.

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Gordon-Conwell Writing Center

• Understanding Writing Expectations
• Brainstorming and Writer's Block
• Outlining for Successful Writing
• Writing a Strong Introduction
• Creating a Clear Thesis Statement
• Developing Body Paragraphs
• Connecting Ideas with Transitions
• Choosing the Best Sources
• Using Sources Effectively
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Paraphrasing without Plagiarizing

Addressing Counterarguments

• Ending with a Strong Conclusion
• Using Words Wisely
• Punctuating Correctly
• Revising, Editing, & Proofreading
• Applying Feedback
• Formatting Correctly
• Recorded Writing Workshops
• Return to GCTS Library Home Page

Rarely do two people agree on everything. People’s backgrounds, experiences, and ideologies naturally cause differences in opinion. Therefore, a writer must not assume that all readers will agree with his/her ideas and should subsequently seek to present information in a unbiased way. Presenting information in an unbiased way can be tricky, but it is an important part of maintaining credibility as a writer. With this in mind, readers are not likely to take a writer seriously if he/she has only presented one side of an argument. Writers must consider all sides of a topic. This is accomplished by integrating counterarguments within a written text.

Summarized Explanation

• Counterarguments increase a writer’s credibility by avoiding bias.
• Counterarguments address alternative views on a given topic.
• Counterarguments involve refuting or conceding alternative views.
• Counterarguments should be fully developed.

Detailed Explanation

Writers should aim to include counterarguments in their writing to show that they have considered all major perspectives on a given topic. After first explaining the alternative perspective, a writer can choose to refute or concede it. Refuting an alternative view means to disprove it, and conceding an alternative view means acknowledging its merit (either fully or partially). Ideally, each key idea presented in a text should be followed by a counterargument. Furthermore, counterarguments should be fully developed like other body paragraphs using the sandwich template , and they should make use of transitions , especially those that show contrast. The counterargument section of a written text should read like a very polite debate. Counterarguments should ideally be presented after each corresponding key idea; see the example outlines .

The following example counterarguments will be based on one of the mock thesis statements presented in the related writing guide Creating a Clear Thesis Statement .

Thesis Statement: This writing guide will likely have a far-reaching effect since it is intended to support people who are writing for school, work, and ministry.

Based on this thesis statement, the writer’s three key ideas/arguments are:

• This writing guide will support people who are writing for school.
• This writing guide will support people who are writing for work.
• This writing guide will support people who are writing for ministry.

The easiest way to identity potential counterarguments is by making the original argument statements negative and expanding from there.

• This writing guide will NOT support people who are writing for school BECAUSE professors all have different expectations.
• This writing guide will NOT support people who are writing for work BECAUSE workers are not as concerned with the quality of their writing as students are.
• This writing guide will NOT support people who are writing for ministry BECAUSE it was primarily designed with academic writing in mind.

Now the writer must refute or concede each counterargument. Examples are provided below.

          (PARTIAL CONCESSION) Some may argue that this writing guide will not support people who are writing for school because professors all have different expectations, but this argument is misguided. It is true that professors have different general expectations for student writing, yet essentially all professors expect students to demonstrate the basic writing principles laid out in the guide. By following the writing guide, students will only strengthen their writing, and professors will presumably be impressed, which will result not only in increased knowledge but higher grades. Thus, while some may not see the value in students using the writing guide, it is unlikely that any harm can be done as students seek to write more effectively. 

          (PARTIAL CONCESSION)  Additionally, while workers may not be as concerned with the quality of their writing as students are, the writing guide will indeed be helpful for people who are writing for work. Workers may not receive a grade for their writing, but they should care because their writing can leave bosses and colleagues with a positive or negative impression. Therefore, the guide will hopefully emphasize the importance of writing well in all areas of life. In brief, whether workers care about their writing is not the point; all people should strive to write effectively, and this writing guide is here to help. 

          (REFUTATION)  Moreover, even though the writing guide is published by a school, it was not primarily designed with academic writing in mind. The writing guide and website were designed to provide support for all types of writing since people, even students, must regularly write for many purposes. For that reason, the writing guide and website speak frequently of different types of writing and give a variety of examples to be applicable to all. Therefore, whether a person is writing for school, work, or ministry, much knowledge can be gleaned from this resource. 

• GET WRITING HELP TODAY! The Gordon-Conwell Writing Center offers professional revision and editing services for academic and ministerial writing. Click the link above to learn more!
• << Previous: Paraphrasing without Plagiarizing
• Next: Ending with a Strong Conclusion >>
• Last Updated: Sep 28, 2023 10:02 AM
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Unit 6: Argumentative Essay Writing

41 Counterargument and Refutation Development

In an argumentative essay, you need to convince your audience that your opinion is the most valid opinion. To do so, your essay needs to be balanced—it needs an opposing (opposite) viewpoint, known as a counter-argument . Even though you are arguing one side of an issue, you must include what someone from the other side would say. After your opponent’s view, include a refutation to demonstrate why the other point of view is wrong.

Identifying Counterarguments

There are many ways to identify alternative perspectives.

• Have an imaginary dialogue with a "devil's advocate."
• Discuss your topic with a classmate or group of classmates.
• Interview someone who holds the opposite opinion.
• Read about the topic to learn more about different perspectives.

Example Argument

In the conversation below the writer talks to someone with the opposite opinion. Roberto thinks professors should incorporate Facebook into their teaching. Fatima argues the opposing side. This discussion helps the writer identify a counterargument.

Roberto: I think professors should incorporate Facebook into their teaching . Students could connect with each other in and out of the classroom. ( Position and pro-argument )

Fatima : Hmmm… that could work, but I don’t think it’s a very good idea . Not all students are on Facebook. Some students don’t want to create accounts and share their private information. ( Counterargument )

Roberto: Well…. students could create an account that’s just for the course.

Fatima : Maybe, but some students won’t want to use their personal accounts and would find it troublesome to create an additional “temporary class account.” Plus, I think more young people prefer Instagram. 

Example Counterargument paragraph

Roberto used information from the conversation and evidence from sources to write the counterargument paragraph. This paragraph concludes with a concession of validity and is followed by the refutation.

Example Refutation paragraph

Counterargument and refutation stems.

Below are the stems organized in a table.

Watch this video

The video refers to counterarguments as “counterclaims” and refutations as “rebuttals.

From: Karen Baxley

someone who presents a counterargument; someone who pretends to be against the issue for the sake of discussing the issue

Academic Writing I Copyright © by UW-Madison ESL Program is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How to Write a Counter Argument: A Step-by-Step Guide

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A counter argument is a crucial element in debates and persuasive essays. It adds depth and complexity to an argument by considering different perspectives and opposing viewpoints. Incorporating a counter argument strengthens your position, demonstrates logical reasoning, and shows that you have critically evaluated the topic. In this article, we will guide you through the steps to writing a compelling counter argument.

Understanding Counter Arguments

Definition of a counter argument.

Before delving into the specifics of writing a counter argument, it's important to understand what it is. A counter argument is an opposing argument to the one you are presenting. It's a statement that challenges or disagrees with your main argument. It's not simply a contradiction, but an informed and well-supported statement that offers a contrasting viewpoint.

For example, if you were arguing in favor of stricter gun control laws, a counter argument might be that such laws infringe upon an individual's Second Amendment rights. This counter argument acknowledges the opposing viewpoint and presents a valid argument against your position.

It's important to note that counter arguments should not be dismissed or ignored. Rather, they should be addressed and refuted with evidence and logical reasoning.

Importance of Counter Arguments in Debates and Essays

Counter arguments are essential in debates and persuasive essays as they provide an opportunity to explore the topic from different angles, anticipate objections, refute opposing views, and strengthen your own argument. They show that you have a comprehensive understanding of the topic and have considered all perspectives.

Furthermore, counter arguments can actually strengthen your own argument. By addressing and refuting opposing views, you demonstrate that you have thoroughly researched the topic and have a deep understanding of the subject matter. This can lend credibility to your argument and make it more persuasive.

Additionally, including counter arguments in your writing shows that you are open-minded and willing to consider different viewpoints. This can help you connect with readers who may have differing opinions and increase the likelihood that they will be receptive to your argument.

In conclusion, understanding and effectively utilizing counter arguments is an important aspect of persuasive writing. By acknowledging opposing viewpoints and addressing them with evidence and logic, you can strengthen your own argument and make it more persuasive.

Identifying the Main Argument

When it comes to writing a counter argument, the first step is to identify the main argument that you are opposing. This may seem like an easy task, but it can be quite challenging, especially if the argument is complex. The main argument is usually found in the thesis statement of the essay or debate. The thesis statement is a concise summary of the author's main argument or position. It is the backbone of the entire piece of writing and sets the tone for the rest of the essay or debate.

Analyzing the Thesis Statement

Once you have located the thesis statement, it is important to analyze it carefully. You need to understand what the author is trying to argue and what position they are taking. This will help you to form a clear and concise counter argument. To analyze the thesis statement, you should ask yourself a series of questions. What is the author's main argument? What evidence do they use to support their argument? What assumptions do they make? What are the implications of their argument?

By answering these questions, you will gain a deeper understanding of the author's position and be better equipped to craft a persuasive counter argument.

Recognizing Supporting Points

Once you have a clear understanding of the author's main argument, it is time to identify the supporting points that they present in the essay or debate. Supporting points are the specific examples, facts, or statistics that the author uses to bolster their main argument. By recognizing these supporting points, you will be able to evaluate the strength of the opposing argument and determine which points you need to address in your counter argument.

It is important to note that not all supporting points are created equal. Some may be more convincing than others, and some may be based on faulty reasoning or incomplete information. It is your job as the counter argument writer to carefully evaluate each supporting point and determine its validity.

In conclusion, identifying the main argument and recognizing supporting points are crucial steps in writing a strong counter argument. By taking the time to analyze the thesis statement and evaluate the supporting points, you will be able to craft a persuasive and effective counter argument that challenges the author's position and offers a compelling alternative viewpoint.

Researching Opposing Views

Finding credible sources.

Once you have analyzed the main argument, it's time to research different perspectives and opposing views. This will help you to build a more comprehensive understanding of the topic and to find evidence to support your own counter argument. It's important to find credible sources that are reliable and unbiased.

Evaluating the Strength of Opposing Arguments

When conducting research, it's important to evaluate the strength of the opposing arguments. This will help you to anticipate objections and strengthen your own counter argument. Evaluate the evidence presented in the opposing argument and consider its relevance, reliability, and strength.

Formulating Your Counter Argument

Addressing the opposing view.

The first step in formulating your counter argument is to address the opposing view. This means acknowledging the main argument and explaining why you disagree with it. Be clear and concise in your explanation and support your position with evidence and logic.

Providing Evidence to Support Your Counter Argument

Once you have addressed the opposing view, it's time to provide evidence to support your own counter argument. This could include statistics, expert opinions, case studies, or personal experiences. Make sure that your evidence is credible and relevant to the topic at hand.

Demonstrating Logical Reasoning

It's essential to demonstrate logical reasoning in your counter argument. This means explaining the logical steps you have taken to arrive at your position and using clear and concise language to articulate your views. Avoid emotional language and stick to the facts to make your argument more persuasive.

Incorporating Counter Arguments in Your Writing

Choosing the right placement.

The placement of your counter argument is crucial to its effectiveness. You should place it in a strategic location in your essay or debate where it will have the most impact. This could be at the beginning of the essay, in the body paragraphs, or at the end of the essay.

Balancing Your Argument and Counter Argument

It's important to strike a balance between your main argument and your counter argument. Your counter argument should not overwhelm your main argument, but rather enhance it. Make sure that your counter argument is presented in a way that is respectful to the opposing view and that it strengthens your own position.

Using Transitions for Clarity and Flow

Finally, use transitions to ensure that your counter argument flows smoothly and is easy to follow. Transitions are words or phrases that connect ideas and paragraphs, making your argument more cohesive. Examples of transitions include "however," "on the other hand," "in contrast," and "nevertheless."

ChatGPT Prompt for Writing a Counter Argument

Use the following prompt in an AI chatbot . Below each prompt, be sure to provide additional details about your situation. These could be scratch notes, what you'd like to say or anything else that guides the AI model to write a certain way.

Compose a written response that presents a viewpoint opposing the original argument, providing evidence and reasoning to support your position.

[ADD ADDITIONAL CONTEXT. CAN USE BULLET POINTS.]

By following these steps, you can write a compelling counter argument that adds depth and complexity to your essay or debate. A strong counter argument shows that you have thoroughly researched the topic, evaluated all perspectives, and arrived at a logical and well-supported position. Use these guidelines to write a counter argument that is convincing, well-reasoned, and enhances your overall argument.

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21 Argument, Counterargument, & Refutation

In academic writing, we often use an Argument essay structure. Argument essays have these familiar components, just like other types of essays:

• Introduction
• Body Paragraphs

But Argument essays also contain these particular elements:

• Debatable thesis statement in the Introduction
• Argument – paragraphs which show support for the author’s thesis (for example: reasons, evidence, data, statistics)
• Counterargument – at least one paragraph which explains the opposite point of view
• Concession – a sentence or two acknowledging that there could be some truth to the Counterargument
• Refutation (also called Rebuttal) – sentences which explain why the Counterargument is not as strong as the original Argument

Consult  Introductions & Titles for more on writing debatable thesis statements and  Paragraphs ~ Developing Support for more about developing your Argument.

Imagine that you are writing about vaping. After reading several articles and talking with friends about vaping, you decide that you are strongly opposed to it.

Which working thesis statement would be better?

• Vaping should be illegal because it can lead to serious health problems.

Many students do not like vaping.

Because the first option provides a debatable position, it is a better starting point for an Argument essay.

Next, you would need to draft several paragraphs to explain your position. These paragraphs could include facts that you learned in your research, such as statistics about vapers’ health problems, the cost of vaping, its effects on youth, its harmful effects on people nearby, and so on, as an appeal to logos . If you have a personal story about the effects of vaping, you might include that as well, either in a Body Paragraph or in your Introduction, as an appeal to pathos .

A strong Argument essay would not be complete with only your reasons in support of your position. You should also include a Counterargument, which will show your readers that you have carefully researched and considered both sides of your topic. This shows that you are taking a measured, scholarly approach to the topic – not an overly-emotional approach, or an approach which considers only one side. This helps to establish your ethos as the author. It shows your readers that you are thinking clearly and deeply about the topic, and your Concession (“this may be true”) acknowledges that you understand other opinions are possible.

Here are some ways to introduce a Counterargument:

• Some people believe that vaping is not as harmful as smoking cigarettes.
• Critics argue that vaping is safer than conventional cigarettes.
• On the other hand, one study has shown that vaping can help people quit smoking cigarettes.

Your paragraph would then go on to explain more about this position; you would give evidence here from your research about the point of view that opposes your own opinion.

Here are some ways to begin a Concession and Refutation:

• While this may be true for some adults, the risks of vaping for adolescents outweigh its benefits.
• Although these critics may have been correct before, new evidence shows that vaping is, in some cases, even more harmful than smoking.
• This may have been accurate for adults wishing to quit smoking; however, there are other methods available to help people stop using cigarettes.

Your paragraph would then continue your Refutation by explaining more reasons why the Counterargument is weak. This also serves to explain why your original Argument is strong. This is a good opportunity to prove to your readers that your original Argument is the most worthy, and to persuade them to agree with you.

Activity ~ Practice with Counterarguments, Concessions, and Refutations

A. Examine the following thesis statements with a partner. Is each one debatable?

B. Write  your own Counterargument, Concession, and Refutation for each thesis statement.

Thesis Statements:

• Online classes are a better option than face-to-face classes for college students who have full-time jobs.
• Students who engage in cyberbullying should be expelled from school.
• Unvaccinated children pose risks to those around them.
• Governments should be allowed to regulate internet access within their countries.

Is this chapter:

…too easy, or you would like more detail? Read “ Further Your Understanding: Refutation and Rebuttal ” from Lumen’s Writing Skills Lab.

Note: links open in new tabs.

reasoning, logic

emotion, feeling, beliefs

moral character, credibility, trust, authority

goes against; believes the opposite of something

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Freewriting Your Way Past Writer’s Block

By Amery, a Writing Coach

Everyone’s probably heard the terms ‘writer’s block’ or ‘blank page syndrome’ before. For someone as self-critical of my writing as I am, though, none of those words seem to capture how horrible – even painful – the writing process can feel. It would be one thing if I was dealing with the mere absence of ideas. Often, though, it feels like the space in my mind where ideas would come from is constantly filled by a belittling, self-censoring voice. You’re real stupid, aren’t you? it says. Seriously, you just need one more phrase to go here. Just three words. You can’t even do that? What’s taking you so long? When I do think of a few words, though, the voice immediately rules them out — well, that’s really dumb. Why would you think that would go there? You think you’ll get a final draft if you keep doing this? Spending enough time listening to this voice starts to make me feel on edge, even physically sick. At my worst moments, I get in bad moods that last for an entire day.

Trying to write with that voice in my head feels like a breakneck run. Whenever I slow down or take too long to think about what I’m writing, the voice always catches up. A big part of my continued writing growth involves constantly discovering and inventing strategies to thwart and evade it.

Among the different strategies I’ve picked up over the years I’ve spent fleeing the voice, freewriting has always been my mainstay. The strategy goes by many names, such as ‘automatic writing,’ ‘blabbling,’ or ‘jabbering.’ In Writing Without Teachers (you can find an excerpt here ) , freewriting proponent Peter Elbow mentions that freewriting only has one rule: not stopping! This means forgetting grammar, punctuation, sense, or structure, and not being afraid to keyboard mash, squiggle, or write “I don’t know what to say, I don’t know!” when you reach moments you’re feeling blocked.

Freewriting might seem too weird to be useful, at least at first glance. We usually think of essay writing as something demanding constant focus, structure, and intention. Why would writing gibberish be helpful at all? For me, freewriting helps me maintain that focus, structure, and intention while also giving myself the space to explore and experiment. I’ve found freewriting very useful as both a brainstorming tool and a way to generate writing. I usually start freewriting with a topic in mind and some vague idea about structure. Later, I refine and elaborate on the material I generate to create my papers.

I find doing this easier (and more fun!) than making an outline, and it helps me reduce the pressure I might put on myself. Especially in the prewriting stages, being super meticulous would take too much time and slow me down. Turning off my constant need to make sense, at least in the moment, allows me to write faster than writer’s block can catch up.

One essential part of my freewriting process is giving myself the space to make mistakes. If you’re a self-critical academic writer like I am, giving yourself leeway to mess up might seem absolutely nuts. Getting everything right on the first try, though, is simply not how our thinking or learning works. When you learn how to ride a bike, you fall a lot. If you’re developing your perspective on important personal matters or political/moral issues, your opinions will inevitably shift and evolve over time as you gain more maturity or understanding. Why would we expect anything different from writing an essay? Academic writing is, after all, a form of learning or thinking. The freewriting session gives you the chance, separate from a grade or the eyes of others, to make as many mistakes as needed before you create a final product.

Freewriting also feels amazing, even cathartic to do sometimes. Again, if you’re mainly an academic writer or someone who struggles with being self-critical, the idea that the writing process can feel fantastic might seem bonkers. But I’ve actually grown to look forward to freewriting sessions. Some of my favorite moments in the essay-writing process involve turning on one of my favorite playlists and banging out some freewriting. (You can also check out alex’s post on “Writing from Silence, Reading with Music” on this blog for more recommendations!)

To give you a little peek into how I use the strategy, I’ll share a bit of freewriting I did when writing an existentialism paper I submitted a while ago.

One thing you might notice from reading the segment is that the tone, spelling, and grammar are all over the place. I typed it entirely in lowercase, and there are plenty of spelling errors due to how quickly I was typing. The tone is also super informal, with words like ‘idk’ and ‘crap’ (this freewriting segment was mildly edited — ‘crap’ was not the initial word I used!).

You might also notice that, despite this segment’s complete chaos, you can pick up the beginnings of a few paragraphs hidden in there. When I started freewriting, I had a vague idea of how my paper would be structured. The prompt asked me to describe Kierkegaard’s ideas on faith, offer a counterargument to Kierkegaard’s views, and suggest ways Kierkegaard might respond. I immediately decided to structure the paper into four subheadings: two to introduce Kierkegaard’s ideas on faith (of which this is the first), one to introduce the counterargument, and another to address the counterargument. After writing each subheading (for example, the “Faith as Subjective” subheading in the segment above), I started freewriting under each of them until I felt like I had enough ideas.

There are also places in this segment where I talk my way into my ideas. Words like ‘heck’ or ‘idk’ sound conversational, almost like I’m talking about Kierkegaard with a friend and I’m trying to find the right words to say. One other way I prime myself to start generating ideas is doing a little bit of keyboard mashing before starting a session (the ‘sosossosoosososososos at the top of the document). It’s a small ritual I do before each freewriting session to limber up my muscles and get into the zone.

I also give myself directions while freewriting. I wrote “that interesting quote about faith,” for instance, as a reminder to revisit the Kierkegaard reading to find a quote that I previously remembered but didn’t want to interrupt my flow to try finding.

After finishing some freewriting, I usually start another session based on the ideas I produced in the previous one. Each subsequent freewriting session, though, creates writing that’s a little more focused than the writing in a previous section. After a few rounds of drafting and freewriting, the paragraph turned out like this:

What specific ways did I build out that initial freewriting session? In some feedback I got in an earlier draft, my professor mentioned that he’d prefer the essay to be more quote-light, so I decided not to follow the instructions I left to myself to find the quote I was trying to remember. I did, though, decide to leave in one quote that I felt was especially important.

I also expanded some of the threads I noticed in a previous freewriting session while reducing some others. Below, you can see a highlighted version where you can see how each part of the first freewriting session contributed to the final product:

When I flesh out a freewrite, I ask myself a few questions: “Are there places I wrote too little? Are there places I wrote too much? Are there any patterns I can pick up that might help me structure the body paragraphs?”

For some places in the freewrite, I made reductions. When editing the yellow section, I realized that mentioning specific philosophers and theologians took too much space and I could make my point without them. For the red, purple, and blue sections, I expanded the unclear, misspelled, and sometimes vague sentences in the freewrite to make them clearer. I also rearranged the order of information. Often one great way to find patterns in a freewrite is dividing it into chunks that seem to be controlled by a main idea (almost like paragraphs !). Once you’ve “chunked” your freewrite, you can start playing with the order. Though I’m not as happy with the order of this paper as I’m looking back, I do see the pattern I was trying to go for – the main ideas of the purple, red, and blue sections can be summed up as “uncertainty is desirable, certainty is undesirable, certainty is impossible.”

For projects like these, I mainly just freewrite until the project is done. If you want to spice things up a little, though, here are some additional things you can add to your freewriting:

• Timed freewriting involves freewriting within set intervals. This might be helpful if you’re the type of person that likes brainstorming in short bursts.
• If you’re doing an assignment that requires analysis, you might try pulling out a quote you find interesting or important and start a freewriting session with it on top of the page.
• If you like freewriting on paper, you can try something called spiraling . Before you start a freewriting session, draw a big cross in the center of your paper. Beginning from the center of the cross, draw a very tight spiral until you reach the very ends. The end product might look something like this:

Doing this puts me in an almost meditative state, and the freewriting that comes out after I start writing comes out super interesting. Try it when you’re doing creative writing sessions!

• There are a few websites that add extra incentives to freewrite. com challenges you to write 750 words of anything, freewriting or otherwise, per day. Written Kitten shows you pictures of cute kittens every single time you hit a freewriting milestone. Or, if you want the harder, more intense stuff, Write or Die gives you a series of interesting punishments if you slow down while writing.

Hearing about other people’s writing processes is always super interesting, and often helps my own process. Hopefully this has helped you!