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Continuity and Change Over Time in the AP Histories

24 min read • may 15, 2022

William Dramby

Mixed AP Review

Endless stimulus-based MCQs for all units

The one thing you need to know about this historical reasoning skill:

College Board Description

Reasoning processes describe the cognitive operations that students will be required to apply when engaging with the historical thinking skills on the AP Exam. The reasoning processes ultimately represent the way practitioners think in the discipline. Specific aspects of the cognitive process are defined under each reasoning process.

Identify patterns of continuity and/or change over time.

Describe patterns of continuity and/or change over time.

Explain the relative historical significance of specific historical developments in relation to a larger pattern of continuity and/or change.

Organizing Question

How have individuals and societies changed over time and how have they stayed the same? Why?

Continuities and Change Over Time

How have you changed since you were younger? This is a pretty easy question. You have physically grown, you matured both academically and socially, and you found new hobbies, interests and activities that are age-appropriate.  Historians look for change over time. We look for how societies became wealthier, how empires fell, and the roles of different social groups changed.  

However, how have you stayed the same since you were younger?  Asking about continuities in your personality and your life is harder.  Continuities are not as obvious. Some still have a love for Star Wars movies while others will always want to play a pick-up game of basketball. Historians look for continuities over time. We look for how religion continued to play a role in peoples’ lives, how societies continued to be patriarchal, and how ideas like liberty and freedom persist.

When students study world history, they study the changes and continuities over time (CCOT). AP World History has had a rich history of asking students to write CCOT essays and use the skills in attacking stimulus-based multiple-choice questions.  

Period 1 (1200 to 1450)

1200-1450 changes.

⚡ Increase of trade along the Silk Road because of Mongol conquests and because of new stable powers

The Mongols were a nomadic tribe originating from modern day Mongolia who quickly spanned across nearly all of Eurasia, stretching from the Middle East to the eastern coast of China. In fact, the only places that were successful in fighting off the Mongols were Japan (who were aided by frequent typhoons) and India. Though short lived, an important effect of the Mongol Empire was the reunification of the Silk Roads. Prior to 1200, the Silk Roads were generally dangerous and not as prosperous as growing sea trade like in the Indian Ocean. However, the Mongols unified the Silk Roads and made it safer and easier for them to navigate.

The Mongols created Pax Mongolica or Peace of the Mongols. Trade was protected from the Mediterranean to the South China Sea. Cities like Samarkand emerged built upon trade and routes like the Trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean Trade Networks were all linked.

⚡New technologies spread like astrolabe and magnetic compass increasing exploration and trade

As empires like the Abbasid Caliphate grew across the Middle East and China grew in East Asia, new technologies were created explicitly for the functions of trade and navigation. The astrolabe , created in the Islamic World, aided travelers in using the stars to navigate (Fun fact, you can still buy astrolabes today! Though they are a bit pricey).

The Baghdad House of Wisdom is a famous example of academics and intellectualism in Dar-al-Islam, such as new innovations in algebra and trigonometry. Similarly, Song China saw a boom in innovation and new products. New forms of paper grew, leading to flying money , which we’ll discuss later, and most importantly the magnetic compass became a commonly used navigational tool.

Maritime trade growth during the period 1200 - 1450 fueled most of the technological innovation. New boats became widespread along sea trade routes. Arab dhows were ships with triangular lateen sails that were widespread in the Islamic world. Similarly, Chinese junks were small ships that traveled west from China.

⚡Buddhism spread and morphed from Northern India to Tibet, China, Southeast Asia, and Japan

Though it started in Northern India around 600 BCE, Buddhism eventually spread over the Himalayan Mountains traveling along trade routes and by various missionaries to other Asian lands. However, each region will impact the eventual form of Buddhism thus Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana Buddhism emerge. 

Many comparisons can be drawn between Buddhism and Christianity, which are both religions that spread throughout this period. For example, Christianity is a proselytizing religion, which means it seeks out converts, whereas Buddhism is not. Buddhism and Christianity also both saw significant cultural diffusion and cultural blending during this time period.

⚡The Aztecs and Inca emerged as large empires in Mesoamerica and South America, respectfully

Before their eventual conquest by the Spanish Conquistadors, the Aztecs and Inca were large, thriving empires that united the peoples of Mesoamerica and South America politically, economically, and socially. While the Aztecs and Inca empires were large, complex political structures that we cannot do justice in just a few short paragraphs, there are some must-know things about the Aztecs and Incas.

The Aztecs are known especially for their architecture, such as pyramids and sacrificial/monumental architecture. They also had chinampas , large island-like farmlands that floated on water. Politically, the empire used the tribute system , where smaller conquered areas paid tribute for protection.

The Incas used the mita system , a system established by the Inca Empire in order to construct buildings or create roads throughout the empire. It was later transformed into a coercive labor system when the Spanish conquered the Inca Empire. They’re also well known for their terrace agriculture such as the stunning Machu Picchu .

⚡ Economic powers emerged like Mali Kingdom and Delhi Sultanate

Regions that lay outside Christiandom and Dar al-Islam are uniting politically, economically, and socially. The Mali Kingdom and Delhi Sultanate were both wealthy and powerful empires that saw Islam as a uniting factor.

In fact, Mali was one of the most wealthy nations in all of history, with Mansa Musa , a Mali king, being the most wealthy person in all of human history. Mali and it’s capital city Timbuktu unified the Sahara and created the Trans-Saharan Trade Route.

⚡ Trade saw new economic and financial developments

As a result of the growth of interregional trade, new financial tools were created to aid in the transfer of goods across borders. Paper money , nicknamed “flying money” was a new innovation that came from China. Further, credit became a new tool of borrowing money that aided in financial asset growth.

1200-1450 Continuities

🔗China continued to be largely a Confucian society

Confucianism has had a large influence on the culture of China since before the Qin Dynasty. Between its influence on social structure such as filial piety and political structure such as the Five Relationships, no other philosophy has so impacted China. Confucianism emphasized education and a strong bureaucracy for the Chinese government, leading to a unique political structure.

The Civil Service Exam system from the Qin Dynasty was strengthened in Tang / Song China enabling a bureaucracy built on merit and not necessary hereditary lines to develop. However, while meritocratic in theory , wealth allowed people to get tutors and special classes to learn the tests, leading to social stratification still.

🔗Patriarchy remained a strong social force across the globe

Throughout history, one of the most consistent social forces has been patriarchy . In this time period, despite there being some advances in women’s rights, specifically in the Islamic world, patriarchy continued to place men above women in the social pyramid. 

Patriarchy is one of the most important continuities throughout history, and will follow social structures not just in the post-classical era, but in essentially every part of history that you learn.

🔗Trade continued to be the primary form of economic interaction 

Trade saw many changes during this time period, as we’ve outlined above, but nevertheless, comparing the post-classical era to the classical era, trade continued to form the basis.

Period 2 (1450-1750)

1450-1750 changes.

⚡ Western Europe faced the Protestant Reformation seeing the rise of regional Christian churches and the power of the Roman Catholic Church decrease

Martin Luther challenged the role of the Roman Catholic Church in Christianity. He promoted a more personal relationship with God and the word . From his 95 Theses , will come a radical shift in European Christianity. Luther found the Catholic policy of indulgences to be the primary signal of corruption within the church, along with a host of other issues.  

New Protestant Churches emerger like the Lutheran and the Church of England while religious wars also inflame France and Germany. Other churches and sects of Christianity, like the Calvinists, will see expansions into the Americas in the 1600s. Religious wars like the Thirty Years’ War sprung up across Europe as well.

⚡ Weakening of the Roman Catholic Church occurs throughout this era with the Reformation, Scientific Revolution, and Enlightenment increasing the popularity of humanism and empiricism

The Protestant Reformation was aided by the Scientific Revolution , a movement that helped spawn higher intellectualism in Europe (though it must be noted that many of the discoveries of the Sci. Rev. either had been discovered or were aided by discoveries that had been made in the Islamic World in previous years). Important developments were advancements in physics, biology, and the development of the formal scientific method . Scientists like Copernicus and Galileo were important astronomers who helped prove astronomical facts regarding orbits. 

The Enlightenment came a bit after the Scientific Revolution, with the Enlightenment being more of a philosophical movement rather than strictly a scientific one (though science was still part!). The Enlightenment brought with it many philosophies that we still reference today such as capitalism , formally coined by Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations , and new political theories like the separation of powers (Montesquieu), the social contract (Rousseau), and natural rights of life, liberty, and property (John Locke). The Enlightenment marked a shift in philosophy from religiosity to more of a secular form of thinking such as rationalism and empiricism .

⚡ Islamic world of Dar al-Islam expanded into large land-based empires that stretched from Europe through South Asia converting people, increasing trade connections, and forming new syncretic beliefs

The Ottoman Empire, Safavid Dynasty, and Mughal Empire all developed strong land-based empires that brought people of different languages and faiths together while also strengthening their unity under Islam. The spread of these empires was very much so due to guns , which were a new invention created after the creation of gunpowder in Song China. For example, the Ottoman Empire was able to blast through the walls of Constantinople to easily take over in 1453.

These empires developed complex political and social structures such as the Devshirme system that created janissaries . This system took Christian boys, converted them, and turned them into a large fighting force for the Ottoman Empire. An important comparison to make is religious. The Ottoman Empire was mostly Sunni Islam, the Safavids were Shia Islam, and the Mughals were Sikhism, a syncretic religion that blended Hinduism and Islam. These empires commonly fought and competed for power, such as in the Battle of Chaldiran . Chaldiran cemented Ottoman rule over eastern Turkey and Mesopotamia and limited Safavid expansion mostly to Persia. 

⚡ Major powers in the Americas, like the Iroquois, Aztec and Inca, are conquered by Europeans and led to new labor and economic systems

Beginning with Columbus in 1492 and eventually with Cortez and Pizarro, the American indigenous people were conquered by the French, English and the Spanish. Jared Diamond points out in Guns, Germs, and Steel that the Natives lacked the technology and ability to defend from disease to effectively fight back. New labor systems began to be used, some coerced, such as the encomienda and mit’a systems and eventually the use of chattel slavery , with the first slaves landing on the mainland Americas in 1619. African slaves and Native Americans were used primarily for the cultivation of cash crops , which were able to be made the most profitable crops on Earth. These crops, such as sugar led to new emphasis on coerced labor.

⚡ The Atlantic System will see trade increase between the Americas, Europe and Africa and will cause increase in slave trade, especially African corvee slavery

With the introduction of sugar cane to Brazil and the Caribbean, a new trade system emerges. Africans were ruthlessly brought from Africa to be slaves in the Americas where they were used to harvest sugar cane. The sugar, molasses, and rum made from the sugar cane in North America is then sold to Europe for manufacturing. These finished goods, like guns, were traded for slaves with the coastal slave kingdoms in Africa. This system is known as the triangular trade and forms the primary economic systems in this time period.

⚡ The Columbian Exchange will see the movement of food, animals, people, and disease.

The Columbian Exchange was arguably one of the most important events of not just this time period, but in all of world history, and is a term you MUST be familiar with. The Columbian Exchange describes the diffusion of people, food, animals, and notably disease across the Atlantic Ocean both from Europe to the Americas and from the Americas to Europe. Some important things that transferred were smallpox , which killed off some 90% of the Native population, horses , which became a staple in the Americas, cash crops like sugar and tobacco , and then from the Americas, potatoes, which increased the nutrition and lifespan of the average European.

The Columbian Exchange connected the Eastern and Western Hemispheres and created a formally globalized world. The Columbian exchange single handedly caused many of the changes we’ve discussed. 

⚡ Maritime empires emerged as the Portuguese and Dutch created port city empires and the French and British developed large colonies around the world Mercantilism and capitalism emerged as states, businesses, and individuals sought wealth by conquest and new forms of business ventures like joint-stock companies

Unlike the mostly land based empires of the post-classical era, the early modern era was marked by maritime empires, that is, empires that were spread overseas. These typically had imperial metropoles in Europe, such as the British Empire, which had colonies in the Americas and India, the Dutch Empire, that had territory in India and the Philippines, and Portugal and Spain, which had had territories in what is today Latin America.

These empires consolidated power and developed strong economic and financial tools such as joint-stock companies to grow. Companies like the British East India Company and Dutch East India Company became some of the largest companies on earth. Mercantilism became the name of the game economically speaking

⚡ New social structures emerged in Latin America as Spanish, Native Americans, and Africans of pure and mix-blood formed new social castes

The casta system saw Peninsulares (European-born Europeans), Creoles (American-born European descent), Mestizos (Mix European-Native), Mulatoes (Mix European-African), Natives , and Africans hold a strict socio-economic order based on the level of mix-blood. This was the first time in history that a social order was created strictly based off of race. This created a paradigm that continued through nearly all of world history from this point on.

1450-1750 Continuities

🔗Western Europe continued to be largely Christian with powerful monarchies

Though the Roman Catholic Church’s power diminished, Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant Christians continued to be active members of society. In general, Europe will see Christianity rule as the reigning religion, and Catholicism will see power ebb and flow throughout this time. Of course, there were some challenges to religion, especially in the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment, but overall religion will still play a HUGE role in the lives of Europeans. 

🔗Land-based empires dominated much of this era from Qing China, Mughal India, Safavid Persia, Ottoman Middle East, and Russia

The new technologies like gunpowder and the unifying force of religion allowed these societies to create empires over vast-areas and for hundreds of years. Though there was conflict, this era can also be measured by the stability of the states. Land empires, despite the growth of maritime empires, continued to have power. The Russian Tsarist Empire grew into the largest land empire in this time period, even going through westernization through Peter the Great . These empires will play a large role in expansion and imperialism in the next time period.

🔗Most societies continue the tradition of patriarchy politically, economically, socially, and culturally.

The Ottoman Janissaries were men, the Qing scholar-gentry were men, and the House of Lords in the English Parliament were men. Though some opportunities existed for women to earn economic and political power, it lacked any sort of consistency.

Period 3 (1750-1900)

1750-1900 changes.

⚡ The Industrial Revolution begins in Western Europe and spreads around the world by 1900

England, with its navigable rivers and wealth of coal deposits, was first to experience the Industrial Revolution. Naturally, Western Europe and the United States also began to thrive because of their connection to the Atlantic trade network. However, empires like Russia, Japan, Ottoman, and Qing were forced to industrialize in order to continue to be politically and economically relevant.

Between the 1700s and mid to late 1800s, the first Industrial Revolution focused on steam power (see Watt’s steam engine from the 1770s) and the transition in economics based around the cottage industry to a new use in factories and mills based off of rivers. Industrialization led to new economic theories such as laissez-faire capitalism and Marxism . Through the first Industrial Revolution, new social classes such as the middle class and industrial working class developed. Governments took specific roles in industrialization as well, such as the Meiji Era changes in Japan and Westernization efforts to avoid imperialism such as the Tanzimat Reforms and Self-Strengthening Movement .

The second Industrial Revolution focused on steel, chemicals, electricity, and precision machinery. Processes like the Bessemer process led to the growth of technology like railroads, mass manufacturing, automobiles, and the assembly line. Social stratification became a significant issue during this time as well.

⚡ The Industrial Revolution causes increased urbanization and diverse economic classes stratification

Cities like Birmingham, England were very attractive to those looking for non-skilled work. As wealth increased its impact on stratification , religion decreased its role. Working class and middle class families living in a city had opportunities for economic advancement, though slow, compared to the rural peasant / farmers. Socioeconomic movements such as Marxism grew, noting social inequities as a result of capitalism and industrialization.

Cities, while growing, were often dangerous and dirty for the lower classes. For example, London was a smog filled, dirty city that was riddled with political corruption and social stratification between the rich and the poor. 

Unionization also became a key staple of urban areas as skilled workers formed unions to protect themselves from unfair policies. For example, the Industrial Workers of the World and American Federation of Labor became large groups that promoted better conditions for workers. They helped to lead to higher wages, better working conditions, and better hours for workers.

⚡ Corvee slavery and serfdom will decrease their role in the Americas and Russia, respectfully

Paid labor was cheaper than maintaining room and board for slaves and serfs and the urban impact of industrialization meant that a constant flow of cheap labor can easily be tapped. As the world transitioned from an economy surrounded by cash crops and mercantilism to a capitalistic industrial world, paid skilled workers became a more effective form of labor as opposed to slaves and serfs who mostly worked in agriculture.

Furthermore, as the Enlightenment spread, slavery and serfdom became seen as immoral in general, with slavery being abolished across most of the world by 1900 and serfdom being abolished from Russia

⚡ Enlightenment thought and fragile social orders will lead to independence movements throughout the Americas and nationalist movements in Europe

Through European colonial powers and merchants, the Enlightenment found their way to the Americas as most of these people became independent by the early 1820s. Revolutions inspired by the Enlightenment became a key sequence of events during the period 1750 - 1900. Specifically, the American Revolution marked the first major revolution that occurred through Enlightenment principles. This quickly led to revolutions in France starting in 1789 and Haiti between 1800 - 1803. Revolutions in Latin America led by Simón Bolívar led to many new independent states in Latin America. Documents such as the Declaration of Independence , Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen , and the Jamaica Letter  

⚡ Nations began expanding more than ever through the process of imperialism

While nations had been expanding from Europe since the Columbian Exchange, industrialization led to a stronger form of territorial imperialism , especially in Africa and Asia. The Berlin Conference of 1884 had Europeans split up Africa into pieces to use for raw materials and access to more markets (M&Ms). Africans were mostly abused for labor, such as in the Belgian Congo , where Africans who did not collect enough rubber had their hands amputated. 

To justify imperialism, nations used philosophies such as social Darwinism and the idea of the White Man’s Burden (see Rudyard Kipling’s “White Man’s Burden”). These racist ideas put down imperial subjects and justified mistreatment as helping them. Political comics from this era, such as the soap advertisement below, portrayed this.

Reactions to imperialism were many, such as the Tanzimat Reforms and Self-Strengthening Movement in the Ottoman Empire and Qing China. Revolts such as the Sepoy Revolt and the Ghost Dance occurred as well, though many times they were violent and unsuccessful. Wars such as the Anglo-Zulu War and the Boer War also occurred.  

1750-1900 Continuities

🔗Monarchies continue to play a role around the world

Though the British and French monarchies saw their power decrease and the Americas tended to stay away from hereditary claims, Russia and Japan continued to solidify their power with strong monarchies. Power structures in the modern era typically were marked by either monarchies or emperors, with constitutional monarchs coming in through revolutions. Monarchies in Europe such as that under Queen Victoria in England and King Leopold II in Belgium played roles in expansion under imperialism. Imperial powers such as the Ottoman Empire and Qing China still had emperors as well. Democracy, however, saw spreads throughout this time period. 

🔗Even with challenges to the norm, most societies continued the tradition of patriarchy politically, economically, socially, and culturally

Women were gaining economic opportunities in many western nations however traditional lacked the ability to vote or hold a high office in the church. Voting rights are still limited to land-owning males in nations that have not seen an increase in the middle-class while women’s suffrage comes in the 20th Century. Feminist movements led by people like Mary Wollstonecraft in the early part of this period and Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Olympe de Gouge by the end leading into the 20th century did occur, though they did not see much significant success until the 20th century.

🔗Raw materials such as spices, cotton, and coal continue to play a large role in domestic, regional, and global trade

As imperialism and industrialization took hold during this time period, raw materials continued to be a significant area of trade and production.

Period 4 (1900-Today)

1900-today changes.

⚡ Rapid advances in science lead to new medicines spreading (polio vaccine), new communications (Internet), new sources of power (nuclear), and new transportation (planes)

Science, now with government and religion, was a driving force of change in human society. The birth control pill allowed family planning, the Internet changed the purchasing process, and the world is more globalized than it has ever been. Medical advancements such as vaccines and by the 1970s the eradication of smallpox led to overall higher global life expectancies. Technology also brought with it new forms of communications like the aforementioned internet, along with telephones , radios , and televisions . Disease played a large role in this time period. Diseases associated with poverty such as malaria and TB persisted, but diseases associated with lifestyles such as Alzheimer’s, diabetes, and heart disease grew.

⚡ Green Revolution and commercial agriculture will allow a population explosion and largely eradicate extreme hunger

The Green Revolution was a process by which new technology was implemented to boost food production. It is marked by a use of biological and organic methods to boost food production such as genetically modified organisms ( GMOs ). GMOs plants, animals or microorganisms whose genetic material has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally. They were used to boost production and help food production rise during this time period. The Green Revolution brought up concerns about global climate change and the relationship between humans and the environment.

⚡ Environmental concerns increase as the developing world industrializes, agri-business use more land, and the global population increases

As scientific technology, especially technology related to farming and agri-business, humans began breaking down the environment around them, leading to things like global climate change and desertification . Deforestation also became a significant concern as humans continued to cut down forests, especially in the Amazon Rainforest, to attain more land for development. Rainforests being removed for grazing, pesticides poisoning crops and bee populations shows the challenges humanity has with the science it created. 

⚡ Globalization seen in various forms like trade (multinational corporations like Coca Cola), epidemics (1918 flu, ebola, AIDS), and immigration of people and ideas

Globalization refers to the technological, political, economic, financial, and cultural exchanges between peoples and nations that have made and continue to make the world a more interconnected and interdependent place. Globalization is an important development that changed essentially everything about the world during this time period. Prior to the 20th century and the global conflict that came with it in the first half, the world, while certainly connected, was still mostly split into individual nations that did not work together on a large scale. As communication increased in the 20th century, globalization became the name of the game. 

Economically, multinational corporations became commonplace, such as Coca Cola, or Nike. Economic and political organizations such as the United Nations , World Bank , IMF , and many others popped up as global entities that helped run the entire world. Free trade deals and international trade agreements such as NAFTA , ASEAN , and the European Union . However, there have been negative effects of globalization, such as a separation of the First World , such as the USA and Western Europe, and the developing Third World , sometimes also described as the Global South , in which there is a larger economic disparity between rich and poor countries. Globalization has also brought with it dissemination of epidemic and pandemic diseases such as the 1918 Influenza Pandemic , the Ebola Epidemic , AIDS Crisis , and most recently, the COVID-19 Pandemic . 

Culturally, new global pop culture grew, such as reggae , bollywood , the olympics , and the World Cup . People conceptualized society and culture in new ways; rights-based discourses challenged old assumptions about race, class, gender, and religion such as global feminist movements and negritude .

Transnational movements also grew, such as the Quebecois movement in Canada, and Pan-Arabism and Pan-Africanism in Africa and the Middle East.

⚡ Older land-based empires like the Ottomans and Qing Dynasty collapsed.

The Ottomans, the once powerful trading center and Islamic hub, fell as it failed to progress successfully. Following World War I, it quickly fell and under Mustafa Kamal Ataturk, it became Turkey . For years prior, the Ottoman Empire had been named the “sick man of Europe” and despite the Tanzimat Reforms helping somewhat, by taking the side of Germany in the first World War, they quickly dissolved into Turkey.

After thousands of years of imperial rule and dynastic succession, the last Chinese dynasty, the Qing fell in 1911 in the Xinhai Revolution to a nationalist uprising led by Sun Yat-Sen and Chiang Kai-shek. Quickly thereafter, the Kuomintang, or Chinese Nationalist Party rose to power and ran the country until 1949, when Mao Zedong helped form the Chinese Communist Party and take over China. 

⚡ Decolonization will see freedom and conflict emerge in nations. 

One of the most important aspects of the 20th century was the process of decolonization , in which countries across the globe broke free of their imperial owners and became independent nations. Most notably, decolonization in the 20th century took place in Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.

In Africa, decolonization was widespread. In North Africa, such as in Algeria , decolonization was met with violence and the death of 140,000 Algerian soldiers. Elsewhere, decolonization was negotiated, such as protests against apartheid until South Africa’s independence in 1994 under Nelson Mandela . Similarly, after World War II, French West Africa split into many nations such as Guinea, Senegal, Côte D’Ivoire, and Niger.

India is an important example of decolonization that you must know. Led by Mohandas Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah , India gained its independence through civil disobedience such as the Salt March. However, after succeeding in their goal, Jinnah and the Muslim League , split off into the state of Pakistan , in which heavy border disputes ensued.

In Southeast Asia, the most significant decolonized states were Vietnam and Cambodia . In Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh led a violent revolution to overthrow the French, with the French finally losing at Dien Bien Phu. Vietnam quickly became communist and split into South Vietnam and North Vietnam, and the Vietnam War soon followed as part of the Cold War. Cambodia similarly formed a Marxist state and under Pol Pot , the Cambodian Genocide took out any signs of intellectualism.

⚡ Global conflicts over land and political ideologies increase in the first half of the 20th Century

The first major global conflict to occur in this time period was the First World War . After the killing of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente quickly caused the war to escalate from a regional crisis to a world wide war. WWI had MANIA causes: (List Mania Causes). The First World War ended in November of 1918 after the Third Battle of Picardy and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles , which blamed Germany and charged them massive war reparations. World War I also saw new forms of war such as trench warfare and the use of chlorine gas by the Germans.

Following World War I, the interwar years saw massive debt and inflation on the German side caused complete economic collapse. This, compounded by the Great Depression in 1929, contributed to the rise of Adolf Hitler in 1933 and the German invasion of Poland in 1939 and the start of World War II. World War II was another major global conflict that involved the Allied Powers and Axis Powers and ended with another German defeat in 1941 after the Battle of the Bulge.

World War II similarly saw the beginning of genocides , the systematic murder of a race of people. Global genocides were relatively common during the 20th century, beginning with the Armenian Genocide during World War I 

1900-Today Continuities

🔗The process of Westernization continues outside Europe and the United States to Japan, South Korea, Russia, India and beyond

Bollywood emerges as a center for movie making while pop-stars from South Korea thrive in the global market, and cities like Tokyo, Japan look just like New York City with their lights and sounds.

🔗Economic globalization that started with the Silk Road continues on land, sea, and air

Cotton from Georgia is shipped to Bangladesh to be made into a shirt which is then shipped to Hondars to be printed on and then back to the US for retail sail. Hands from three continents played a role in a simple shirt finding it cheaper to move the materials around than find one location to produce the whole item.

Patriarchy and racist beliefs, despite seeing vast improvements, still exist

Full Course Review for AP World History

Watch the AP World History 5-Hour Cram Finale for a comprehensive last minute cram session covering the entire WHAP curriculum including every unit, every time period, and every type of question you will come against during the exam.

Here is a breakdown of the review schedule and timeline:

• 30 min - Overview (Sorting by theme, region, and time periods)
• 1 hour - 1200-1450 CE
• 1 hour - 1450-1750 CE
• 1 hour - 1750-1900 CE
• 1 hour - 1900-Present
• 30 min - Final thoughts (Time management, strategies, and pep talk)

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Change Over Time, Essay Example

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Introduction

Slavery is an unfortunate actuality in the history of the U.S. the practice was instrumental in the economic development of the region since it was the source of labor for the agricultural sector. The practice was also responsible for other events, which shaped the American country and society. The most notable incident spurred by slavery was the American civil war. In order to comprehend the significance of the practice in the region, it is crucial to analyze its history from inception to its diminish. Slavery has characterized humanity from the early historical days. Despite this, the periods between 1600 and 1800 were influential to the American society. The practice of slavery in the modern era originated from England. This was after a navigator, John Hawkins, with the involvement of other Englishmen, sailed to New Guinea where they used force, treachery, bribery and deception to procure slaves numbering to 300 Negroes and sell them to the Spanish. Despite the reservations of the English leadership, most notable the queen about the practice, Hawkins persuaded her that the practice was beneficial for the Africans since its facilitated civilization and Christianity among the community. With the popularity of territorial expansions by European powers through colonization of new lands, the American continent was introduced to the practice of slavery. The Spanish were cited to be the first to employ the services of the slave in the West Indies. King Charles V commissioned the licensing of Fleming to transport an annual contingent of 4000 Negroes as slaves to the region. This was due to the potential in the sugar and tobacco plantations in the region, which provided a new economic frontier for the European powers.  The slaves appeared to thrive in the region despite the local population succumbing to the harsh conditions of the required labor.  Despite this, it was until 1619 that the first slaves reached the American colonies of the English. In this incident, 20 slaves were sold to settlers in the region of Jamestown. This incident facilitated significant influx of slaves into the region. Despite the condemnation of slavery, slavery was instrumental in the economic, political and social development of the U.S.

Slavery was declared illegal in England. This declaration influenced the American colony7 since England was the principal power. Despite this, the influence of England in deterring the use of slaves in the American colony was minimal if not nonexistent. This is evident in the consideration that it took a civil war to declare slavery illegal in the region effectively. Despite the fist slavers being witnessed in the English America colony in 1619 in Jamestown, slavery in the region became significant in 1773. This was due to the activities of the English company in the region whereby they supplied the Spanish colonies situated in the south and Central America. This was after a contractual agreement whereby the company promised to provide Negro slaves numbering to 144,000 in a period of 30 years. This encouraged the dealings of the English factions in the practice. The establishment of the southern colonies, whereby plantations characterized the economy of the region, augmented the popularity of the slaves in the U.S. The settlers required cheap which could withstand the harsh conditions. The Negroes were perfectly suitable for the plantation in the region and encouraged their rapid increase in the region. About 200, 000 slaves were living in the colony by 1750. A majority of this population lived in the southern part of the colony. The fertile soil and suitable climates made agriculture successful in the region a success that was facilitated by the labor by the Negro slaves. The use of slaves increased the profitability of agriculture in the region resulting in economic success for the settlers in the colony.

The increasing number of slaves in the region led to the desire for freedom by the Negroes. By the 1800’s, there were approximately 700,000 slaves in the south and this translated to a third of the region’s population. The increasing number of free blacks in the American colony alarmed the white demographic, and this led to restrictions by the American states limiting the liberties of the black community. Despite this, the slaves established their roots in the country. The slaves’ participation in the war against the British reiterates this actuality. The slaves were instrumental in facilitating America’s freedom from the British during the revolution. Despite this, they were unable to facilitate their freedom. This contrasts to the slogan, which characterized the revolution citing the equality of men. Ironically, Thomas Jefferson, who was responsible for these sentiments, owned slaves.

The invention of the cotton gin was a notable innovation in the economic development of the region particularly the fertile south. By 1860, the slaves input in the cotton industry resulted in revenues amounting to 200, 000,000 dollars in cotton value.  The slaves had to conform to their owner’s wishes despite the blatant disregard by the whites concerning their liberties. During this period, there was disquiet about the issue of slavery in the U.S. Slaves escaped to the friendly regions including the northern states and Canada where they sought freedom and better living conditions. The routes employed to facilitate the escape of the slaves were referred to as the underground railway.

The differences concerning slavery were manifested in the politics of the country with the republicans led by Abraham Lincoln opposed the practice. This naturally meant that the southern states, which were the principle beneficiaries of slavery, would oppose the abolition of the practice. The stakes concerning the issues increased when Lincoln was elected the U.S. president. This means that he could use government mechanisms to effect the abolition of the practice. The southern states threatened to secede if the practice became abolished. These tensions were the precursor of the American civil war. The war despite its costs to the American region ended the practice of slavery in the country effectively. This development was entrenched in the constitution, in the 13th amendment. This meant that the black community who were instrumental in the independence of the country and the economic development of the region could be considered stakeholders in the nations. This meant that the slaves were free and could own property and participate in the development of the country as citizens. In the contemporary scenario, slavery is illegal globally and the United Nations is instrumental in enforcing this declaration.

Despite the prejudice and maltreatment experienced by the black community in the recent times, the American community has experienced positive societal transformation incorporating the black community as equals.

Slavery is a significant actuality in the history of the U.S. This is due to the contribution of the slaves in the political, economic and social development of the country. In order to comprehend the significance of slavery in America, it is essential to consider the historical perspective of the issue. It is apparent that slaves were an integral factor in America’s development to its current state.

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How to Write a CCOT (Continuity and Change Over Time) Essay

Basically, CCOT stands for continuity and change-over-time, so in this type of task, you have to explore the dynamics of a particular subject and explain how it transformed over time. 

In fact, its purpose is to evaluate students' ability to analyze historical changes that shaped social, political, technological, and economic developments or affected global processes. 

Generally, the CCOT essay is a type of writing required at the Advanced Placement United States History (APUSH) examination. However, you might be asked to complete a CCOT essay in other settings and disciplines. 

You can think about CCOT in different ways. For example, you may discuss in your essay whether change outweighs continuity or focus on the cause and effects of a primary change in a certain era.

How to Write a CCOT Essay

• Formulate your thesis statement 

Simply put, a thesis statement is a summary of your essay argument. As for a COOT essay, you must refer to both continuity and change, so you can follow the next formula when creating a thesis:

Over the time period between (x) and (y) in (location), (continuity)x3, remained constant in (topic), while there were significant changes in (topic) such as (change)x3.  

Usually, it’s fine to make your thesis not longer than one sentence. But note that you should include at least two continuities and two changes to your statement as well as to mention a specific time period. 

• Write down ideas and identify concepts 

Before you start writing an essay at APUSH (AP United States History) exam, jot down some basic facts about the topic, relying on your own knowledge only, since you won’t be provided with any information sources. First, determine what you can write about and then build your essay around it. 

Even though you have to focus on a particular location and timeframe, you should also consider the situation in the rest of the world in that period. There is no need to go deep into detail about other locations, but it would be great to describe how some world events influenced your topic. 

• Create an outline and find evidence 

You can organize your essay in many different ways since there is no right or wrong. However, it is more preferable to organize your paper so that it emphasizes changes first. If you discuss the changes before the continuities, you will be able to come across your arguments more clearly. In fact, this is the most common approach for outline creation. 

It's essential to include a few specific examples in each paragraph. Make your examples rich in detail and relevant to the time and place mentioned in the essay prompt. Also, think about the significance of your topic in the global context. 

• Explain the cause of change 

To get a high score in the AP World History exam, you should not just clearly state what changed about the topic but also analyze a historical situation. In other words, it's important to go beyond the basics and explain both the process and causes of changes. You can also describe if the change happened unevenly in different places or over time and mention intermediate points in a certain period. 

Approaches to Address the Topic

Using this approach, you should first add a topic sentence, then provide a baseline, next explain the cause of change or context, give evidence, summarize the change, describe its status and significance at the endpoint. 

According to this approach, you need to base body paragraphs around sub-periods. So after adding a topic sentence, you need to describe the characteristics of a historical situation, tell about the events and processes that changed or stayed the same, and then explain the cause of changes and their significance during a certain period.

Use writing formulas 

To write body paragraphs, you can follow the next formulas. 

Statement (sentence #1)

During the time period (… to …), (events in the world context) caused (topic/theme) to stay constant because (reasons). 

As you see, you must think about what was going on in the world causing the continuity and cover the historical development of an event. Note that the global context must be relevant to the topic. 

Analysis of continuity (sentences #2, #3, #4)

One continuity that took place in (topic/theme) was (…). The reason for it is (analysis). An example of this would be (specific evidence). 

• Changes  

Statement  (sentence #1) 

During the time period (…), (event in the world context) caused things to change in (topic/theme) because (reasons).  

One change that occurred in (topic/theme) was (…). The reason for it is (analysis). An example of this would be (specific evidence). 

In your conclusion, you should make some more global connections and explain why it's important to discuss the essay topic today. You can also predict how it will move forward in history and whether it will undergo further changes or stay the same.

Learn More About Scoring

Typically, you can earn 1 point for having a good thesis, up to 2 points for addressing the question, up to 2 points for using accurate evidence, 1 point for illustrating the changes in terms of global contexts and 1 point for analyzing the process of continuity and change over a period of time. 

You can also get up to 2 additional points for excellence if you go above and beyond in analyzing your topic. 

Wrapping Up 

Hopefully, this article gave you a better understanding of how to write a CCOT essay for AP World History. Summing up, you should first define areas of change and continuity in your thesis, and then establish time period boundaries that you will address. Next, analyze the cause of changes and address continuity. It's also important to discuss the global context of the historical situation and connect it to world processes and change.

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One of the essays you will have to write on the AP Exam is the Continuity & Change Over Time (CCOT).

Percent of Section II score – 33 1/3

Directions: You are to answer the following question. You should spend 5 minutes organizing or outlining your essay. Write an essay that:

• Has a relevant thesis and supports that thesis with appropriate historical evidence.
• Addresses all parts of the question.
• Uses world historical context to show continuities and change over time.

Analyzes the process of continuity and change over time.

Analyze the social and economic transformations that occurred in the Atlantic world as a result of new contacts among Western Europe, Africa, and the Americas from 1492 to 1750.

Note: the question does not use a more traditional form of asking you to analyze the changes or continuities about something, directly, but rather expects you to know that is required and is really looking for a process rather than a beginning and an end, or even a beginning, middle or end.

Following the steps outlined below. Do not simply extract the words from above, but rather expand on them or give examples as appropriate.

Key Events During Time period (think events rather than years):

• Changes: Topic 1
• Changes: Topic 2
• Continuities: Topic 1
• Continuities: Topic 2
• Key Steps in Process/Major developments:
• World Historical Context
• Analyzes Reasons for Continuity and Change

What does the Thesis need to be:

• Has acceptable thesis according to the CCOT Rubric.

The thesis must address social AND economic transformations AND the ‘Atlantic world.’

Thesis cannot simultaneously count for transformation, evidence, or global context.

Addresses all parts of the question, though not necessarily evenly or thoroughly

For 2 Points: Essay must accurately describe FOUR social and economic transformations that occurred as a result of new contacts in the Atlantic world from 1492-1750. At least ONE must be social, and at least ONE must be economic. [Bond-Lamberty says three of each would be best]

Substantiates thesis with appropriate historical evidence.

For 2 Points: Include FOUR pieces of historical evidence related to social and economic transformations. The student must cite at least ONE piece of evidence for a social transformation and ONE piece of evidence for an economic transformation. [Bond-Lamberty says three of each would be best]

Uses relevant world historical context effectively to explain continuity and change over time.

The student uses global historical context effectively to show change and continuity in the Atlantic world from 1492 to 1750 by: Placing the Atlantic world in the context of world history, OR Connecting the Atlantic world to global processes, OR Describing the interactions between at least two regions

Explains a reason for a change or continuity in the Atlantic world as a result of new contacts among Western Europe, Africa and the Americas from 1492 to 1750 [Bond-Lamberty says analyze reasons for all changes and continuities.]

What IS Analysis?

Historical analysis what is being done is breaking down the item being analyzed into its parts which generally include (depending on what is being analyzed):

• historical actors: events, processes, institutions, ideas, etc. (examination of multiple causation which looks at cause and effect relationships)

• evidence (determining the significance and reliability of various perspectives like when point of view is analyzed)

• interpretations of what happened (comparing and contrasting changing versions of developments or theories)

• underlying structures (determining how all the processes, institutions, ideas, events, actors, motives, evidence, interpretations are connected and related and affect each other)

• overall process of change and continuity (connecting different regions and eras)

This is different from just explaining because of the need to look at multiple causation.

For example: if with the 2005 COT question we had asked students to explain a transformation that took place, [it] would have been okay with a single description - (“the population of the Americas declined”).

Instead we required students to go further with looking at why the population declined, ideally several steps forward and backward.

If students were asked to explain the causes of the demographic change in the Americas from 1450-1750, simply describing the Atlantic slave trade and European colonization would cut it; whereas if students were asked to analyze demographic change in the Americas we would want students to also look at why they needed the slave trade, why there was colonization and the differences in which genders were involved.

Analysis Examples

“The mercantilist economies established in Europe redefined the economies of not only of European nations, but of American and African ones as well. Under mercantilism, European colonies in the new world were limited to trade only with their mother countries to ensure profit. The European monarchs would finance gold and silver expeditions in the Americas so that their national treasure would grow. In order to ensure productivity not only in American mines, but on plantations as well, Europe began to enslave Africans and send them to the Americas via the Middle Passage. The Middle Passage was part of a great trading triangle linking Europe, Africa, and America. African slaves were sent to America to work in captivity. America sent raw good to Europe and Europe sent money and good to allied African tribes to pay for slaves. The goods and money exchanged on the Great Circuit profited many European nations and African tribes. Plantation owners in America also became very wealthy. However, the exchange of goods, and not to mention people on the Great Circuit, also reshaped societies socially. “

· Analysis in this paragraph is limited, but is present in the connection between the requirements of mercantilism and the productivity of plantations in the Americas.

· European motives (and trade restrictions) for trade are explored.

· The context of the Middle Passage within the larger trade patterns is described, but there is no evaluation/assessment of the slave trade.

“By 1492, Europe was on the verge of an economic explosion and Africa and America were relatively quiet in the global economy. Long before European contact in Africa, slaves and trans-Saharan slave trade were in existence. Portuguese explorers came upon Africa to find this institution. An institution once belonging to Africa would become globalized. Europeans soon began to export slaves to their countries and eventually to the American economies. The slave trade put Africa on the map as a contending economic power. The slave workers fueled the American economies soon thereafter. The Europeans had difficulty in finding and maintaining native-American labor - slaves filtered into the Caribbean, Brazil, and the southern U.S. to serve on plantations. The sugar industry was growing in Europe and the slaves satisfied the Portuguese sweet-tooth on the “engenhos” and in other lands. By creating the triangular slave trade, the Americans entered the global economy and Europe morphed into a more powerful one. “

· This paragraph weaves together multiple good writing characteristics.

· It places each continent into global context at the beginning of the time period.

· The institution of slavery over time is nicely described within the larger framework of global trade patterns.

· The slave trade’s effect on Africa’s place in global community is directly noted, as well as the economic effect the slave trade had on the Americas.

· Europeans’ motives are explored, and the paragraph finishes with a succinct summarization of the slave trade’s overall effect on both Europe and the Americas. WORLD HISTORY SECTION II Part B

(Suggested planning and writing time - - - 40 minutes)

Has a relevant thesis and supports that thesis with appropriate historical evidence. Addresses all parts of the question. Uses world historical context to show change over time and/or continuities. Analyzes the process of change over time and/or continuity.

2. Analyze the social and economic transformations that occurred in the Atlantic world as a result of new contacts among Western Europe, Africa, and the Americas from 1492 to 1750.

Following the steps outlined in your COT guide from the other day. Do not simply extract the words from above, but rather expand on them or give examples as appropriate.

Economic transformations - trade, labor, money, wealth, production.

Atlantic World in Europe (Spain and Portugal), Africa (Kongo and Gold Coast), and Americas (Mexico, Caribbean, Brazil).

Topic 1 - Social – New classes, ethnicities, women lose standings in Africa and Americas

Topic 2 - Economic – New trade goods, mercantilism, change in labor systems, triangular trade, new wealth (mineral and plantations)

Continuities:

Topic 1 - Social – continued hierarchical societies including slavery, women still in low position in Europe, men still in a high position in Europe

Topic 2 - Economic – continued reliance on unprocessed goods and agriculture, continued practice of slave trade,

Process/Major developments:

Global Context

Analyzes Reasons for Change/Continuity

Unacceptable

“There were many transformations in the Atlantic world as a result of new contacts among Western Europe, Africa, and the Americas from 1492 to 1750.”

This is merely a rephrasing of the question. “Many” is a virtually meaningless qualifier. Be more specific!

“Columbus’ discovery of the New World had a huge impact on the future of the Atlantic world.” or

“Europe dominated the Americas through military technology and political absolutism.”

Off topic. The question asks the reader to focus on the social and economic transformations, NOT the degree of Columbus’ impact, or military & political developments. This illustrates why it is so important to read the question carefully and spend time organizing the essay BEFORE actually writing. Not only would this not earn the Thesis point, it might also distract the writer from earning point #3 (Evidence). Make sure to answer precisely what the question asks.

“Europe was going through a social and economic transformation from 1492-1750 as it moved beyond feudalism and into the modern era.”

Off-topic. This thesis reflects a ‘European history’ point of view. Europe’s relationship to Africa and the Americas is a key part of this question, but a thesis devoted solely to any one continent is irrelevant. Too often students devote considerable effort to the Renaissance, Scientific Revolution, Reformation, Absolute Monarchy, English Civil War, etc. without relating it back to the rest of the Atlantic world.

“Between 1492-1750 Europe grew both socially and economically, while Africa and the Americas suffered.”

“Although Europe quickly dominated the economic aspects of the Columbian Exchange, their social influence in Africa and the Americas developed more slowly.”

“As Europe came to economically dominate trans-Atlantic trade with Africa and the Americas, dramatically changing labor systems and the distribution of wealth, their influence over social customs also expanded changing class structures, ethnicities and role of women in Africa and the Americas. At the same time the basic structure of the economies remained the same while hierarchies continued with women in Europe holding the same gender roles.”

For 1 Point: describe ONE social and ONE economic transformation.

Note: 3 economic transformations would earn 0 points (there must be at least 1 social transformation)

Note: The nature of this question makes it difficult to distinguish between a “transformation” and “evidence.” General long-term trends (Columbian Exchange, spread of slavery) usually counted as a transformation, while specific examples (potatoes, Kongo) counted as evidence. Readers paid close attention to the verb to identify transformations. Statements that indicated a conclusion, connection, or cause & effect were the most obvious transformational verbs, and often indicated analysis (point #5) as well. Likewise, the distinction between social and economic transformations was subtle. Often the context of the statement framed readers’ interpretation.

Unacceptable Students often rephrased a single transformation, repeating it in a later paragraph. Each transformation could only count ONCE. Readers had to pay close attention to the substance of the statement.

“As the slave trade increased, it changed the native population.” = social trans.

“As the slave trade increased, it changed the native standard of living.” = economic trans.

Social Transformations (w/ Evidence) Economic Trans. (Evidence)

• European colonization • Columbian Exchange

• Slave trade • Slave trade / Triangle trade

• European rule – replacement of ruling classes • Spanish rule (encomienda, repartimento)

• Social stratification (peninsulars, creoles, • Mercantilism

For 1 Point: Include TWO pieces of historical evidence related to social and economic transformations. The student must cite at least ONE piece of evidence for a social transformation and ONE piece of evidence for an economic transformation.

Note: The nature of this question makes it difficult to distinguish between a “transformation” and “evidence.”

“The exchange of ideas caused both the American and French Revolutions.”

This ‘evidence’ is outside the time frame (post-1750). Numerous weak essays seemed to be borrowed from students’ US history class experiences, dwelling on John Smith, Pocahontas, Jamestown, the Pilgrims, Plymouth Rock, or Thanksgiving.

“The spread of diseases among the native Americans motivated Europeans to find an alternative labor source, which they satisfied with the introduction of the African slave trade.”

“The interactions of the Atlantic world caused a population decline in the Americas while Africa's population increased. The Aztecs and the Incas, for example, were not immune to new diseases such as smallpox which wiped out much of their society.”

In this case, the transformation is the American population decline of which disease is a point of evidence. “

“As a result of interactions in the Atlantic World, new cultural traditions appeared in the Americas. The slave trade brought Africans to the Americas where Africans mixed with Native Americans and Europeans to form new languages and religions.”

In this case, “new cultural traditions” constitutes the transformation while the slave trade becomes evidence of that transformation.

Note how the evidence should relate back to the thesis (from p. 1). It shouldn’t just “hang out there” unrelated to anything else in the essay.

“The introduction of the Europeans into the Americas vaulted them to the top of the social systems, replacing the previous native nobles.”

An essay that provides abundant specific historical evidence to substantiate the thesis.

Social: mulattoes, class system, Kongo

Economic: slave trade, mita, Potosi Uses global historical context effectively to show continuity OR change.

The student uses global historical context effectively to show change OR continuity in the Atlantic world from 1492 to 1750 by:

•Placing the Atlantic world in the context of world history,

•Connecting the Atlantic world to global processes,

•Describing the interactions between at least two regions

In other words, students should know how ‘Specific Example A’ compares with ‘Global Trend #1.’ (e.g. Does the example reflect or contradict the overall global trend? What are the major milestones/turning points in the development of the global trend?) This requires students to know what the global trends ARE, and then be able to cite specific examples that support their topic sentences.

“The slave trade was an example of an Atlantic world transformation from 1492-1750.”

The essay must explicitly describe the interaction between two specific regions. Simply rephrasing this statement to “The slave trade from Africa to the Americas was an example...” would have earned the point.

Note: Virtually any accurate, relevant statement that described a relationship linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas between 1492-1750 would satisfy this requirement. Readers anticipated that this would be the easiest point to earn. Unfortunately, approx. 10% of essays (in this reader’s experience) did not meet even this minimal requirement.

The social status of European women remained constant from 1492-1750 as European social customs were transplanted to the Americas.

The discovery of silver in the Americas, greatly affected the international flow of silver and created inflationary conditions in many markets, including China and Spain.

“By 1492, Europe was on the verge of an economic explosion and Africa and America were relatively quiet in the global economy. Long before European contact in Africa, slaves and trans-Saharan slave trade were in existence. Portuguese explorers came upon Africa to find this institution. An institution once belonging to Africa would become globalized. Europeans soon began to export slaves to their countries and eventually to the American economies. The slave trade put Africa on the map as a contending economic power. The slave workers fueled the American economies soon thereafter. The Europeans had difficulty in finding and maintaining native-American labor - slaves filtered into the Caribbean, Brazil, and the southern U.S. to serve on plantations. The sugar industry was growing in Europe and the slaves satisfied the Portuguese sweet-tooth on the “engenhos” and in other lands. By creating the triangular slave trade, the Americans entered the global economy and Europe morphed into a more powerful one.”

· Europeans’ motives are explored, and the paragraph finishes with a succinct summarization of the slave trade’s overall effect on both Europe and the Americas.

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How to Write a Change-Over-Time Essay

Janie sullivan.

Change-over-time essays deal with global issues and how they either change or effect change on the environment. Timelines are important in change-over-time essays. The writer will typically synthesize a large portion of a timeline, using significant events to anchor the content in the essay. A change-over-time essay is not a research paper; it is a paper that supports a thesis with sound analysis rather than a rehash of an article in an encyclopedia.

Explore this article

• Steps in Essay Writing
• Find a topic to address
• Create a thesis statement

1 Steps in Essay Writing

2 find a topic to address.

Find a topic to address. Change-over-time essays follow the same basic rules as writing comparative essays. They deal with change that has occurred in an area such as technology, trade, culture, migrations or religious influence. Choose a period of time that best illustrates the change that has occurred.

3 Create a thesis statement

Create a thesis statement. This should include the date range or time period that will be covered, the region or country affected by the change, and what the actual change was.

Support the thesis statement by the content of the essay. Do the research and use more than just obvious similarities and differences exhibited during the period of time chosen.

Use the acronym "SPRITE" when reviewing the essay to be sure all aspects of the thesis have been covered. "SPRITE" stands for "Social, Political, Religious, Intellectual, Technological, Economic."

Write the conclusion of the essay in much the same way as a conclusion for a comparison essay is written. Include the premise stated in the thesis and summarize what the content revealed about the statement.

• Be sure to cite any sources appropriately.
• 1 Change Over Time: The Silk Road

About the Author

Janie Sullivan, a freelance writer living in Apache Junction, Arizona, has had articles published in Small Business Start-Ups and The Adjunct Advocate magazines. She earned a Bachelor of Arts in journalism from the University of Montana and both a Master of Business Administration and a Master of Arts in Education from the University of Phoenix.

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How to discuss continuity and change over time, helpful words and phrases for discussing continuity and change in history, a part of the enduring issues essay, and activities for practicing the use of those words and phrases..

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Resources for Part III: Enduring Issues Essay: How to Discuss Continuity and Change Over Time

Helpful words and phrases for discussing continuity and change in history, a part of the Enduring Issues Essay, and activities for practicing the use of those words and phrases. 

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Essay on How Has America Changed Over Time

Students are often asked to write an essay on How Has America Changed Over Time in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on How Has America Changed Over Time

Introduction.

America, a country with a rich history, has changed a lot over time. These changes can be seen in different aspects like society, technology, and politics. Let’s look at how these changes have shaped America.

Changes in Society

In the past, America was not as diverse as it is today. Now, you can find people from different cultures and backgrounds. This diversity has made America a melting pot of cultures, enriching the country in many ways.

Technological Advancements

Technology in America has grown rapidly. From the invention of the light bulb to the development of the internet, technology has changed how people live. It has made life easier and more connected.

Political Evolution

America started as 13 colonies under British rule. It later fought for independence and became a democratic nation. Over time, the political landscape has changed, with different parties and leaders shaping the country.

America has changed in many ways over time. These changes in society, technology, and politics have shaped the country we know today. It’s interesting to see how these changes continue to shape America’s future.

250 Words Essay on How Has America Changed Over Time

America: the land of change.

America, the land of the free and the home of the brave, has seen many changes over time. These changes have shaped the country into what it is today.

From Colonies to Freedom

In the beginning, America was just 13 colonies under British rule. The people were not happy with this and fought for their freedom. This led to the American Revolution in 1775, which ended in 1783 with America winning its independence.

Expansion and Growth

After gaining independence, America started to grow and expand. This period, known as the Westward Expansion, saw America’s territory grow from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. The country also grew in terms of population and economy.

Industrial Revolution

The late 18th and early 19th centuries saw the Industrial Revolution in America. This brought about many changes in the way people lived and worked. Factories were built, cities grew, and new inventions made life easier.

Civil Rights Movement

In the mid-20th century, America saw a big change in terms of civil rights. The Civil Rights Movement fought for equal rights for all people, regardless of their race or color. This led to many important laws being passed to ensure equality.

Modern America

Today, America is a diverse and technologically advanced nation. It is a global leader in many fields, including technology, medicine, and entertainment.

In conclusion, America has changed a lot over time. From a group of colonies to a powerful and diverse nation, the journey of America is a testament to the power of change and progress.

500 Words Essay on How Has America Changed Over Time

America, also known as the United States, has seen many changes since its founding in 1776. These changes have affected many parts of American life, including its people, culture, economy, and politics. This essay will talk about how America has changed over time.

People and Culture

One of the biggest changes in America has been its people and culture. In the early days, America was mainly made up of people from Europe. Over time, more people from different parts of the world moved to America. This has made America a diverse place with many cultures, languages, and traditions. This change can be seen in the food, music, and holidays celebrated in America today.

America’s economy has also changed a lot. In the beginning, farming was the main job for many people. Then, during the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s, factories became more common. This led to more jobs in cities and fewer people working on farms. Today, America’s economy is based on many things, like technology, healthcare, and entertainment. This shows how the economy has changed to keep up with the times.

Politics is another area where America has changed. When America was founded, only white men who owned land could vote. Over time, the right to vote was given to more people. Today, all American citizens over the age of 18 have the right to vote. This change has made America’s government more fair and equal.

Technology has played a big part in how America has changed. In the past, people used horses for travel and letters for communication. Now, cars and airplanes make travel faster, and phones and computers make communication easier. Technology has made life in America very different from what it was in the past.

In conclusion, America has changed a lot over time. Its people and culture have become more diverse. The economy has shifted from farming to more varied industries. Politics has become more inclusive, and technology has changed how people live. These changes show how America has grown and evolved over the years.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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Continuity and Change Over Time (CCOT) Essay

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Disclaimer: This paper has been submitted by a student. This is not a sample of the work written by professional academic writers.

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CCOT Essay Example

America is a nation with years of history engraved in itself. Each events are divided into specific time periods in history. Among all the periods, Period III ranging from 1754-1800 is most relevant at displaying the evolution of the idea of “Liberty,” in America. The evolution can be presented through the continued practices of ideas and the changes that occurred from 1754-1800. Some continuity from period III included the idea of self government among colonies and the ongoing slavery of African-Americans along with the mistreatment of the Native Americans which provided liberty to the colonists while stripping the other race from their freedom. On the other hand, the changes with the replacement of Articles of Confederation with Constitution and the Britain’s introduction of the Quartering Acts developed a new idea of Liberty in America.

First, the idea of self governing existed since years ago among colonies. Prior to the American Revolution, the colonies operated independently and followed their rules, occasionally supporting the British empire through the collected taxes. So, the intention of self government followed through, as the colonies overthrew the British monarchy and aristocracy in order to form the United States of America where they created their own government, laws and rules called the Constitution. Being able to govern themselves was a sense of liberty the colonies highly prioritized and sought after which was one of the many reasons that motivated them to fight the American Revolution in 1765-1783.

Along with the idea of self government, the slavery of African-American and the mistreatment of Native Americans continued which provided a sense of an ironic “liberty” that gave freedom to the Caucasian males to enslave and strip freedom from people of other race. The Articles of Confederation and the later Constitution, explicitly supported the slavery with the three-fifths compromise of 1787 where slaves only counted as a three-fifth of an actual citizen. In a caucasian, male dominant society, African-Americans were stripped from their human rights and owned as nothing more than a property. This became an ideal of liberty for large number of colonists to own other people. Also, as the text stated in ‘The Ordinance of 1787’, “The utmost good faith shall always be observed towards the Indians; their lands and property shall never be taken away from them without their consent.” This statement implies that Native Americans were still treated unfairly in Period III as their lands were forcefully taken away and they were stripped from their rights. While it was considered a sense of freedom and independence to do so. So, the notion of self government continued throughout the Period III along with the harsh mistreatment of Natives and the cruel slavery of African-Americans in the colonies which were all considered a part of “liberty” to the citizens of of the thirteen colonies.

Although various ideas and events assisted the idea of “liberty” to remain consistent through 1765-1783, there were other events and movements that lead to the evolution of “liberty” for the citizens of America. One of the examples is the “Sons of Liberty” founded in 1765. They were a group of people who wanted to protect the rights of colonists and fought against the “Stamp Acts” that imposed harsh British taxes on the colonies. Sons of Liberty changed the meaning of liberty as being able to protest against the British parliament policies and free the colonies from the British claw. This demonstrates that they perceived liberty as having the power to change and create their own nation. Another example stated, “There shall never be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory” and “..Indians; their lands, property and rights shall never be taken aways from them” (The Ordinance of 1787). This shows that even if only for the benefit of the government to gain territory, the idea of liberty among people were changing. People began to associate liberty with equal rights for everyone, regarding race or gender and saw the cruelty of enslaving the slaves. The slavery continued in Period III, however people’s evolving view on liberty affected how they saw slavery and mistreatment of Indians as. Also, the Articles of Confederation and the Bill of Rights introduced in the Constitution of America drastically altered the idea of liberty. The Bill of Rights ratified in 1789 transferred the idea of freedom from the states to individuals. State’s held more authority, and had a say in matter, but from 1789, people had more freedom to religion, press and speech etc. The notion of liberty commenced from the desire to create a new nation to the power to the states and finally freedom to each individual.

Therefore, with a nation like America that has a long history some ideas about liberty are bound to evolve with each events while the others could stay the same in Period III. People’s view on slavery, freedom for everyone, and independence from british empire gradually altered, however the desire to self govern and the actual slavery and mistreatment of people from other races continued throughout the 1754-1800. Thus, this specific period truly reveals evolving nature of liberty in the American history.

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Change And Continuity Over Time Essay Examples

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: War , Africa , Economics , Time , Europe , Colonization , World , Colony

Published: 02/06/2020

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World War I resulted in considerably varying consequences in different African territories, depending on the extent to which they had been involved in the war. No doubt, new doors were opened up after the war for many Africans, especially the educated elite groups. The war also boosted nationalist activity in many parts of Africa and a more critical approach was being taken towards colonial matters. With the end of the war, Africans also stopped trying to regain the sovereignty of polities that had been lost after the colonization of Africa. However, at the same time the demands of Africans to take part in the process of government of the new politics the Europeans had imposed on them. These demands served as an inspiration for the Fourteen Points of President Woodrow Wilson. The demands for self determination began rising throughout Africa, especially in Egypt and Tunisia. Although the Fourteen Points of Wilson did not serve as an inspiration for the demands for immediate independence in Africa, however, West African nationalists were encouraged to be hopeful in influencing the Versailles Peace Conference and demanding a greater involvement in their own affairs. The Fourteen Points of Wilson resulted in a decisive change in Sudanese nationalism, giving rise to a new generation of young African men with informed attitudes, who had studied in government schools and possessed some modern western skills. Thus, the First World War also marked a decisive but perhaps not a dramatic change in African history, whereas the elimination of a Germany as a colonial power as a result of the Treaty of Versailles, and the its replacement by Britain and France can be viewed as a continuation of European influence. The end of the First World War not only ended the partition of Africa but also temporarily halted African efforts to regain independence. The 1920s marked the formulation of and application of colonial policies regarding labor, land and economic development. By the 1920s, Africans began influencing the terms of their involvement in the African economy resulting in a new phase in economic relations. During this period, Africans continued to participate and play their role in the colonial economy by working on the plantations in Central and East Africa and Congo, and in the mines in South Africa. Economic opposition during t his time period was not well organized in most cases. By 1920, it was obvious that the colonial government was condoning racial segregation everywhere throughout the African continent. Mass protests against colonial policies of the 1920s were scarce, apart from the Aba Women’s War in 1929 by southeastern Nigerian women. The end of the 1920s also marked the arrival of the economic depression that resulted in equal suffering of Africans and the owners of the markets. During the Second World War, Africa was forced to compensate for the shortage of raw materials in the Far East and this would prove to be very beneficial for the independence of African nations. As a result, the transportation of raw materials to Europe and so local industries had to be created in Africa. New towns were created as a result of the local industrialization and size of existing towns doubled. The growth of industry and urban community also marked the growth of trade unions and literacy also increased, all of which contributed to the ultimate independence of the African continent. European economies had been utterly devastated for a second time by the end of the Second World War in 1945 and with the European nationals financially ruined; they could no longer afford to keep the African colonies. Moreover, they realized that they could also no longer justify keeping African societies under colonial rule.

Works Cited

Birmingham, David. The Decolonization Of Africa. Routledge, 1997. Print. Kevin, Shillington. A History Of South Africa. 2nd ed. New York: Palgrave MacMiller, 2005. Print.

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change Over Time Essay: Describe and Analyze the Key changes inAmerican society from the 1790s to the 1840s

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Essays About Change: Top 5 Examples and 10 Prompts

If you are writing essays about change, see below our best essay examples and writing prompts to help expand your horizon on this topic.

The only thing constant is change. It could be good or bad. It could be short-term or have a lasting impact. The best we can do is to ride on this inevitable and never-ending cycle of change and try coming out of it still standing, thriving, and smiling. This ability to cope with change is called resilience. 

However, some changes – such as the loss of a loved one or a livelihood — are too overwhelming to deal with that some fall into trauma and depression, in which case psychological support is highly encouraged. Read on to see our round-up of rich, well-written essays about change, and a list of helpful prompts follows to help you start your essay. 

1. “The Psychology Of Dealing With Change: How To Become Resilient” by Kathleen Smith

2. how prison changes people by christian jarrett, 3. six ways the workplace will change in the next 10 years by jordan turner, 4. “social movements for good: what they are and how to lead them” by derrick feldman, 5. “the right way to make a big career transition” by utkarsh amitabh, 1. changing your lifestyle for the better, 2. be the change the world needs, 3. adapting to life-changing events, 4. addressing climate change, 5. how did technology change our daily lives, 6. people who changed the world, 7. if you could change the world, 8. dealing with resistance to change, 9. coming-of-age novels, 10. changing your eating habits.

“If you can learn to cope with change, you’ll lower your risk for anxiety and depression. Your relationships will flourish, and your body will feel healthier. But if you can’t cope with change, only a minor amount of stress can make you feel overwhelmed by life. You might also struggle to set and meet the goals you have for yourself.”

Instead of fixating on events and people over which we do not have the power to control, we should focus on ourselves and how we can embrace change without fear. Some tips in this essay include practicing self-care, being in the present, and focusing on your priorities, such as health and well-being. 

Check out these essays about being grateful and essays about heroes .

“Ultimately, society may be confronted with a choice. We can punish offenders more severely and risk changing them for the worse, or we can design sentencing rules and prisons in a way that helps offenders rehabilitate and change for the better.”

In an environment where you are forced to follow the rules to the letter and worry about your safety and privacy daily, prisoners could develop a kind of “perpetual paranoia” or “emotional numbing” and deteriorate cognitive abilities. The essay suggests a rethink in how we deal with law-breakers to encourage reform rather than punish and risk repeat offenses.

Check out these essays about police brutality and essays about assessment .

“As technology closes the divide between geographically separate people, it introduces cracks in relationships and cultures. The remote distribution of work means that many employees will not build the same social relationships in the workplace, leading to issues of disengagement and loneliness.”

The COVID-19 pandemic has already disrupted our way of work in our new normal, but more changes are yet to unfold. This essay looks into the future of work where responsibilities and demands will see a sea change; machines will be co-workers; and the best employee is defined by digital skills, not years of experience.

You might also like these essays about cinema and essays about jealousy .

“Social movements for good establish a mass platform of action for a population, which helps inform and cultivate the awareness necessary to help prevent an issue from affecting more people. True social movements for good have the power to generate awareness that produces tangible results, helping the general population live longer, more productive, happier lives.”

A social movement for good aims to bring social justice to an aggrieved community by calling for tangible support and resources. To accelerate a movement’s momentum, an effective leader must possess certain qualities in this essay.

“There were so many questions running through my head during this time. Why should I quit to make this my full-time job? Is this what I really want? When should I quit? Poet Mary Oliver’s words kept ringing in my head: ‘What is it you plan to do with your one wild and precious life?’”

Deciding on a career change is more complex than deciding whether you want to do something different. A career shift entails lifestyle, mindset, and motivation changes, each of which has to be carefully reassessed and prepared for. This essay guides you in deciding when or why it is right to leave your job.

10 Interesting Writing Prompts on Essays About Change

Below are thought-stimulating prompts to help with your essay: 

Committing to regular exercise or getting to bed earlier may be easier said than done. Moreover, the determination that was burning at the start of your lifestyle change journey may wane in the latter part when things get tough. So, for your essay, provide practical tips from wellness experts and your own experience on how to sustain a routine toward a better lifestyle. You can split your essay into sections for each health and wellness tip you recommend.

This is the gist of the famous quote by Mahatma Gandhi: “be the change you wish to see in the world.” Unfortunately, many of us get frustrated over people refusing to change but fail to see how this change should start with our perception and action. In this essay, write about what an individual can do to focus more on self-improvement and development. 

Have you ever faced a situation where you had to adapt to a drastic change? It could be moving to a different city or school or dealing with losing a loved one. Share your experience and list the traits and practices that helped you through this challenging phase. You may also research what psychologists recommend people to do to keep from falling into depression or developing anxiety. 

To offer a unique highlight in your essay, tackle what your school or community is doing to fight global warming. Interview city councilors and mayors and learn about ongoing initiatives to keep the city clean and green. So this essay could help entice others in your community to work together and volunteer in initiatives to slow climate change.

List down the advantages and disadvantages technology has presented in your life. For example, seeking clarification from teachers about an assignment has been made easier with the many communication channels available. However, technology has also enabled a work-at-home or distance learning arrangement that is causing burnout in many households. 

Feature a person who has revolutionized the world. It could be a scientist, artist, activist, writer, economist, athlete, etc. Preferably, it is someone you idolize, so you do not have to start from scratch in your research. So first, provide a short profile of this person to show his life and career background. Then, write about their ultimate contribution to society and how this continues to benefit or inspire many. 

If there’s one thing you could change in this world, what would it be? This sounds like a question you’d hear in pageants, but it could be a creative way to lay down your life advocacy. So, explain why this is where you want to see change and how this change can improve others’ lives.

Resistance to change is most common when companies modernize, and the dinosaurs in the office refuse to learn new digital platforms or systems. Write about what you think leaders and human resource units should do to help employees cope with changes in the new normal.

A coming-of-age novel tells stories of protagonists who grow up and undergo character transformation. From being eaten up by their fears, the main heroes become braver and better at confronting a world that once intimidated them. For this prompt, share your favorite coming-of-age novel and narrate the changes in the hero’s qualities and beliefs. 

Delivering fast food has become so easy that, for many, it has become a way of life, making it an enormous challenge to replace this practice with healthy eating habits. So, research and write about nutritionists’ tips on creating a lifestyle and environment conducive to healthy eating habits.

If you’re still stuck picking an essay topic, check out our guide on how to write essays about depression . For more ideas, you can check out our general resource of essay writing topics .

Yna Lim is a communications specialist currently focused on policy advocacy. In her eight years of writing, she has been exposed to a variety of topics, including cryptocurrency, web hosting, agriculture, marketing, intellectual property, data privacy and international trade. A former journalist in one of the top business papers in the Philippines, Yna is currently pursuing her master's degree in economics and business.

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What Solar Eclipse-Gazing Has Looked Like for the Past 2 Centuries

Millions of people on Monday will continue the tradition of experiencing and capturing solar eclipses, a pursuit that has spawned a lot of unusual gear.

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By Sarah Eckinger

• April 8, 2024

For centuries, people have been clamoring to glimpse solar eclipses. From astronomers with custom-built photographic equipment to groups huddled together with special glasses, this spectacle has captivated the human imagination.

Creating a Permanent Record

In 1860, Warren de la Rue captured what many sources describe as the first photograph of a total solar eclipse . He took it in Rivabellosa, Spain, with an instrument known as the Kew Photoheliograph . This combination of a telescope and camera was specifically built to photograph the sun.

Forty years later, Nevil Maskelyne, a magician and an astronomy enthusiast, filmed a total solar eclipse in North Carolina. The footage was lost, however, and only released in 2019 after it was rediscovered in the Royal Astronomical Society’s archives.

Telescopic Vision

For scientists and astronomers, eclipses provide an opportunity not only to view the moon’s umbra and gaze at the sun’s corona, but also to make observations that further their studies. Many observatories, or friendly neighbors with a telescope, also make their instruments available to the public during eclipses.

Fredrik Hjalmar Johansen, Fridtjof Nansen and Sigurd Scott Hansen observing a solar eclipse while on a polar expedition in 1894 .

Women from Wellesley College in Massachusetts and their professor tested out equipment ahead of their eclipse trip (to “catch old Sol in the act,” as the original New York Times article phrased it) to New London, Conn., in 1922.

A group from Swarthmore College in Pennsylvania traveled to Yerbaniz, Mexico, in 1923, with telescopes and a 65-foot camera to observe the sun’s corona .

Dr. J.J. Nassau, director of the Warner and Swasey Observatory at Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland, prepared to head to Douglas Hill, Maine, to study an eclipse in 1932. An entire freight car was required to transport the institution’s equipment.

Visitors viewed a solar eclipse at an observatory in Berlin in the mid-1930s.

A family set up two telescopes in Bar Harbor, Maine, in 1963. The two children placed stones on the base to help steady them.

An astronomer examined equipment for an eclipse in a desert in Mauritania in June 1973. We credit the hot climate for his choice in outfit.

Indirect Light

If you see people on Monday sprinting to your local park clutching pieces of paper, or with a cardboard box of their head, they are probably planning to reflect or project images of the solar eclipse onto a surface.

Cynthia Goulakos demonstrated a safe way to view a solar eclipse , with two pieces of cardboard to create a reflection of the shadowed sun, in Lowell, Mass., in 1970.

Another popular option is to create a pinhole camera. This woman did so in Central Park in 1963 by using a paper cup with a small hole in the bottom and a twin-lens reflex camera.

Amateur astronomers viewed a partial eclipse, projected from a telescope onto a screen, from atop the Empire State Building in 1967 .

Back in Central Park, in 1970, Irving Schwartz and his wife reflected an eclipse onto a piece of paper by holding binoculars on the edge of a garbage basket.

Children in Denver in 1979 used cardboard viewing boxes and pieces of paper with small pinholes to view projections of a partial eclipse.

A crowd gathered around a basin of water dyed with dark ink, waiting for the reflection of a solar eclipse to appear, in Hanoi, Vietnam, in 1995.

Staring at the Sun (or, How Not to Burn Your Retinas)

Eclipse-gazers have used different methods to protect their eyes throughout the years, some safer than others .

In 1927, women gathered at a window in a building in London to watch a total eclipse through smoked glass. This was popularized in France in the 1700s , but fell out of favor when physicians began writing papers on children whose vision was damaged.

Another trend was to use a strip of exposed photographic film, as seen below in Sydney, Australia, in 1948 and in Turkana, Kenya, in 1963. This method, which was even suggested by The Times in 1979 , has since been declared unsafe.

Solar eclipse glasses are a popular and safe way to view the event ( if you use models compliant with international safety standards ). Over the years there have been various styles, including these large hand-held options found in West Palm Beach, Fla., in 1979.

Parents and children watched a partial eclipse through their eclipse glasses in Tokyo in 1981.

Slimmer, more colorful options were used in Nabusimake, Colombia, in 1998.

In France in 1999.

And in Iran and England in 1999.

And the best way to see the eclipse? With family and friends at a watch party, like this one in Isalo National Park in Madagascar in 2001.

History Cooperative

The Challenging Concept of Change Over Time

One of the biggest challenges for students and teachers in world history is the concept of change over time. Of course, the concept of change over time is essential to any study of the past, but change over time in world history often takes on the added dimensions of changes over longer periods of time and usually across more places as well. These additional chronological and spatial dimensions are often next to impossible challenges for students trying to explain how larger global processes effected changes.

The proof of these challenges is apparent in the work of students in many secondary and introductory college history courses. For example, the History Learning Project undertaken by the Indiana University History Department revealed that their college students struggled to analyze historical context and preferred to let the “‘facts’ speak by themselves.”[1] Studies of historical reasoning by fifth graders[2] and ninth graders[3] also demonstrate students struggling with these larger contexts for writing historical arguments. Perhaps an even greater sample of evidence is that every year the change over time essay question on the Advanced Placement World History (APWH) examination often has the lowest scores, averaging less than 30%. Over the past seven years, I have read thousands of APWH exams in which students consistently make the following types of errors on those change over time essays: 1) they misuse evidence by placing events in the wrong time period, 2) they make reference to global processes happening over a vague period of time without any anchoring dates, and/or 3) they create lists of information rather than well-structured arguments.[4] Patrick Manning summarized these problems well. “One example of oversimplified global analysis is the listing of a variety of outcomes of different situations, and the assertion that they add up to a pattern. With no explanation of how the situations were selected or how they relate to each other, this would be a weak statement indeed of global patterns: one needs to identify the process, not just the linked influences and outcomes.”[5]

I created an intervention connected to more active student work with annotated timelines to help students see the patterns inherent in change over time in world history. This intervention emphasized students creating annotated timelines on which they have to explain the connection between events and the global processes that affect them. A 2003 article by Janet Alleman and Jere Brophy confirmed my experience that requiring students to construct and use annotated timelines generates student acceptance and analysis of the facts they put on the timeline.[6] Furthermore, Denis Shemilt bolstered my observation that annotated timelines would help students write better continuity and change over time essays. He argued that timelines can be a “meaningful narrative into which present and future can be incorporated.”[7] Finally, I found agreement with Ian Dawson’s conclusion that “pupils need to construct timelines for themselves and not just look at completed ones,”[8] Dawson’s work emphasized how important creating timelines can be for students to grasp the scale of changes. Once I started to require students to make annotated timelines for every time period of the world history course, they mostly stopped making the typical mistakes found on the APWH exam essays.

However, after reading Epstein’s work on how African-American students feel left out of some presentations of American history,[9] I began to wonder if the historical knowledge my students were creating with these annotated timelines contradicted other knowledge they gained outside the classroom. I focused on two world history classes, of which about half were of African heritage.[10] To test this question about how students learn world history, I decided to find out what students already knew Africa before we began formal study of imperialism in Africa in the nineteenth century. I asked the students to create individual lists of what they already knew about Africa (I gave the instructions orally and projected them as well). They had five minutes to create this list, and then I asked them to indicate the source for each item they listed (home/friends, school, popular culture/media). Finally, I asked them to organize their information on a timeline. I reminded them of the periodization we used for the course, but said they could create their own organization for the timeline as long as they had at least three time periods (to avoid ‘now and then’ vagueness). The results matched Epstein’s conclusions about the source of the students’ knowledge; sixty-four percent of all students of African heritage and three Latinos listed home as one of their sources of knowledge about Africa, but none of the other Latinos, or students of Asian or European heritage did. This data seemed to confirm that, in the United States, students of African heritage usually gain some knowledge of their history from home. Since that knowledge matched what we had also discussed at school (e.g. Africa as the origin of humans), I was reassured that contradictions between home and school would not impede my students’ acceptance and understanding of world history.

I then analyzed how much popular culture and the media affected the type of knowledge the students reported. It seemed likely from studies done by Seixas[11] and Wineburg[12] that films would be a major source of information and might affect the type of information the students claim to know. In fact, twelve students of my students listed the films Blood Diamonds (2006) and Hotel Rwanda (2004) as sources of information about forced labor in diamond mines in Sierra Leone and the genocide in Rwanda respectively. About half of the fifty students also listed learning about the HIV epidemic and poverty in Africa from television or the internet , and twenty-six cited television as a main source of geographical facts about Africa. On the other hand, all but four of the students listed school as the source of their general information about ancient Egypt, the spread of Islam, the slave trade, and colonization. I concluded that they could remember and count as knowledge what they had learned from the media as well as school. The most remarkable result from this exercise was that about a third of the students added more information to their lists once they began to make their timelines. This made me consider the possibility that all of the work we had done with annotated timelines perhaps resulted in the timeline becoming an unconscious tool to recall facts they had otherwise not remembered in the initial five minutes I gave them to write their lists.

The concept of change over time is extremely challenging for students to display fully in their writing about world history. This brief survey of some of the scholarship on teaching the concept of change over time along with the small research I did in my own classroom seem to point to two possible solutions. First, as teachers we should help students reveal their prior knowledge of topics to acknowledge that our students enter our classrooms with some ideas learned at home or through various media. Second, to encourage recall and analysis of key changes, we should expand our use of annotated timelines, so that students have some schema or method to incorporate new knowledge about historical topics. Perhaps, using these two pedagogical approaches we can guide our students toward more achievement and fewer errors in their historical writing.

Directions for the Annotated Timeline Assignment:

Give students a time period or several time periods to focus their analysis. They should then select a theme common to world history (political, social, economic, cultural, environmental, demographic, etc.) and the ten events they think show the largest changes related to that theme for the time period and place each event on a timeline they create. The annotations go below the timeline and explain why each event was significant to world history. At the very bottom of the page, they write a thesis statement about how the events related to the “theme” in this time period show continuity and change over time.

For some students, making the timeline into an unusual shape that conveys the main idea of the theme or the thesis can help them express and remember the main points on the timeline.

1 A. Diaz, J. Middendorf,, D. Pace, and L. Shopkow, L. “The History Learning Project: A department “decodes” its students,” Journal of American History, 94, no. 4, (2008), 1213.

2 P. Afflerbach, and Bruce VanSledright, “Hath! Doth! What? Middle graders reading innovative history text,” Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 44 no. 8 (2001), 696-707.

3 Robert Bain, “Into the Breach: Using research and theory to shape history instruction,” in Peter N. Stearns, Peter Seixas and Sam Wineberg, (eds)., Knowing, Teaching, and Learning History (New York: New York University Press, 2000), 331-53.

4 The Advanced Placement World History Chief Readers’ reports available on http://apcentral.collegeboard.com also report these same types of errors.

5 Patrick Manning, “Interactions and connections: Locating and managing historical complexity,” The History Teacher. 39, no. 2 (2006), 189.

6 Janet Alleman and Jere Brophy, “History is Alive; Teaching young children about changes over time,” The Social Studies. 94, no. 3 (2003), 107-114.

7 Denis Shemilt, “The Caliph’s Coin: The Currency of Narrative Frameworks in History Teaching,” in Peter N. Stearns, Peter Seixas, Sam Wineburg, eds., Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and International Perspectives (New York: New York University Press, 2000), 87.

8 Ian Dawson, “Time for Chronology? Ideas for developing chronological understanding,” in Teaching History, 117 (2004), 21.

9 Terry Epstein, “Adolescents’ Perspectives on Racial Diversity in U. S. history: Case Studies from an Urban Classroom,” American Educational Research Journal, 37, no. 1, (2000), 185-214.

10 The term “of African heritage” refers to students who themselves or their parents were born in Africa, the Caribbean, or mark ‘African-American’ on official school forms.

11 Peter Seixas, “Popular Film and Young People’s Understanding of Native American-White Relations,” The History Teacher, 26, no. 3 (1993), 351-370.

12 See Sam Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts: Charting the Future of Teaching the Past. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001).

By Sharon Cohen

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