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How to Cite in APA Format (7th edition) | Guide & Generator

This citation guide outlines the most important citation guidelines from the 7th edition APA Publication Manual (2020). Scribbr also offers free guides for the older APA 6th edition , MLA Style , and Chicago Style .

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Table of contents

Apa in-text citations, apa references, formatting the apa reference page, free lecture slides, frequently asked questions.

In-text citations are brief references in the running text that direct readers to the reference entry at the end of the paper. You include them every time you quote or paraphrase someone else’s ideas or words to avoid plagiarism .

An APA in-text citation consists of the author’s last name and the year of publication (also known as the author-date system). If you’re citing a specific part of a source, you should also include a locator such as a page number or timestamp. For example: (Smith, 2020, p. 170) .

Parenthetical vs. narrative citation

The in-text citation can take two forms: parenthetical and narrative. Both types are generated automatically when citing a source with Scribbr’s APA Citation Generator.

• Parenthetical citation: According to new research … (Smith, 2020) .
• Narrative citation: Smith (2020) notes that …

Multiple authors and corporate authors

The in-text citation changes slightly when a source has multiple authors or an organization as an author. Pay attention to punctuation and the use of the ampersand (&) symbol.

Missing information

When the author, publication date or locator is unknown, take the steps outlined below.

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APA references generally include information about the author , publication date , title , and source . Depending on the type of source, you may have to include extra information that helps your reader locate the source.

Reference examples

Citing a source starts with choosing the correct reference format. Use Scribbr’s Citation Example Generator to learn more about the format for the most common source types. Pay close attention to punctuation, capitalization, and italicization.

Generate APA citations for free

It is not uncommon for certain information to be unknown or missing, especially with sources found online. In these cases, the reference is slightly adjusted.

On the first line of the page, write the section label “References” (in bold and centered). On the second line, start listing your references in alphabetical order .

Apply these formatting guidelines to the APA reference page:

• Double spacing (within and between references)
• Hanging indent of ½ inch
• Legible font (e.g. Times New Roman 12 or Arial 11)
• Page number in the top right header

Which sources to include

On the reference page, you only include sources that you have cited in the text (with an in-text citation ). You should not include references to personal communications that your reader can’t access (e.g. emails, phone conversations or private online material).

Are you a teacher or professor looking to introduce your students to APA Style? Download our free introductory lecture slides, available for Google Slides and Microsoft PowerPoint.

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Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

When no individual author name is listed, but the source can clearly be attributed to a specific organization—e.g., a press release by a charity, a report by an agency, or a page from a company’s website—use the organization’s name as the author in the reference entry and APA in-text citations .

When no author at all can be determined—e.g. a collaboratively edited wiki or an online article published anonymously—use the title in place of the author. In the in-text citation, put the title in quotation marks if it appears in plain text in the reference list, and in italics if it appears in italics in the reference list. Shorten it if necessary.

When you quote or paraphrase a specific passage from a source, you need to indicate the location of the passage in your APA in-text citation . If there are no page numbers (e.g. when citing a website ) but the text is long, you can instead use section headings, paragraph numbers, or a combination of the two:

(Caulfield, 2019, Linking section, para. 1).

Section headings can be shortened if necessary. Kindle location numbers should not be used in ebook citations , as they are unreliable.

If you are referring to the source as a whole, it’s not necessary to include a page number or other marker.

The abbreviation “ et al. ” (meaning “and others”) is used to shorten APA in-text citations with three or more authors . Here’s how it works:

Only include the first author’s last name, followed by “et al.”, a comma and the year of publication, for example (Taylor et al., 2018).

APA Style usually does not require an access date. You never need to include one when citing journal articles , e-books , or other stable online sources.

However, if you are citing a website or online article that’s designed to change over time, it’s a good idea to include an access date. In this case, write it in the following format at the end of the reference: Retrieved October 19, 2020, from https://www.uva.nl/en/about-the-uva/about-the-university/about-the-university.html

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / APA Format / APA Citation Examples

APA Citation Examples

This guide will show you how to structure APA citations according to the Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th edition) and will show you example citations for different source types. For information on other APA topics—such as formatting your paper, creating a title page, etc.—check out the EasyBib APA format guide.  It even has an example paper.

Table of Contents

• The Basics of APA Citations
• References vs. Citations

Formatting Author Information

• Formatting Titles and Dates

Citation Examples

• Citing Books
• Citing Journals and Articles
• Citing Various Digital Sources
• Citing Various Media Sources
• Citing Additional Sources
• APA Citation Template

Troubleshooting

The basics of apa.

We’re going to start from the beginning for all of you newbies out there, or for those of you looking for a refresher.

APA is an abbreviation which stands for American Psychological Association. This is a massive organization, responsible for creating and sharing psychology-related publications, research, and databases.

Basically, they keep psychologists and other similar roles in the loop with what’s happening in the world of psychology. With close to 120,000 members, this is THE leading world organization related to psychology.They are not officially associated with this guide, but the information here talks about their citing format and rules in depth.

Why were APA citations created and why did my teacher ask me to use this style?

Are you scratching your head, wondering what is APA style is and how this all relates to your research project? To make a long story short, the American Psychological Association did something really cool. Back in 1952, they created a way for ALL psychology researchers to structure their citations. This standard method did three things:

• Psychology researchers were all able to display the sources they used in a systematic way.
• Readers were able to easily understand the information shown in citations.
• There was enough information displayed in the citations for readers to go out and find the exact sources on their own.

APA citations were such a hit, they were so good, that other science disciplines soon adopted the citation format as well. In fact, other disciplines outside of the science world use APA style today, too. So, whether you’re creating a psychology-related research project or not, there’s a good chance you were asked to create your citations in APA style.

Currently in its 7th edition, the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is one of the most frequently used style guides for academic writing today!

With the 7th edition just coming onto the scene in 2020, the American Psychological Association does not expect to see widespread usage of the 7th edition until later in 2020. This is why you should always double-check with your teacher on whether they want you to use the 6th edition or the 7th edition for your projects.

Click here for more basics on this style.

Another widely used style is MLA format . Believe it or not, there are thousands of other styles, so perhaps your teacher or professor requested a completely different one. If you’re in that boat, head to EasyBib.com to check out more styles . While you’re at it, poke around and check out our APA reference generator. It may be just what you’re looking for.

References vs. Citations – What’s the difference?

References and citations are two terms that are thrown around a lot and quite often mean the same thing. A reference, or citation, shows the reader that a piece of information originated elsewhere. But, along came APA and decided to throw a curveball at us. In APA, the two terms have two different meanings.

A citation is found in the actual writing of an APA research paper.

In-text citation example:

“Lecture-rooms are numerous and large, but the number of young people who genuinely thirst after truth and justice is small” (Einstein, 2007, p. 5).

A reference is found on the reference page, which is the last page of a research paper. 

Reference Page Example:

Einstein, A. (2007). The world as I see it. Google Books. https://books.google.com/books?id=aNKOo94tO6cC&source=gbs_navlinks_s (Original work published 1934)

The information included in an APA citation is just a snapshot of the information found in the full reference. For more information on when it’s appropriate to include a citation in your paper, head to section 8.1-8.10 of the Publication manual.

Now, what makes things even trickier is that most teachers and professors use the term “APA citations” when they’re actually talking about the full references. How many times have you heard your teacher say, “Make sure you have your citations on the last page!”

Eek! So, to stay on the same page as your teacher, this guide shows you how to make references for an APA reference page, but we’re calling the page “APA Citations.” Someone’s gotta give in, right? Looks like it’s us.

If you’re looking for a quick read on the citations found in the body of the paper, check out our APA Parenthetical Citation page. It’s just one of the many free APA citation guides available on EasyBib.com. Need an APA citation generator? You can find one at EasyBib.com as well!

If you’re looking for help with the writing or grammar in your paper, check out our research , pronoun , and determiner pages. We have tons of other free grammar pages too!

A rundown on references

Before we get into the nitty-gritty details on how to structure references for your APA paper, let’s get one more quick piece of information off the table.

References are added to research papers and projects only when a source is included in the writing itself.

We don’t add references to a reference page if we want to simply suggest other, similar titles. No! We create references when an actual piece of information from another source is added into the project.

Does your paper include a piece of data from a report? Great! You copied a line of text from a case study and put it in your project (with quotation marks around it)? Perfect! You included a bar graph you found in a brochure? Fantastic! Make sure you create an APA citation in the text of your paper and include the reference on the final page.

The only exception to the above rule is if you’re creating an “annotated bibliography.” For more on that, check out our APA annotated bibliography page.

In case you were wondering, the same goes for MLA in-text & parenthetical citations on the MLA works cited page.

Ready to get started? The next section of the guide is going to explain, step-by-step, how to structure every nook and cranny of your references.

But, if you’re dreaming of an APA citation maker to help make the pain go away from building your references from scratch, you’re in luck. EasyBib.com has an APA citation maker! In just a few clicks, our technology structures and styles each and every APA citation for you. If you don’t know much about it, head to the EasyBib homepage to learn more.

While you’re at it, try out our APA cover page maker, found on the main page as well!

Fundamentals of an APA citation

This entire section goes into detail on each component of a reference. If you’re looking to learn how to style the names of the authors, the title, publishing information, and other aspects related to the reference, this section is for you!

If you want to skip the small talk and see an APA style paper example, go to the “Citation Resources” menu on this page and select “APA Format Guide.” It includes a title page example, an APA paper example, and an APA reference page example.It’s all there for you and the best part about it is it’s free! Do yourself a favor and take a peek at it now!

Author information

The very first piece of information in most references is the author’s name(s). We say “most,” because some sources may not have an author (such as websites, the Bible…). If your source doesn’t have an author, do not include any information about an author in your reference.

Citing a Source with 1 Author

Apa structure:.

Last name of the Author, First initial. Middle initial.

APA Example:

To see some examples, scroll down to the bottom half of this page.

Citing a Source with 2 Authors

Does your source have two authors? Do not put the names in alphabetical order. They should be written in the order they’re displayed on the source.

Last name of the 1st listed Author, First Initial. Middle Initial., & Last name of the 2nd listed Author, First initial. Middle initial.

Doe, J. B. & Chen, W. I.

For an example of a reference with two authors according to the 7th edition of the Publication manual , scroll down to the “Journal Articles found in Print” section, or check out section 9.7-9.12 in the Publication manual.

Citing a Source with 3 to 20 Authors

Does your source have three to twenty authors? The American Psychological Association has made some updates on how to list multiple authors in your citations. If you have between three to twenty authors, list all the authors names (Last Name, Initials). Put them in the same order they’re listed in the source. Commas separate names, and put an ampersand right before the last name.

Bos, G., Hajek, S., Kogman-Appel, K., & Mensching, G. (2019). A Glossary of Latin and Italo-Romance Medico-Botanical Terms in Hebrew Characters on an Illustrated Manuscript Page (Ms. Oxford, Bodleian Opp. 688, fol. 177b). Aleph: Historical Studies in Science and Judaism 19 (2), 169-199. https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/747571

Citing a Source with 21+ Authors

If your source has over twenty authors, list the last name and initials of the first 19 authors, placing a comma between each name. After the name of the 19th author, use an ellipsis in place of the remaining authors’ names. Then, list the final author’s name in front of it.

Here’s a formatting example for 21+ names using the U.S. presidents (this is NOT a reference example):

Washington, G., Adams, J., Jefferson, T., Madison, J., Monroe, J., Adams, J. Q., Jackson, A., Van Buren, M., Harrison, W. H., Tyler, J., Polk, J., Taylor, Z., Fillmore, M., Pierce, F., Buchanan, J., Lincoln, A., Johnson, A., Grant, U. S., Hayes, R. B., … Trump, D. J.

Citing an Author that is an organization or company

If your source is written by an organization or company:

Some sources are written and released by companies, not necessarily individual people. For example, most brochures at museums only display the institution’s name. Advertisements also only show the company’s name. If the source you’re attempting to cite only shows a group or organization’s name, place it in the reference in the place you’d normally include an individual person’s name.

Write out the name of the group in full; do not use abbreviations. For example, it may seem okay to use USDA, but APA writing style prefers you write out United States Department of Agriculture.

If you’re looking for information on how to style your own name in APA headings, find the example paper on EasyBib.com.

Formatting Titles & Dates

Formatting the date of publication.

The date the source was published is the next item shown in a reference. It’s directly after the author’s name.

For the majority of sources, include only the year in parentheses.

If you’re citing an article in a magazine, include the year and the month.

Peterzell, J. (1990, April). Better late than never. Time, 135 (17), 20–21.

Check out the examples towards the bottom of the page, or head to sections 9.13-9.17 of the Publication manual to see how dates are displayed.

Title rules and capitalization

Titles are the next piece of information shown in a reference. Titles are often tricky for people to style. Students often wonder, “Should I type out the title as it’s shown on the source?” “Should the title be written in italics or underlined?” Here are the answers to (hopefully) all of your title-related questions:

Which letters are capitalized?

Most titles are written with a capital letter in these places:

• At the beginning of the title
• At the beginning of a proper noun
• At the beginning of the subtitle

It may be tempting to write the title as you see it shown on the source, or with capital letters at the beginning of every important word, but that’s not how APA referencing does it.

Here are a few examples of proper lettering:

• A star is born
• Spider-Man: Into the spiderverse
• Harry Potter and the deathly hallows

The only source types that are written with a capital letter at the beginning of every important word are periodicals. Some examples include the titles of newspapers, journals, and magazines.

• The New York Times
• School Library Journal,

How should I style the title?

• Anything that stands alone is written in italics. When we say “stands alone,” we mean it isn’t part of a larger collection. Most books are a single source, so they’re written in italics. Other examples include movies, brochures, dissertations, and music albums.
• Sources that are part of a collection are written without italics. Website pages, journal articles, chapters in books, and individual songs (from an album) are written without italics.
• Remember, the styling information above is for the APA reference page only! Citations in the text of the paper are styled differently. If you need to see a full APA sample paper, check out the other resources on EasyBib.com!

Check out some of the examples below to see how the titles are typed out and styled. You can also head to section 9.18-9.22 of the Publication Manual for more details

If it’s not the actual title, but an APA title page for your paper that you need help with, check out the Title Page APA creator on the homepage of EasyBib.com! Or, check out the main guide for this style, which includes an APA cover page template.

Additional information about a source

It can be difficult to understand a source type just by looking at an APA style citation. Sometimes it isn’t clear if you’re looking at a citation for a presentation, a blog post, lecture notes, or a completely different source type.

To clear up any confusion for your reader, you can include additional information directly after the title. This additional information about the source type is written in brackets with the first word having a capital letter.

Wilson, T. V. & Frey, H. (2019, May 13). Godzilla: The start of his story [Audio podcast]. iHeart Radio. https://www.missedinhistory.com/podcasts/godzilla-the-start-of-his-story.htm

Thanks to the information in the brackets, the reader can easily see that the source is an audio podcast.

Check out the various examples towards the bottom of this page.

Publication information

Publication information includes the name of the publisher. In most cases, the publication information is only included for print sources. Check out the book reference below to see the publication information in action.

Citing Books in APA

You’ll find plenty of source types below. If you don’t see what you’re looking for, try out our APA reference generator on EasyBib.com! Or, here’s a great informative site we like. If you’d like to see a full APA sample paper, take a glance at the main citation guide for this style on EasyBib.com.

Citing books in print in APA

Author’s Last name, F. M. (Year published). Title of the book . Publisher.

Gaiman, N. (1996). Neverwhere . HarperCollins.

Looking for more examples? Check out our APA book citation page.

Citing a chapter in a print book in APA

A reference page APA citation for a chapter in a print book is styled the same way as the entire book. It is not necessary to showcase or display the individual chapter. However, in the text of the paper, the chapter is shown like this: (Author’s Last name, Year, Chapter #).

Citing a chapter in an edited book in print in APA

An edited book is one that was compiled by an author. Each individual chapter, or section, is written by someone else. Since you’re probably citing the specific chapter, rather than the whole entire book, place the name of the chapter’s author in the first position.

Chapter Author’s Last Name, F. M. (Year published). Chapter title. In F. M. Editor’s Last Name (Ed.), Title of book (Xrd ed., pp. x-x). Publisher.

Alexander, G. R. (2015). Multicultural education in nursing. In D. M. Billings, & J. A. Halstead (Eds.), Teaching in nursing: A guide for faculty (5th ed., pp. 263-281). Google Books. https://books.google.com/books?id=YxzmCgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edited+book&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwja47-0kL_iAhUV7XMBHXzQBxAQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&q&f=false

Citing an e-book in APA

To cite an eBook, cite it the same way as you would a print book.

Author’s Last name, F. M. (Year published). Title of book . Publisher. URL

Alcott, L. M. (1905). Under the lilacs. Little, Brown, and Company. https://archive.org/stream/underlilacs00alco2?ref=ol#page/n9/mode/2up

If you’re using the EasyBib APA citation generator to cite your e-books, click on the “book” source type.

Gaiman, N. (2009). Coraline . HarperCollins. https://amzn.to/3cQqXAL

If you’re using EasyBib.com’s APA citation generator to cite your e-books, click on the “book” source type.

Wondering what to do if you’re using a book that was reprinted? Check out the example of Einstein’s book, found towards the top of this guide.

Citing The Bible in APA

Since the bible is considered a “classical work,” and widely known, it is not necessary to create a full reference. Only include a citation in the text of the paper.

Two items need to be included:

• The title and version of the source, such as the New Living Bible
• The names, verses, chapters, or any numbers associated with the section you’re referring to.

“Then the king asked her, “What do you want, Esther? What is your request? I will give it to you, even if it’s half the kingdom” (Esther 5:5 New Living Translation).

Citing Journals and Articles in APA

Citing journal articles found in print in apa.

Author’s Last name, F. M. (Year published). Title of journal article. Title of Journal, Volume (Issue), page range.

Reeve, A. H., Fjeldsa, J., & Borregaard, M. K. (2018). Ecologically flexible endemics dominate Indo-Pacific bird communities. Journal of Biogeography, 45 (8), 1980-1982.

Your APA style paper is easy to piece together with the tools and services on EasyBib.com. Try out our APA citation machine, which structures your references in just a few clicks. If you’re looking for the perfect APA cover page, give our APA title page maker a whirl.

Citing journal articles found online in APA

Author’s Last name, F. M. (Year published). Title of journal article. Title of Journal, Volume (Issue), page range. //dx.doi.org/10xxxxxxx

Reeve, A. H., Fjeldsa, J., & Borregaard, M. K. (2018). Ecologically flexible endemics dominate Indo-Pacific bird communities. Journal of Biogeography, 45 (8), 1980-1982. //dx.doi.org/10.1111/jbi.13384

For more on journals, take a peek at our APA journal page. Or, make your citations in just a few clicks with our APA citation generator.

Citing newspaper articles in print in APA

Author’s Last name, F. M. (Year, Month Day of Publication). Article’s title. Title of Newspaper, pp. xx-xx.

Boutilier, A. (2019, May 29). Facebook won’t pull fake content for election: Official says it’s not company’s role to draw line as MPs blast Zuckerberg for not testifying. Toronto Star, p. 1.

Citing newspaper articles found on the Internet in APA

Author’s Last name, F. M. (Year, Month Day of Publication). Article’s title. Title of Newspaper . URL

Boutilier, A. (2019, May 28). Facebook refuses to remove false content during Canadian election. The Star . https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2019/05/28/facebook-wont-remove-doctored-content-during-canadian-election.html

Kale, S. (2020, March 9). How to keep your hands clean – without getting dry skin. The Guardian . https://www.theguardian.com/society/shortcuts/2020/mar/09/how-to-keep-your- hands-clean-without-getting-dry-skin

Citing magazines read in print in APA

Author’s Last name, F. M. (Year, Month or Season). Title of article. Title of Magazine, Volume (Issue), page range.

Freedman, A. (2019, June). How to choose a gaming laptop: You can play your game and take it with you. TechLife Australia, 90, 78-81.

Citing magazine articles read over the internet in APA

Author’s Last Name, F. M. (Year, Month). Title of magazine article. Title of Magazine, Volume (Issue), page range. URL

Savage, P. (2019, May). Double dragon: Yakuza Kiwami 2 is a return to form for the singular crime series. PC Gamer , 319, 80. https://www-pressreader-com.i.ezproxy.nypl.org/usa/pc-gamer-us/20190521

Citing a Source on the Internet in APA

Citing digital sources in this style is much easier than other styles. If you’re wondering why, it’s because a lot of information isn’t included in the reference.

For most digital sources, only five items are usually needed:

• The name of the author
• The date the source was published
• The title of the source
• The medium (blog post, audio file, pdf, etc.)
• The website address

Here’s some more information related to web content:

• Only include the medium if it’s unique or if it will help the reader understand the source type.
• Include the website address at the end of the citation.
• Do not place a period at the end of the website address.

Have a digital source? Need to cite APA? Check out some of the examples below.

Citing a blog in APA

Author’s Last name, F. M. (Year, Month Day of posting). Title of post. Blog or Website name. URL

Chockrek, E. (2019, May 29). 7 summer activities that help boost your college applications.  EasyBib. https://www.easybib.com/guides/7-summer-activities-that-help-boost-your-college-applications/

See another example on our APA citation website page.

Citing social media in APA

Here’s the APA template for most social media platforms:

Last name, F. M. [Username]. (Year, Month Day of posting). Content of the post up to the first 20 words [Describe any attachment] [Tweet OR Facebook page OR Instagram photo OR Instagram post] . Site Name. URL

Lem, E. [@lemesther]. (2019, October 2). Spotted @Chegg promo celebration. Ladies who…”leopard.” Cheers to all the upcoming promos. #marketing #UEx. [Image attached [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/lemesther/status/1179549293289627650

If the name of the individual is unknown or unlisted on the profile (such as Lady Gaga), place the username first, without brackets

Ladygaga. (2019, May 20). I’m so proud of @momgerm for being asked to serve as Goodwill Ambassador for @WHO. The goal of @btwfoundation is [Image attached] [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/ladygaga/status/1130578727539052544

If there are emojis, try to recreate them or describe them in brackets.

Hawaii Volcanoes NPS [@Volcanoes_NPS]. (2020, February 26). Half the park is after dark! [flashlight emoji] In addition to dark night skies, evening in the park provides a great chance. [Image attached] [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/Volcanoes_NPS/status/1232776372801589248

For more about citing social media, head to section 10.15 of the Publication manual. 

Citing online encyclopedias & dictionaries – Group author

If you conducted or watched a personal interview and the transcript or audio is not available for the reader, then there really isn’t any point to create a full reference. These types of sources are not recoverable and the reader would be unable to find the interview on their own. Instead, only create a citation in the text of the paper. Use the first initial, middle initial, and last name of the person being interviewed, along with “personal communication,” and the date of the interview.

Institution or organization name. (n.d.). Entry title. In Title of Website or reference . Retrieved Month Day, Year, from URL

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Doleful. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved March 1, 2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/doleful

Citing online encyclopedias & dictionaries – Known author

If there is a known author, cite the source this way:

Last name, F. M. (Date published). Entry title. In F. M. Last name (ed.), In Title of Website or reference . Retrieved Month Day, Year, from URL

Mann, M. E. & Selin, H. (n.d.). Global warming. In Encyclopaedia Britannica . Retrieved March 1, 2020, from https://www.britannica.com/science/global-warming

Citing Wikipedia

Cite a Wikipedia page just like a normal webpage, but use an archived version. Go to the “View history” tab at the top of a Wikipedia page to find these archived versions, their publishing date, and their URL.

Article title. (Year, Month Day). In Wikipedia . URL

Kinetic energy (2019, December 27). In Wikipedia . https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kinetic_energy&oldid=932724138

If you want to learn how to cite websites in MLA , click on the link.

An APA generator is available to you on EasyBib.com Take the stress out of building the references for your APA style paper and try it out!

While you’re at it, it may be helpful to take a glance at our APA paper template. It can be found on the EasyBib Writing Center page. You can use the APA paper example to help structure your own APA title page and paper.

Citing Media Sources in APA

Citing a song or music listened to online in apa.

Modern songs (e.g., that song you heard on the radio this morning) should list the name of the recording artist’s name. Classical music lists the song’s composer (e.g., think Mozart, Beethoven, etc.).

Note: include a URL in the reference if that location is the only means of retrieval (like if they only post their music to SoundCloud or on their own specific website). If the song is available across multiple platforms, no URL is needed.

APA Structure for a modern song:

Artist’s Last Name, F. M. (Year published). Song’s title [Song].  On Title of album . Publisher(s).

Grande, A. (2019). 7 rings [Song]. On thank u, next . Republic Records.

APA Structure for a classical song:

Artist’s Last Name, F. M. (Year published). Song’s title [Song recorded by Artist’s Name]. On Title of album . Publisher.

Bach, J. S. (1997). Toccata and Fugue in D minor [Song recorded by William McVicker]. On Great organ classics. Sony Music Entertainment UK Limited.

Sheet music in APA

To cite APA sheet music, cite it exactly the same as a book. If it’s found online, cite it as a website.

Citing streamed videos in APA

Use this format if you’re citing a video found online (such as an APA citation for a YouTube video ).

Person who posted the video’s Last Name, F. M. [Username]. (Year, Month Day of posting or publishing). Video’s title [Video]. URL

Vliegenthart, S. [booksandquills]. (2018, December 3). Books from uni we didn’t hate [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9G52GCgpEZg

If the name of the individual isn’t available, start with the username, and remove the brackets.

APA Examples:

Chegg. (2018, November 15). One common grammar error to avoid [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Bfx50f853g

Maroon 5. (2018, May 30). Girls like you ft. Cardi B [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/aJOTlE1K90k

If you’re in need of an APA citation machine to do the work for you, check out the homepage on EasyBib.com! We even have a free Title Page APA creator on the main page as well!

Citing a film or movie in APA

Director’s Last Name. F. M. (Director). (Year published). Film’s title [Film]. Publisher(s) or URL

Gerwig, G. (Director). (2017). Lady bird [Video]. IAC Films; Scott Rudin Productions.

Citing Additional Sources in APA

Citing a published thesis or dissertation from a database in apa.

Author’s Last Name, F. M. (Year created). Thesis or Dissertation’s title [Master’s thesis OR Doctoral dissertation, Name of Institution]. Name of database or archive.

Schluckebier, M. E. (2013). Dreams worth pursuing: How college students develop and articulate their purpose in life [Doctoral dissertation, University of Iowa]. ERIC.

If you’re looking for an APA citation builder to do the work for you, check out EasyBib.com’s APA generator!

Citing a conference paper in APA

Author’s Last name, F. M. (Year, Month Days of Conference). Title of conference paper [Type of presentation]. Conference Name, Location. URL or DOI.

Fowle, M. (2018, September). The entrepreneurial dream: Happiness, depression, and freedom [Conference presentation]. European Conference on Innovation and Entrepreunership, Aviero, Portugal.

Citing an interview in APA

W. I. Ikemoto (personal communication, June 2, 2019)

If the interview is recoverable, include the full reference on the final page of the project. If the interview was found in a magazine, use the magazine structure. If the interview was read on a blog, use the blog structure. Look for the APA headings above that match your specific source type.

Don’t forget, our APA citation machine structures pretty much everything for you. Find it on EasyBib.com’s homepage and give our APA citation generator a try.

Didn’t find what you needed? Still a bit confused? Learn more here . You can also take the guesswork out of making your references with our handy APA citation generator, found at the top of this page.

Putting it All Together

You’ve structured your sources correctly, right? You have the periods, italics, and commas where they belong? Capital letters where they’re supposed to be? Great! You’re almost through! The last step is organizing your citations properly on the page. For easy to follow, in-depth instructions on structuring the last page in your project, check out our APA reference page . If you’d like to see a sample APA paper, check out the main guide for this style on EasyBib.com!

Before you hit submit, make sure you run your paper through our plagiarism checker . It checks for instances of accidental plagiarism and scans for spelling and grammatical errors. Even if you think you have every verb , adverb , or interjection where it belongs, you may be surprised with what our innovative technology suggests.

Visit our EasyBib Twitter feed to discover more citing tips, fun grammar facts, and the latest product updates.

Solution #1: How to cite a photo with no creator, date, or title in APA

• Describe the photo and place brackets around it.
• Add “n.d” with parentheses around it.
• List where the reference was found without italics.
• Follow with the URL information of where you found the photo if it was found online.

Example of a photo citation with no creator, date, or title

[Photograph of two hens in a barn]. (n.d). Theoretical Prints. http://Theoretical_Prints.org/two-hypothetical-hens/

Solution #2: How to cite a dictionary entry in APA

Dictionary entry in print

• List the organization or the author’s name in last name, first name initial, and middle name initial (if there is one) with a period following.
• Use n.d if the date is not listed.
• List the name of the dictionary term. Capitalize the first letter and use a period after.
• Write “In” followed by the name of the dictionary used. The dictionary name should be italicized.
• In parentheses, write the volume abbreviated as “Vol.” followed by the volume number and page number. Add a period after it.

Examples for a printed dictionary entry citation

Hypothetical Association of Learning. (2014). Cake. In The Hypothetical Learner’s Dictionary (Vol. 2, p. 3).

Johnson, C. K. (2014). Cake. In The Hypothetical Learner’s Dictionary (Vol. 2, p. 3).

Dictionary entry from an online source

• Use “n.d” if the date is not listed.
• Write the name of the dictionary in italics and follow it with a period.
• Write “Retrieved” then the date you accessed the entry online in this format: Month Day, Year. End it with a comma.
• Write “from” and add the page URL.

Examples for an online dictionary entry citation

Hypothetical Association of Learning. (2014). Cake. In The Hypothetical Learner’s Dictionary.   Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https;//dictionary.hypothetical.org/dictionary/English/cake

Johnson, C. K. (2014). Cake. In The Hypothetical Learner’s Dictionary. Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https;//dictionary.hypothetical.org/dictionary/English/cake

Solution #3: How to ensure that an auto-generated citation in APA style is correct

• Ensure that the correct number of people are accredited by counting the names in the source and the website citation.
• Ensure that all names are spelled correctly.
• If 2-20 authors are used, ensure that an ampersand is used before the last name.
• If more than twenty authors are used, ensure that an ellipsis is used before the final author.
• Check to make sure that the date is correct and that the month or year do not need to be adjusted.
• Generally, works cited as a whole, such as books, are written in italics, while shorter works that are part of a bigger work, such as a chapter in a book or articles from a periodical (e.g., journal, magazine, newspaper, etc.), are usually in regular font.
• The title of webpages are italicized, while the title of the site they are on is in regular font.
• Social media post citations use the written post content (up to 20 words) as the title. This “title” should be italicized.
• If using a chapter, make sure that the editor is accredited.
• If using an article, make sure that the journal number is italicized and that the volume number is in parentheses.
• Make sure that your links are active and that they bring you to the correct location. You may need to rewrite the link.

Published August 2, 2019. Updated March 10, 2020. 

Written and edited by Michele Kirschenbaum and Elise Barbeau . Michele Kirschenbaum is a dedicated school library media specialist and one of the in-house EasyBib librarians. Elise Barbeau is the Citation Specialist at Chegg. She has worked in digital marketing, libraries, and publishing.

APA Formatting Guide

APA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Multiple Authors
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Parenthetical Citations
• Reference Page
• Sample Paper
• APA 7 Updates
• View APA Guide
• Book Chapter
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Website (no author)
• View all APA Examples

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Go to www.easybib.com and follow the directions to create a citation. After you create a citation or citation list, you can choose APA as your citation style (default is MLA). APA is a premium style, so you will need a subscription or trial to EasyBib Plus in order to create citations in APA. Upgrade your account at https://www.easybib.com/upgrade .

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Free MLA Citation Generator

Generate accurate citations in MLA format automatically, with MyBib!

😕 What is an MLA Citation Generator?

An MLA citation generator is a software tool designed to automatically create academic citations in the Modern Language Association (MLA) citation format. The generator will take information such as document titles, author, and URLs as in input, and output fully formatted citations that can be inserted into the Works Cited page of an MLA-compliant academic paper.

The citations on a Works Cited page show the external sources that were used to write the main body of the academic paper, either directly as references and quotes, or indirectly as ideas.

👩‍🎓 Who uses an MLA Citation Generator?

MLA style is most often used by middle school and high school students in preparation for transition to college and further education. Ironically, MLA style is not actually used all that often beyond middle and high school, with APA (American Psychological Association) style being the favored style at colleges across the country.

It is also important at this level to learn why it's critical to cite sources, not just how to cite them.

🙌 Why should I use a Citation Generator?

Writing citations manually is time consuming and error prone. Automating this process with a citation generator is easy, straightforward, and gives accurate results. It's also easier to keep citations organized and in the correct order.

The Works Cited page contributes to the overall grade of a paper, so it is important to produce accurately formatted citations that follow the guidelines in the official MLA Handbook .

⚙️ How do I use MyBib's MLA Citation Generator?

It's super easy to create MLA style citations with our MLA Citation Generator. Scroll back up to the generator at the top of the page and select the type of source you're citing. Books, journal articles, and webpages are all examples of the types of sources our generator can cite automatically. Then either search for the source, or enter the details manually in the citation form.

The generator will produce a formatted MLA citation that can be copied and pasted directly into your document, or saved to MyBib as part of your overall Works Cited page (which can be downloaded fully later!).

MyBib supports the following for MLA style:

Daniel is a qualified librarian, former teacher, and citation expert. He has been contributing to MyBib since 2018.

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How to Cite an Essay

Last Updated: February 4, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Diya Chaudhuri, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Jennifer Mueller, JD . Diya Chaudhuri holds a PhD in Creative Writing (specializing in Poetry) from Georgia State University. She has over 5 years of experience as a writing tutor and instructor for both the University of Florida and Georgia State University. There are 10 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 556,018 times.

If you're writing a research paper, whether as a student or a professional researcher, you might want to use an essay as a source. You'll typically find essays published in another source, such as an edited book or collection. When you discuss or quote from the essay in your paper, use an in-text citation to relate back to the full entry listed in your list of references at the end of your paper. While the information in the full reference entry is basically the same, the format differs depending on whether you're using the Modern Language Association (MLA), American Psychological Association (APA), or Chicago citation method.

Template and Examples

• Example: Potter, Harry.

• Example: Potter, Harry. "My Life with Voldemort."

• Example: Potter, Harry. "My Life with Voldemort." Great Thoughts from Hogwarts Alumni , by Bathilda Backshot,

• Example: Potter, Harry. "My Life with Voldemort." Great Thoughts from Hogwarts Alumni , by Bathilda Backshot, Hogwarts Press, 2019,

• Example: Potter, Harry. "My Life with Voldemort." Great Thoughts from Hogwarts Alumni , by Bathilda Backshot, Hogwarts Press, 2019, pp. 22-42.

MLA Works Cited Entry Format:

LastName, FirstName. "Title of Essay." Title of Collection , by FirstName Last Name, Publisher, Year, pp. ##-##.

• For example, you might write: While the stories may seem like great adventures, the students themselves were terribly frightened to confront Voldemort (Potter 28).
• If you include the author's name in the text of your paper, you only need the page number where the referenced material can be found in the parenthetical at the end of your sentence.
• If you have several authors with the same last name, include each author's first initial in your in-text citation to differentiate them.
• For several titles by the same author, include a shortened version of the title after the author's name (if the title isn't mentioned in your text).

• Example: Granger, H.

• Example: Granger, H. (2018).

• Example: Granger, H. (2018). Adventures in time turning.

• Example: Granger, H. (2018). Adventures in time turning. In M. McGonagall (Ed.), Reflections on my time at Hogwarts

• Example: Granger, H. (2018). Adventures in time turning. In M. McGonagall (Ed.), Reflections on my time at Hogwarts (pp. 92-130). Hogwarts Press.

APA Reference List Entry Format:

LastName, I. (Year). Title of essay. In I. LastName (Ed.), Title of larger work (pp. ##-##). Publisher.

• For example, you might write: By using a time turner, a witch or wizard can appear to others as though they are actually in two places at once (Granger, 2018).
• If you use the author's name in the text of your paper, include the parenthetical with the year immediately after the author's name. For example, you might write: Although technically against the rules, Granger (2018) maintains that her use of a time turner was sanctioned by the head of her house.
• Add page numbers if you quote directly from the source. Simply add a comma after the year, then type the page number or page range where the quoted material can be found, using the abbreviation "p." for a single page or "pp." for a range of pages.

• Example: Weasley, Ron.

• Example: Weasley, Ron. "Best Friend to a Hero."

• Example: Weasley, Ron. "Best Friend to a Hero." In Harry Potter: Wizard, Myth, Legend , edited by Xenophilius Lovegood, 80-92.

• Example: Weasley, Ron. "Best Friend to a Hero." In Harry Potter: Wizard, Myth, Legend , edited by Xenophilius Lovegood, 80-92. Ottery St. Catchpole: Quibbler Books, 2018.

' Chicago Bibliography Format:

LastName, FirstName. "Title of Essay." In Title of Book or Essay Collection , edited by FirstName LastName, ##-##. Location: Publisher, Year.

• Example: Ron Weasley, "Best Friend to a Hero," in Harry Potter: Wizard, Myth, Legend , edited by Xenophilius Lovegood, 80-92 (Ottery St. Catchpole: Quibbler Books, 2018).
• After the first footnote, use a shortened footnote format that includes only the author's last name, the title of the essay, and the page number or page range where the referenced material appears.

Tip: If you use the Chicago author-date system for in-text citation, use the same in-text citation method as APA style.

Community Q&A

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://style.mla.org/essay-in-authored-textbook/
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_works_cited_page_books.html
• ↑ https://utica.libguides.com/c.php?g=703243&p=4991646
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_in_text_citations_the_basics.html
• ↑ https://guides.libraries.psu.edu/apaquickguide/intext
• ↑ https://guides.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/c.php?g=27779&p=170363
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/in_text_citations_the_basics.html
• ↑ http://libguides.heidelberg.edu/chicago/book/chapter
• ↑ https://librarybestbets.fairfield.edu/citationguides/chicagonotes-bibliography#CollectionofEssays
• ↑ https://libguides.heidelberg.edu/chicago/book/chapter

About This Article

To cite an essay using MLA format, include the name of the author and the page number of the source you’re citing in the in-text citation. For example, if you’re referencing page 123 from a book by John Smith, you would include “(Smith 123)” at the end of the sentence. Alternatively, include the information as part of the sentence, such as “Rathore and Chauhan determined that Himalayan brown bears eat both plants and animals (6652).” Then, make sure that all your in-text citations match the sources in your Works Cited list. For more advice from our Creative Writing reviewer, including how to cite an essay in APA or Chicago Style, keep reading. Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Citing Sources: APA, MLA & Chicago Styles

Apa 7 handouts and additional sources, apa 7 manual in print, apa 7 paper format, why citations, quoting, paraphrasing and summarizing, in-text citations: 2 types, in-text citation format, reference list: basic principles, reference list: basic format, reference list: author format, dois and how to find them, print books, edited book as a whole, part of an edited book (chapters/essays/articles), dictionaries/encyclopedias (including wikipedia), journal articles, magazine articles, newspaper articles, news webpage (online news sources), social media, audiovisual materials, personal communications (including interviews), dissertations and theses, government reports, legal sources, creating flawless citations.

• PREVIOUS APA Style (6th Edition)
• MLA Style, 9th edition (work in progress)
• MLA Style (8th edition)
• Citing Legal Materials (Bluebook)
• Chicago Style
• Citation Tools in Databases and on the Web
• Avoiding Plagiarism

APA 7 HANDOUTS:   If your professor requests APA 6th edition, please click here for our  APA Style 6th edition .   For further assistance, contact a  John Jay librarian  or the  John Jay Writing Center .

APA 7 Reference List: Common Sources   (click for handout)

APA 7 Reference List: Social Media and Audiovisual Materials (click for handout)

APA 7 In-Text Citations   (click for handout)

Additional sources:  

APA Style Blog   and  APA Twitter Feed  (American Psychological Association)

APA 7th Style  (Excelsior College Online Writing Lab)

APA 7th Style Referencing Guide , AUT Library (Auckland University of Technology):

APA Style (7th ed.) , Albert S. Cook Library (Towson University):

APA Style (7th ed.) , OWL (Online Writing Lab at Purdue University) 

Many databases now create a citation for you.  Watch our video,  How to Use Citation Tools in Databases  and read the screen carefully in each database to locate the citation tool.  ALWAYS check the database citation for errors by checking it against our Library citation guides--learn how by watching our video  Creating Flawless Citations .

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th edition)  

APA 7 is the CURRENT version of APA style.   Print copies are available in our Library both on reserve (3 hour loan) and at the Reference Desk (2nd floor) under the call number  BF76.7 .P83 2020  

APA 7 has two paper formats--student and professional.  This guide presents how to format student papers . *

APA format dictates the style of your title page, headings and References list. Consult the APA Style Blog for how to format tables, figures and abstract if requested by your professor. Requirements for how many and what kind of sources, sections and number of pages, etc. are determined by your professor.

View  SAMPLE STUDENT PAPERS  from the APA Style Blog:

Sample Paper ( DOCX ,  38KB  )

Sample Paper with explanation (PDF, 2MB)

ORDER OF ARRANGEMENT:

• abstract (if requested)

TITLE PAGE :

APA r equires a title page.  Students should follow the student format  unless otherwise requested by their professor. (Find additional s tudent title page example from the APA Style Blog .)

(Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association p. 32)

Title : c entered, bold print, 3-4 lines from top of page.  ​ Capitalize major words.

Author's name : centered and 2 d oubled space lines under title.

Author's affiliation : centered and 1 double spaced line under author's name. Include d epartment and institution separated by comma.

Course number and name (separated by a colon) centered and 1 double spaced line under author's affiliation, as they are written on course material.

Instructor name : centered on 1 d ouble spaced line under course information, as it is written on course material. ​

Assignment due date : centered on separate line under instructor's name.  

PAGINATION:

Title page is page number  1 . 

Set HEADER to add page numbers  in sequence in the top right hand corner of each page.   HEADER IS PAGE NUMBER ONLY.  

LINE SPACING:

Double-space all parts of an APA Style paper--abstract, text, block quotations, table and figure (numbers, titles, and notes) and reference list. See  APA Style Blog for line spacing exceptions .

Running title headers are NOT required for student papers.     HEADER IS PAGE NUMBER ONLY .

S hort student papers may not require any headings . 

Headings outline different sections in your paper.  Make headings concise and descriptive.  There are 5 heading levels (see APA Style Blog information on headings  for more details) . Use only when necessary to differentiate distinct parts of your paper. 

Your first paragraph is understood to be the introduction--the heading “Introduction” is not needed.  Do not use numbers or letters in your headings. Double space headings with no added blank lines above or below.

Use title case for all headings--most words are capitalized (e.g., Beyond the Melting Pot).

( Format of Headings , APA Style) 

• *  Consult the  APA Style Blog for specifics on an APA  professional paper  with examples: Professional Paper (DOCX, 96KB)  and  Annotated Professional Paper (PDF, 3MB)

When using outside sources or others’ ideas to strengthen an argument in your paper, you must give the author(s) credit to avoid any charges of plagiarism (see John Jay College’s policy on Academic Integrity ).

APA (American Psychological Association) is one style of formatting citations for outside sources for your Reference  list (list of your sources at the end of your paper) and  in-text citations (references,  within the body of your paper, to a source you have listed on your Reference list).

This guide provides citation examples to the most common sources.  Use the tabs on the left for help with formatting your paper, citing different types of source and creating in-text citations.

If you need more guidance, contact your instructor, a Lloyd Sealy librarian  or  the John Jay Writing Center .

Quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing are three ways to incorporate outside sources into your paper. See   In-Text Citations: 2 Ways for options in the placement of your in-text citations and the   In-Text Citation Format   box  for proper formatting.

Quoting is reproducing text verbatim  (exactly as written) from another source.  You must include an in-text citation  to direct quotes that gives credit to the author/source AND  refers the reader to  you r References page so they may find that source and the quote you've included.

(a) Short Quotations  fewer than 40 words :  Incorporate the quote into the narrative of your text by using quotation marks. Place the in-text citation in parentheses after the author's name or at the end of the quote:

According to Geppert (2019, p. 116) , "it is imperative that development economists extend their research beyond purely economic factors and focus their attention on creating more inclusive, and hence more accurate, measures of development  and national well-being." 

In ancient Egypt, black pigment “was the best-known form of makeup…used by people of all classes” ("Egyptian Body Decorations," 2013, p. 39).

(b) Long Quotations   more than 40 words : Separate the quote by creating a double-spaced indented block  without quotation marks . Indent 5 spaces from the left margin. Place the in-text citation in parentheses after the author's name or at the end of the quote:

According to Geppert:

Although this analysis has revealed that there is a statistically significant relationship between a variety of economic, political and social factors and happiness, it is important to note it is almost impossible to make a clear distinction between economic, political and social variables (2019, p. 116).

Jewelry was a form of body decoration ("Egyptian Body Decorations," 2013, p. 39):

Another way that Egyptians ornamented themselves was through the use of jewelry. The best-known pieces of jewelry were the highly decorated collars and pectorals (jewelry that was hung over the chest by a chain around the neck) that both men and women wore on their upper chests, under and around their necks.

Paraphrasing and Summarizing

Paraphrasing is using your own words to present someone else's idea(s). Summarizing is stating the essence of another's idea(s). You need an in-text citation each time you paraphrase or summarize another's idea.  The citation refers  the reader to that  source on your References list  and may include the specific page, chapter, section, etc. of the source being discussed. Use quotation marks for original words or phrases that come directly from the author or source:

According to Zapf & Jung (2006), “criminal responsibility” can be evaluated by referring to information from the defendant’s interview, and forensic test results (p.340).

Clifford Geertz (1973) is well known for discussing ethnography as “thick description.”

When incorporating external sources in the body of your paper you must include   in-text citations  that gives credit to those sources. In-text citations refer the reader to the  source's listing on your References list .   It, therefore, helps to complete your References page listing all your sources first.

There are two ways to incorporate your in-text citations: 

Parenthetical  Citations: Using parentheses ( within or at the end of a sentence) with  author(s) or title, publication year, and part quoted, summarized or paraphrased  without naming that work in your sentence:

Among ancient Egyptians, "kohl, a black pigment, was the best-known form of makeup" ("Egyptian Body Decorations," 2013, p. 39). 

• Author : follow Author Format  in box below
• Shorten long titles
• Use title case *  
• Use italics if the title is italicized on your References list OR q uotation marks if not italicized
• Publication YEAR only
• Usually page number(s)--s ee APA 7 Manual for citing a paragraph (para.), major heading (Introduction), entire chapter, figure or table as well as sources with no pagination
• Use timestamp f or video/audio sources
• Use slide number for PowerPoint sources

Narrative Citations:   Some examples: 

Smith (2015) surveyed this phenomenon.

A famous survey of this phenomenon (Smith, 2015) showed that...

In 2015, Smith demonstrated that...

"White rats are the best subjects for this test," said Smith (2015, pp. 50-51).

Smith went on to explain, "Hamsters make better pets than lab rats" (2015, p.51).

(from  APA Style (7th Edition , Albert S. Cook Library, Towson University)

* TITLE CASE:  Beyond the Melting Pot .  (m ost words are capitalized)

    SENTENCE CASE:  Beyond the melting pot.  (only f irst word is capitalized with the exception of proper nouns) 

Formating In-text Citations

See the Quoting, Paraphrasing and Summarizing:  Incorporating External Source s  box in this guide for how to properly incorporate outside sources within the body of your paper. See the In-Text Citations: 2 Types  box in this guide for detailed information.  For information and examples of how to cite parts of a source ot her than page numbers , see the APA Style Blog:   https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles/parts-source

APA 7 Basic Rules

Follow author  Reference List: Author Format  in this guide for author(s) name--lastname, initial(s). 

Capitalize group author (s) such as an organization, association, corporation, government agency, etc. as a proper name.

Use title of the work when there is no author.  Make sure to check the About section of websites for group author if you do not see named individual(s).

When citing an edited work as a whole , format editor name(s) same as author(s)--lastname, initial(s).  See  Edited Book as a Whole  in this guide.

When citing part of an edited work (essay/article/chapter) the author of the part is listed first.  Editor(s) of the work as a whole is named as initial(s). lastname.  Include page number(s) for part you are citing.  See  Part of an Edited Book  in this guide.

Include those separately credited (translators/introduction or foreword authors) with name and role in parentheses after the title as follows: (with A. A. Author, Trans.).

Include edition information (revised/update/number) after title of work. 

List publisher name only ; do not include place of publication.

If author and publisher are the same, omit the publisher.

DOIs and URLs (for PRINT and ELECTRONIC sources)

Include DOI (digital objective identifier) as a hyperlink if available (p: https://doi.org/xxxxxxx. See  DOIs and How to Find Them in this guide for more information.

Include URL   only if link is stable and material is freely accessible to everyone.

Do NOT include database name or database URL. 

Avoid punctuation after the DOI or URL to avoid corrupting the link.

If URL is neither stable nor freely accessible to everyone, treat as print source even if you read it online.

WEBSITES:  

• If you mention a website in your paper without quoting or paraphrasing , simply provide the website name and URL in parentheses--not necessary to list it in your References page. 

Use Webpage format ONLY when no other format applies ---follow other formats in this guide if your source is an  eBook ; online  Dictionary/Encyclopedia ; online  Journal ,  Magazine  or  Newspaper  article; article from an  Online News Source ;  Social Media  page/post;  Audiovisual  item, or online government report.

Follow Newspaper Article  format ONLY for online articles published from a newspaper website  associated with a daily or weekly newspaper .

Follow  News Webpage (Online News Sources) format for articles from ONLINE NEWS SOURCES such as CNN, BBC, Bloomberg, Reuters or HuffPost, that are  NOT associated with a daily or weekly newspaper .

* List sources on separate page at end of your paper with title,  References  (centered in bold)

* List sources alphabetically by author (last name or group author) or title when there is no author (ignore initial articles like "A," "An," or "The")

* Double space throughout

* Follow examples for how to cite different types of sources using the format tabs on the left in this guide

* Use sentence case * --capitalize ONLY first word of title AND subtitle (word after a colon : or dash -), all other title words are lower case except for proper nouns

* Format entires with a hanging indent

*   SENTENCE CASE: Beyond the melting pot.  (only first word is capitalized with the exception of proper nouns) 

   TITLE CASE: Beyond the Melting Pot.  (most words are capitalized)

Format author(s) name(s) as last name, first initial. middle initial. (if provided):

Single author: 

Schutt, R. K.  

2 authors: List both authors, separated by a comma and an ampersand (&) instead of “and:”  

Bachman, R., & Schutt, R. K.                    

3 to 20 authors: List each author up to 19 authors, separated by a comma, adding an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name:  

Kan, K. J., Beijsterveldt, C., Bartels, M., & Boomsma, D.

More than 20 authors:  List first 19 authors, separated by a comma.  Use an ellipsis (...) in the place of all additional authors,  ending   with  the final author's name directly after the ellipsis (no ampersand):

Juárez, U., Riyaziyyat, E., Wang, C., Zhang, I., Li, P., Yang, R., Kumar, B., Xu, A., Martinez, R., McIntosh, V., Ibáñez, L. M., Mäkinen, G., Virtanen, E., . . . Kovács, A. *

*Source provided by the APA Style website 

Scholarship is becoming more available online often with an assigned DOI or  "digital object identifier." A DOI is a  unique alphanumeric string and  persistent link to a permanent location on the internet. 

APA recommends ending each citation with a DOI if available.   DOIs remains fixed over a publication's lifetime where URLs may change over time.  

Not every publication has a DOI but many databases do include them. You may also find DOIs online by viewing the publication's webpage o r searching here:  https://doi.crossref.org/simpleTextQuery    

DOIs may look like any of the following formats ( “xxxxx” refers to the DOI number) : 

https://doi.org/ xxxxx

http:/dx.doi.org/xxxxx 

doi:xxxxx or DOI: xxxxx

Whatever version you find, APA recommends using this format :

https://doi.org/xxxxx

 See Reference List: Basic Principles , Reference List: Basic Format and Reference List: Author Format for additional information.

  Author, A. A. (Year).  Title of book: Subtitle of book . Publisher. DOI  (if available) 

  Single Author

Saunders, G. (2000).  Pastoralia : Stories.   Riverhead  Books.

  Two Authors *

Anaya , R., &  Márquez , A. (1984).  Cuentos  Chicanos: A short story anthology  (Rev. ed.).   University of New Mexico Press.

  Group Author ( include DOI if available for print books)

American Psychiatric Association. (2013).  Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental   disorders  (5 th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 **

   Additional Named Authors and Reprint

Weber, M. (with  Giddons , A.). (1992).  The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism   (T. Parsons, Trans.).  Routledge . (Original work published 1930).

 * see  Reference List: Author Format  in this guide for 3 to 20 authors, and 21 or more authors

 **  Omit publisher name when same as author

See  Reference List: Basic Principles ,  Reference List: Basic Format  and  Reference List: Author Format  for additional information.

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of book: Subtitle of book. Publisher. DOI  (if available)   or URL  (if stable and freely accessible)

  eBook with DOI

Thomas, H., & Ahmed, J. (Eds.). (2004).  Cultural bodies: Ethnography and theory . Blackwell Publishing.  https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470775837

  eBook with URL (stable and freely accessible)

Haffner-Ginger, B. (2012).  California Mexican-Spanish cook book: Selected Mexican and Spanish recipes . Citizen Print Shop.  https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/39586

   eBook without DOI or URL (treat as print book)

Menendez, D., & Marcella, A. J. (2008).  Cyber forensics: A field manual for collecting, examining, and preserving evidence of computer crimes  (2nd ed.). Auerbach Publications.

Saunders, G. (2000).  Pastoralia: Stories.  Riverhead Books.

 See  Reference List: Basic Principles ,  Reference List: Basic Format  and  Reference List: Author Format  for additional information.  

  Editor, A. A. (Ed.). (Year).  Title of book: Subtitle of book.  Publisher. DOI (if available)   or URL   (if stable and freely accessible)

 Two Editors (without DOI or stable and freely accessible URL)

Bowers, J. M., & Tick, J. (Eds.). (1986).  Women making music: The Western art tradition,   1150-1950.  University of Illinois Press.

 Three to 20 Editors *

Cullen, F., Agnew, R., & Wilcox, P. (Eds.). (2018).  Criminological theory: Past to   present: Essential readings  (6th ed.). Oxford University Press.

 Edited eBook with DOI

Thomas, H., & Ahmed, J. (Eds.). (2004).  Cultural bodies:   Ethnography and theory . Blackwell Publishing.  https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470775837

 Edited eBook with URL (stable and freely accessible)

Kroop, S., Mikroyannidis, A., & Wolpers, M. (Eds.). (2015).  Responsive open learning   environments: Outcomes   of research from the ROLE project . SpringerLink. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-02399-1

* see Reference List: Author Format in this guide for 21 or more authors

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of part: Subtitle of part. In Editor Name (Ed.),  Title of book: Subtitle of book  (pp. pages). Publisher. DOI (if available) or URL   (if stable and freely accessible)

Part in Edited work (within specific edition)

Anderson, E. (2018). The code of the street. In F. Cullen, R. Agnew, & P. Wilcox (Eds.),  Criminological theory: Past to present--Essential readings  (6th ed., pp. 93-104). Oxford University Press.

Part in Edited work with DOI

Ali, S. (2004). Reading radicalized bodies. In H. Thomas & J. Ahmed (Eds.),  Cultural bodies: Ethnography and theory  (pp. 76-97). Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470775837

Part in Edited work with URL (stable and freely accessible)

Nussbaumer, A., Dahn, I., Kroop, S., Mikroyannidis, A., & Albert, D. (2015). Supporting self-regulated learning. In S. Kroop, A. Mikroyannidis & M. Wolpers (Eds.), Responsive open learning environments: Outcomes of research from the ROLE project (pp. 17 48). SpringerLink. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-02399-1_2

*Compare these entries with their Edited Book as a Whole counterpart above.*

PRINT, DATABASE or without DOI/URL (stable and freely accessible) :

Author, A. A. (Date). Title of entry. In  Title of book: Subtitle of book  (Edition, Vol., p. page or pp. pages). Publisher (if not au thor). 

Named Author   (with volume number)

Collins, E. F. (2012). Tattooing and piercing. In M. Juergensmeyer & W. C. Roof (Eds.),  Encyclopedia of global religion  (Vol. 2, pp. 1265-1267). SAGE Reference.  

Publisher as Author (omit publisher name, with edition)

Merriam-Webster. (1997). Goat. In  Merriam Webster’s collegiate dictionary  (10th ed., pp. 499-500). 

Individually Titled Volume

St. George, J., & Canavan, F. P. (2005). Crisis Intervention. In L. E. Sullivan & M. S. Rosen (Eds.),  Encyclopedia of law enforcement: Vol. 1. State and local  (pp. 122-125). SAGE Reference.

ONLINE Exact date:

Author, A. A. (Date). Title of entry. In  Title of book or Website name (Edition, Vol.). Publisher (if not author) . DOI (if available)   OR URL   (if stable and freely accessible)

ONLINE NO DATE:

Author, A. A. (n.d.). Title of entry. In  Title of book or Website name (Edition, Vol.) . Publisher (if not author) . Retrieved date, from URL   (if stable and freely accessible) *

Named Author (with date and edition)

Speaks, J. (2019). Theories of meaning. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The  Stanford encyclopedia of   philosophy  (Winter 2019 ed).  Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/meaning/

Publisher as Author (omit publisher name, no date)

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Phobic avoidance. In  APA dictionary of psychology . Retrieved January 18, 2020, from  https://dictionary.apa.org/phobic-avoidance * ​

Title Entry (no author, no date)

Force majeure. (n.d.). In  Thesaurus.com.  Retrieved April 9, 2020, from https://www.thesaurus.com/browse/force%20majeure?s=t *

Wikipedia Title Entry for Archived Page **

Folk music. (2020, February 16). In  Wikipedia .  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music

* If there is no date, use n.d. for “no date” and add “Retrieved” followed by your date of access before the URL.

** Use a permanent (archived) page with date and URL whenever possible. For Wikipedia, click "View History” for archived pages.

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of article: Subtitle of article.  Title of Journal ,   Vol. Number (Issue Number), Pages. DOI (if available) or URL   (if stable and freely accessible)

Print Article, Article from Database without DOI or Online without (stable or freely accessible)  URL

Lawson, N. (2016). It’s a man’s prison: How the traditional incarceration model fails female  offenders in Kansas.  Kansas Journal of Law & Public Policy, 25 (2), 273–288.

Article with DOI (print or electronic)

Abraham, M., Bahr, S., &  Trappmann , M. (2019, June 25). Gender differences in willingness to   move for  interregional  job offers.  Demographic Research, 40 , 1537-1602. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2019.40.53

Article with URL  (no DOI and only stable and freely accessible URL)

Geppert , K. (2019). Does money buy happiness? A cross-country look at the relationship   between income and happiness.  Issues in Political Economy, 28 (2), 102–121.  https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ Does-money-buy-happiness-A-cross-country- look-at-Geppert / d1e15e62f5d4457c769d96ae5c0a11bc473ef464

Article with 3 to 20 authors (with DOI)

Philips, L., Allen, R., Bull, R.,  Hering , A . ,  Kliegel ,  M., &  Channon , S. (2015). Older adults have   difficulty in decoding sarcasm.  Developmental Psychology, 51 (12), 1840-1852. https://doi.org/10.1037 / dev0000063

Article with 21 or more authors (with DOI)

Pegion , K.,  Kirtman , B. P., Becker, E., Collins, D. C.,  LaJoie , E.,  Burgman , R., Bell, R.,   DelSole , R., Min, D., Zhu, Y., Li, W.,  Sinsky , E.,  Guan , H.,  Gottschalck , J.,  Metzger , E. J.,   Barton, N. P.,  Achuthavarier , D.,  Marshak , J.,  Koster , R., . . .  Kim, H. (2019). The   subseasonal   experiment  ( SubX ): A multimodel subseasonal  prediction experiment.   Bulletin of the  American Meteorological Society, 100 (10), 2043-2061.   https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-18-0270.1 *

Article, Online Advance Publication

Standaert, W., Vlerick, S. M., & Cox, A. B. (2021). Business meetings in a post-pandemic world: When and how to meet virtually? Business Horizons . Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2021.02.047        

Article in Press

Pachur, T., & Scheibehenne, B. (in press). Unpacking buyer-seller differences in valuation from experience: A cognitive modeling approach. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review . **

* source provided by Owl Purdue Online Writing Lab

**  source from APA 7 Publication Manual, p. 318

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Article title.  Magazine Title ,   Vol. Number (Issue Number), Pages. URL  (if stable and freely accessible) 

Article in Print, from Database or without DOI or URL  (stable and freely accessible)

Shell, E. R. (2019). Obesity on the brain. Scientific American, 321 (4), 38–45.

Online Article without Page Number(s) *   (with stable and freely accessible URL)

Gregory, S. (2020, March 26). ‘Without empathy, nothing works.’ Chef Jose Andres wants to   feed   the world through the pandemic.  Time, 195 (12).  https://time.com/5810564/without- empathy-nothing-works-chef-jose-andres-wants-to-feed-the-world-through-the- pandemic/

Online Article without Volume and Issue Number * (with stable and freely accessible URL)

Austen, B. (2018, June 21). Peace officers.  New Republic .   https://newrepublic.com/article/148854/peace-officers

  * When missing volume, issue and/or page number(s) simply omit that piece of information. 

IMPORTANT:  ONLY articles published in print newspapers or from a newspaper website  associated with a daily or weekly newspaper . Follow News Webpage   format in this guide for articles from ONLINE NEWS SOURCES such as CNN, BBC, Bloomberg, Reuters or HuffPost, that is, news websites  NOT associated with a daily or weekly newspaper .

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Article title.  Newspaper Title , section/page(s) .   URL  (if stable and freely accessible)

Article in Print, from Database OR no DOI or URL  (stable and freely accessible)

Johnson, C. Y. (2019, October 20). 'Use it or lose it'? Study links excessive brain activity to   shortened life.  The Washington Post , A3.

Printz , L. (2012, September 30). Ready to plug in? Knowledge is power: Plenty to ponder if you plan to own electric car.  Chicago Tribune. *

Article with URL (stable and freely accessible)

Hilts, P. J. (1999, February 16). In forecasting their emotions, most people flunk out.  The New York Times , F2. https://www.nytimes.com/1999/02/16/science/in-forecasting-their-emotions-most-people-flunk-out.html

Article with No Author from Database or without URL (stable and freely accessible)

Voice of the people: Close Rikers, rethink mental health [Editorial]. (2019, February 18).   New York Daily News,  20.

* If section and/or page number(s) information is missing, omit that piece of information

IMPORTANT: ONLY online news websites such as BBC, MSNBC, Salon or HuffPost  not associated with a published newspaper . Use the Newspaper Articles  format in this guide for websites that are online versions of daily or weekly newspapers. 

See  R eference List: Basic Principles ,  Reference List: Basic Format  and  Reference List: Author Format  for additional information.  

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day).  News article title.  News Website Name. URL  (if stable and accessible)

Named Author

Heilweil , R. (2020, April 8).  6 things to know about  telehealth : Due to  Covid-19 , video chats   with doctors are becoming mainstream. Here’s how it all works . Vox.   https://www.vox.com/ recode /2020/4/8/21212432/telemedicine-how-to-video-chat- doctors

Oliver, T. (2020, April 5).   Why overcoming racism is essential for humanity’s survival . BBC.   https://www.bbc.com/fu ture/article/20200403-how-to-overcome-racism-and-tribalism

No Author (Publisher/Organization as Author—omit Website Name)

BBC. (2016, May 17).  How much of your body is your own?   http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/the-making-of-me-and-you

Group Author (Publisher/Organization as Author different from Website Name)

The Associated Press. (2016, February 22).  Judge bans enforcement of Biden’s 100-day deportation pause. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/immigration/judge-bans-enforcement-biden-s-100-day-deportation-pause-n1258707

IMPORTANT:  Use ONLY when no other format applies ---follow other formats in this guide if your source is an  eBook ; online  Dictionary/Encyclopedia ; online  Journal ,  Magazine   or  Newspaper   article; article from an  Online News Source ;   Social Media  page/post;  Audiovisual   item, or online government report.

Read “About Us” section for author and website information---it may be a person, institution, association, organization, government agency, etc.  When no author is listed for the specific page you are viewing, list the organization/institution/government agency/association in the "About Us" section as the author.

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day).  Webpage title: Webpage subtitle . Website Name. URL 

Named Author(s)

Brown, M., & Mendis, N. (2018, July 25).  The separation of immigrant families: Historical   anecdotes.  Center for Migration Studies.  http://cmsny.org/ from-the-cms-archive- separation-of-families /

Group Author with Date (omit Website Name if same as Author)

Bloomberg. (2020, April 7).  SBA computers crash in fresh blow to companies seeking   virus aid .  https://www.americanbanker.com/articles/sba-computers-crash-in-fresh-blow-to-companies-seeking-virus-aid  

Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases. (2019, June 13).  Food safety:   A changing landscape in a global world . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/features/worldfoodsafetyday.html

Group Author without Date (omit Website Name if same as Author, use n.d. for no date, add “Retrieved” date ONLY for webpages that may change over time)

Amnesty International. (n.d.).  Cuba . Retrieved April 13, 2020, from https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/americas/cuba/

  U.S. Census Bureau. (n.d.).  U.S. and world population clock . U.S. Department of Commerce.   Retrieved January 9, 2020, from  https://www.census.gov/popclock/ *

*source provided by the APA Style website

ONLY for  content  o riginally published   on a social media site . For sources you find through a particular social media post such as an article or video, make sure to  cite that original source directly.

There are two formats for social media:

1. PROFILE, PAGE OR ACCOUNT: (“n.d.” for date with “Retrieved” and date of access because social media pages change over time).

Author, A. A. or Group Name. (n.d.).  Profile/Account/Page Title  [Description]. Title of Platform. Retrieved   date, from URL

American Library Association. (n.d.).  Home  [Facebook page]. Facebook. Retrieved April 14,   2020, from https://www.facebook.com/ AmericanLibraryAssociation/

John Jay College Library. (n.d.) .  Photos  [Facebook page]. Facebook. Retrieved April 16, 2020, from https://www.facebook.com/pg/johnjaylibrary/photos/?ref=page_internal

Twitter:   

Brooklyn Museum [@brooklynmuseum]. (n.d.).  Tweets  [Twitter profile]. Twitter. Retrieved   April 24, 2020, from  https://twitter.com/brooklynmuseum 

Lloyd Sealy Library [@JohnJayLibrary]. (n.d.). Likes [Twitter profile]. Twitter. Retrieved April 16, 2020, from https://twitter.com/JohnJayLibrary/likes

Food Network [@foodnetwork]. (n.d.).  Posts  [Instagram profile]. Instagram. Retrieved   April 16, 2020, from https://www.instagram.com/foodnetwork/?hl=en

National Geographic [@natgeo]. (n.d.).  IGTV  [Instagram profile]. Instagram.   Retrieved December 8, 2019, from https://www.instagram.com/natgeo/channel/ *

    Witherspoon, R. [@officialreesetiktok]. (n.d.).  vsco mom  [TikTok profile]. TikTok. Retrieved January 12, 2020, from  https://vm.tiktok.com/xS3B86 *

2. Post or published CONTENT (title is first 20 words of text; include hashtags, links and emojis, counting them as one word; provide name or description or emoji ( https://unicode.org/emoji/charts/emoji-list.html ) in square brackets (e.g. [winking face]) if unable to include actual emoji)

Author, A. A. or Group Name. (Date).  Content exactly as written up to first 20 words  [Description][Post type]. Title of Platform. URL

John Jay College Library. (2020, April 2).  Did you know that #johnjaylibrary # digitalcollections   has a collection of images from 1940-1945 of #mugshots #rapsheets & #criminalinvestigation #documents?  [Images attached] [Facebook post]. Facebook.  https://www.facebook.com/pg/johnjaylibrary/posts/?ref=page_internal 

Official Jackson Browne. (2020, February 9)  Photo from “A Human Touch” video, with   @lesliemendelson. The song was written by Leslie, Steven McEwan and   @jackson.browne.official for the  [Image attached] [Photograph]. Facebook. https://www.facebook.com/OfficialJacksonBrowne/photos/a.1015022333865708 /101 57241626597087/?type=3&theater

Tweet:   

New York Times Arts [@nytimesarts]. (2019, February 1).  Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera’s Blue   House in Mexico City travels to the United States for the first time. Unearthed  [Thumbnail   with link attached] [Tweet]. Twitter.  https://twitter.com/nytimesarts/ status/1091546540215283712

NPR's Latino USA [@LatinoUSA]. (2019, February 11).  A first-of-its-kind exhibit opened at the   Brooklyn Museum gives fans of iconic artist Frida Kahlo a chance.  [Thumbnail with link   attached] [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/LatinoUSA/ status/1095087584609517568

BBC [@bbc]. (2020, January 12).  Skywatchers have been treated to the first full moon of   2020-known as a “wolf moon”-at the same time as a  [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/B7OkWqbBwcf/ ** 

The New York Public Library [@nypl]. (2020, January 4).  Happy #NationalTriviaDay! Patience   and Fortitude are the beloved lions located outside of our 42nd Street location. These   timeless lions have  [Photograph]. Instagram.  https://www.instagram.com/p/B66XsTilYZG/

 Washington Post [@washingtonpost]. (2019, December 3).  News is all around us #frozen #newsroom #newspaper  [Video]. Tik Tok. https://vm.tiktok.com/x2sKUu *

*source provided by the  APA Style  website

**source provided by  Purdue Owl Writing Lab

APA distinguishes between works that stand alone works  (television series, music album, YouTube video, etc.) and works that are part of a whole (episode in a series, song from a music album or cd, etc.). 

It is not necessary to indicate how or where you listened to or viewed source.

AUTHOR: Creator(s) except YouTube (and other streaming videos platforms) where uploader (account holder) is named author.  Sources may have multiple authors and/or author roles.  Some common author categories for audiovisual works:

Film (Director) Television Series (Executive Producer) Television Episode (Writer and/or Director) YouTube or other Streaming Video (Uploader) TED Talk (Speaker if from TED website/Uploader if from YouTube) Podcast (Host) Webinar (Speaker/Instructor) Music Album or Song (Recording Artist or Composer) Artwork (Photographer, Painter, Illustrator, etc.) Conference/Presentation (Presenter) PowerPoint (Creator)

DATE: may be range (e.g. 2001-2003 or 2017-present)

DESCRIPTION:   add a description of the source's format in brackets 

PUBLISHER:   production company, record label, museum, university department, etc. Sources may have multiple production companies (separate by semicolon)

URL:   ONLY  if so urce is online, stable and freely accessible to everyone

FILM/MOVIE:

Director, A. A. (Director). (Date).  Title of film  [Film]. Production Company/Companies.

Dahl, R. (Writer), & Stuart, M. (Director). (1971).  Willy Wonka and the chocolate factory [Film]. Wolper Pictures; The Quaker Oats Company.

Fleming, V. (Director). (1939).  Gone with the wind  [Film]. Selznick International Pictures; Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.*

YouTube or STREAMING VIDEO:

Uploader/Account Holder, U. U. (Date of publication).  Title of video  [Video]. Website host.  URL  (if available, stable and freely accessible)

Caged Bird Songs. (2014, September 23).  Still I rise by Maya Angelou (official lyric video) [Video ].  YouTube.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_UFMB4i1AJo&feature=emb_title

Chance The Rapper. (2019, July 26).  All day long  [Video] .  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V846b5ETp-c

John Jay College. (2019, October 1).  Get to know the Prisoner Reentry Institute with Ann Jacob s  [Video]. YouTube.  https://www.youtube.com/watch ?v=-3RD1n8j-gw

Producer, A.A. (Producer(s)/Executive Producer(s)). (Date range).  Title of series [TV series]. Production Company; Companies. 

Gorden, H., & Gansa, A. (Executive Producers). (2011-2020).  Homeland  [TV series]. Fox 21; Fox Television Studios.

Serling, R. (Executive Producer). (1959–1964).  The twilight zone  [TV series]. Cayuga Productions; CBS Productions.*

TV EPISODE:

Writer, A.A. (Writer), & Director, A.A. (Director). (Original Air Date). Title of episode (Season No., Episode No.) [TV series episode]. In A.A. Producer (Executive Producer),  Title of TV series . Production Company; Companies. 

Serling, R., Bixby, J., (Writers), & Sheldon, J. (Director). (1961, November 3). It's a good life (Season 3, Episode 8) [TV series episode]. In R. Serling (Executive Producer), The twilight zone . Cayuga Productions; CBS Productions.

Stiehm, M. (Writer), & Cuesta, M. (Director). (2011, November 13). The weekend (Season 1, Episode 7) [TV series episode]. In H. Gorden & A. Gansa (Executive Producers), Homeland . Fox 21; Fox Television Studios.

TED TALK: Author is speaker when video is  directly from TED website . Author is uploader/account holder if  video is from YouTube --add  speakers' name in the tile of the talk.

Speaker, A. A. (Year, Month Day).  Title of talk  [Video]. TED Conferences. URL

Uploader, U. U. (Year, Month Day).  Speaker: Title of talk  [Video]. YouTube. URL

Foss, A. (2016, February).  A prosecutor’s vision for a better justice system  [Video]. TED Conferences.    https://www.ted.com/talks/ adam_foss_a_prosecutor_s_vision_for_a_better_justice_system

TEDx Talks. (2018, May 23).  Michiel Vandeweert: Life's short, make the most of it  [Video]. YouTube.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lFZvLeMbJ_U

PODCAST:  Format differs for a podcast episode or episode within a series  AND  podcast series .

Host, H. H. (Host). (Date).  Title of podcast episode  [Audio podcast episode]. Production company. URL  (if accessed online)

Host, H. H. (Host). (Date). Title of podcast episode (Episode number if available) [Audio podcast episode]. In  Title of podcast series.  Production Company. URL  (if accessed online)

Vedantam, S., Penman, M., & Boyle, T. (2020, February 17). Liar, liar, liar [Audio podcast episode]. In  Hidden brain . NPR.  https://www.npr.org/2020/02/13/805808486/ liar-liar-liar 

Host, H. H. (Host). (Date range).  Title of podcast series  [Audio podcast series]. Production company. URL  (if accessed online)

Vedantam, S. (2015-present).  Hidden brain . [Audio podcast series]. NPR.  https://www.npr.org/podcasts/ 510308/hidden-brain 

WEBINAR (archived and available online) :

Author, A. A. (Date).  Title of webinar  [Webinar]. Producer. URL

American Psychological Association. (2019, October 24).  What’s new in APA style—Inside the seventh edition of the Publication Manual of the APA. [Webinar]. American Psychological Association. https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/tutorials-webinars

ARTWORK (Painting, photograph, illustration, infographic, etc.) : Format differs for artwork associated with a museum or gallery (part of a whole) and art that stands on its own, not associated with a museum or gallery. Do not use database name or database URL.

Artist, A. A. (Date).  Title of work  [Medium]. Museum Name, Museum Location. URL  (if viewed online, stable and freely accessible) 

Klimt, G. (1907).  Adele Bloch-Bauer I  [Painting]. Neue Gallery, New York, NY, United States.  https://www.neuegalerie.org/content/adele-bloch-bauer-i

Mitchell, T. (2019).  Untitled [Group hula hoop]  [Photograph]. International Center of Photography, New York, NY, United States.  https://www.icp.org/exhibitions/ tyler-mitchell-i-can-make-you-feel-good

Artist, A. A. (Date).  Title of work  [Medium]. Source. URL  (if viewed online, stable and freely accessible) 

Day, B. (2014, August 20).  Don't shoot . [Political cartoon]. Cale Cartoons. http://caglecartoons.com/sku/152568/

The Sentencing Project. (2001).  Lifetime likelihood of imprisonment for U.S. residents born in 2001 [Infographic]. https://www.sentencingproject.org/ wpcontent/uploads/2015/10/lifetime-likelihood-of-imprisonment-by-race.png

MUSIC:  Format differs between the whole (e.g. album or musical score) and piece of the whole.

Artist, A. A. (year).  Title of whole   [Description]. Recording Label.

The Beatles. (1968).  The white album  [Album]. Apple. 

Haydn, F. J. (2001).  The creation  [Musical score]. Dover Publications. (Original work published 1798).*

Artist, A. A. (year). Title of song [Song]. On  Title of whole . Recording Label.

​The Beatles. (1968). Blackbird [Song]. On  The white album.  Apple.

Los Angeles Percussion Quartet. (2017). Fear release [Song]. On  Beyond.  Sono Luminus.

POWERPOINT or GOOGLE SLIDES/CLASS LECTURE NOTES:

Author, A. A. (Date).  Title of slides or lecture  [Description]. Source or Platform. URL  (use login page for sources requiring a login)

Mack, R., & Spake, G. (2018). Citing open source images and formatting references for presentations [PowerPoint slides]. Canvas@FNU. https://fnu.onelogin.com/login *

McNeel, R. (n.d.)  New hope for fading memories: Alzheimer's disease  

         [PowerPoint slide]​. BioEd Online.  http://www.bioedonline.org/slides/hot-topics/ new-hope-for-fading- memories-alzheimers-disease /

According to APA, personal communication is defined as those conversations or statements that are not published and, therefore, cannot be retrieved or accessed by others.  They are “nonrecoverable” pieces of information.

Examples include:

• Text Messages
• Online Conversations
• Personal Interviews (not published)*
• Telephone Conversations
• Live Speeches
• Unrecorded Lectures

Because these sources cannot be retrieved, they are not listed in your References page .  Instances of personal communication such as interviews should, however, be followed by an in-text citation — citation within the body of your paper.  Follow the format below and include the following information within parentheses: **

(Author’s first initial. Author’s last name, personal communication, Date as exact as possible)

Narrative citation: E.-M. Paradis (personal communication, August 8, 2019)

Parenthetical citation: (T. Nguyen, personal communication, February 24, 2020)

*Instances of personal communication retrieved from published sources will require a citation in your References list.  Follow the specific reference format for that published source as a whole.  For example, if you are mentioning or including the text of an interview or email found in a magazine article add a citation for that magazine article in your References list in addition to an APA in-text citation in the body of your paper. 

** examples from the APA Style Blog

These sources may be  published or unpublished.   Unpublished most likely in print at author’s institution. Published sources generally found in databases ( ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global ,  EBSCO Open Dissertations ,  PQDT Open ) , institutional repositories or archives, and/or personal websites. Some descriptions: “Doctoral dissertation,” “Master’s thesis,” "Unpublished dissertation," "Unpublished master's thesis" and “ Undergraduate honors thesis.”  

Unpublished:

Author, A. A. (Date).  Title of dissertation/thesis: Subtitle of dissertation/thesis [Unpublished doctoral dissertation/master's thesis]. Institution Name.

Harris, L. (2014).  Instructional leadership perceptions and practices of elementary school leaders  [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Virginia.*

Author, A. A. (Date).  Title of dissertation/thesis: Subtitle of dissertation/thesis (Publication No. xxxxxx) [Description, Institution Name]. Source. URL   (if stable and freely accessible)

Dajani, D. (2017).  Tattoos and criminal behavior: An examination of the relationship between body art and crime  (Publication No. 10285487). [Master’s thesis, City University of New York, John Jay College of Criminal Justice]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

Zambrano-Vazquez, L. (2016).  The interaction of state and trait worry on response monitoring   in those with worry and obsessive-compulsive symptoms  [Doctoral dissertation,   University of Arizona]. UA Campus Repositor y.   https://repository.arizona.edu/handle/10150/620615 **

Zhou, X. (2018).  Leggings are the new denim: An investigation of consumer activewear experience  (Publication No. 10840578) [Doctoral dissertation, Temple University]. PQDT Open. https://pqdtopen.proquest.com/pubnum/10840578.html

* source from APA Style Blog

** source from  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7th edition.

Author may be an individual(s) or government agency/department.   U se the most specific agency listed on the source as author and parent agency as publisher. Omit publisher name if same as author.

Author, A. A. (Date).  Title of report: Subtitle of report  (Report No. if available). Publisher Name. URL  (if stable and freely available to all)

Named Individual Author

Rantala, R. R. (2004, March 1).  Cybercrime against businesses: Pilot test results, 2001 computer security survey  (NCJ 200639). Bureau of Justice Statistics. http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=770

Agency Author (o mit publisher name if same as author)

National Cancer Institute. (2019).  Taking time: Support for people with cancer  (NIH Publication No. 18-2059). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health.  https://www.cancer.gov/publications/patient-education/takingtime.pdf *  

New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. (2019).  Health of older adults in New York City .   https://www1.nyc.gov/assets/doh/downloads/pdf/episrv/2019-older-adult-health.pdf

APA recommends consulting  The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation   (legal citation standard) or  Cornell University's Legal Information Institution's Basic Legal Citation :  https://www.law.cornell.edu/citation/​

Find print copies of The Bluebook  in the Lloyd Sealy Library at the 2nd floor Reference Desk (KF245 .B58). Consult  The Bluebook for abbreviations and symbols.   Arrange citations alphabetically by the first significant word or abbreviation.   URLs are not required-- add when useful, if stable and freely accessible, after the date.  

See the Citing Legal Materials tab in this guide for more detailed information.   Consult  In-text Citations: 2 Types  in this guide for the difference between parenthetical and narrative citations.

The abbreviation chart below and most of the following citation examples come from The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7th edition. Consult Chapter 11 (Legal References) for more information.

Court Decisions:  

U.S. Supreme Court    (published in the  United States Reports --abbreviate as “U.S.”)

Reference page:   Name v. Name, Volume U.S. Page (Year). 

Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954). 

Obergefell v. Hodges, 576 U.S___(2015). *

*include three underscores for page number for cases after 2012 published without page numbers

Parenthetical citation:   ( Name v. Name , Year)

( Brown v. Board of Education , 1954)

( Obergefell  v. Hodges , 2015)

Narrative citation:   Name v. Name  (Year)

Brown v. Board of Education  (1954)

  Obergefell  v. Hodges  (2015)

  U.S. Circuit Court ( published in the  Federal Reporter --abbreviate as "F.2d" or "F.3d.")

Reference page :  Name v. Name, Volume F. [or F.2d, F.3d] Page (Court Year). 

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 951 F.2d 1128 (9th Cir. 1991). 

Parenthetical citation :  ( Name v. Name , Year)

( Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. , 1991)

Narrative citation:  Name v. Name  (Year)

           Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.  (1991)  

U.S. District Court (published in the  Federal Supplements --abbreviate as "F. Supp.")

Reference page: Name v. Name, Volume F. Supp. Page (Court Year). 

Burriola v. Greater Toledo YMCA, 133 F. Supp. 2d 1034 (N.D. Ohio 2001). 

( Burriola v. Greater Toledo YMCA , 2001)

Burriola v. Greater Toledo YMCA  (2001)  

State Court Decisions (find state reporter abbreviations in  The Bluebook )

Reference page: Name v. Name, Volume Reporter Page (Court Year).

Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California, 17 Cal.3d 425, 131 Cal. Rptr. 14, 551 P.2d 334 (1976). 

Parenthetical citat ion: ( Name v. Name , Year)

( Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California , 1976)

Narrative citation:  Name v. Name  (Year)

Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California  (1976)

Federal and State Statutes (l aws or acts passed by a federal or state legislative body):    Federal statutes are officially published in the  United States Code  (U.S.C.).  There are official and unofficial (commercial and/or electronic versions) publications of both federal and state codes.   The Bluebook  recommends citing official codes whenever possible--c onsult  The Bluebook T able 1 for preferred state code publications .  If citing unofficial/commercial codes, include the publisher in the parenthesis before the date (see the Equal Opportunity for Individuals with Disabilities example below).  Statutes are divided into sections called titles.  Begin with the popular name of the act, if available and commonly used.  Begin with the title number and abbreviation of the code source if a popular name is neither available nor commonly used.  URLs are not necessary but may be added if helpful and freely available to all.

State statutes citations generally follow federal statute citations. For  NYS statutes,  see specific information at the bottom of this section.

Statutes Codified in Single Section/Range of Sections: Not necessary to include public law number .

Reference page:   Name of Act, Title#/Source § Section Number (Year). URL  (if freely accessible)

Every Student Succeeds Act, 20 U.S.C. § 6301 (2015). 

Equal Opportunity for Individuals with Disabilities, 42 U.S.C.A. § 12101 et seq. (West, 2005).

42 U.S.C. § 12101 (2006).

Parenthetical citation: (Name of Act, Year) 

(Every Student Succeeds Act, 2015) 

(Equal Opportunity for Individuals with Disabilities, 2005)

Narrative citation: Name of Act (Year)

Every Student Succeeds Act (2015)

Equal Opportunity for Individuals with Disabilities (2005)

Statutes not Codified/Codified in Scattered Sections:   Add public law number to Reference page citation

Reference page :

Civil Rights Act of 1964, Pub. L. No. 88-352, 78 Stat. 241 (1964).   

Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, Pub. L. No. 111-2, 123 Stat. 5 (2009). 

Florida Mental Health Act, Fla. Stat. § 394 (1971 & rev. 2009).

Parenthetical citation : 

(Civil Rights Act, 1964)

(Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act, 2009)  

(Florida Mental Health Act, 1971/2009) 

Narrative citation : 

Civil Rights Act (1964)

Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act (2009)

Florida Mental Health Act (1971/2009)

*NYS statutes*:   There are two official annotated codifications of New York State laws:   McKinney's Consolidated Laws of New York Annotated and the New York Consolidated Laws Service .  A free unannotated electronic version of New York Consolidated Laws Service  is available on the New York Senate website:  https://www.nysenate.gov/legislation/laws/all    

Cornell's Legal Information Institute, following The Bluebook guidance, calls for including the publisher and/or brand of any commercial compilation in parenthesis before the date.  Click here for Cornell's Legal Information Institute examples:   https://www.law.cornell.edu/citation/3-300#3-320_New_York  or consult  Cynthia Pittson's 2017 Basic Bluebooking in Legal Documents .

Bills and Resolutions:  Includes bills and resolutions not yet passed through both houses of Congress AND enacted bills and resolutions that have not yet been signed into law.  Precede bill or resolution number by “H.R.” for House of Representatives or “S.” for Senate to indicate where the bill/resolution originated. Enacted resolutions are reported in the  Congressional Record , abbreviated as “Cong. Rec.” 

Unenacted federal bill/resolution:   (not yet passed in both houses)

Unenacted bill: Title [if relevant], H.R. or S. bill number, xxx Cong. (Year).  Unenacted resolution: Title [if relevant], H.R. or S. Res. resolution number, xxx Cong. (Year).

Reference page:   Mental Health on Campus Improvement Act, H.R. 1100, 113th Cong. (2013). 

Parenthetical citation:   (Mental Health on Campus Improvement Act, 2013) 

Narrative citation:   Mental Health on Campus Improvement Act (2013) 

Enacted federal resolution:  (passed in both houses but not signed into law)

Senate: S. Res. xxx, xxx Cong., Volume Cong. Rec. Page (Year) (enacted).  House of Representatives: H.R. Res. xxx, xxx Cong., Volume Cong. Rec. Page (Year) (enacted). 

Reference page :  S. Res. 438, 114th Cong., 162 Cong. Rec. 2394 (2016) (enacted). 

Parenthetical citation :  (S. Resolution 438, 2016)  

Narrative citation:   Senate Resolution 438 (2016) 

Federal Regulations: Rules and regulations; and executive orders.  Include the URL of regulation if available online.

Federal Regulation (Codified): (published in the  Code of Federal Regulations , abbreviated as "C.F.R.”) 

Title or Number, Volume C.F.R. § xxx (Year). 

Reference page : 

Protection of Human Subjects, 45 C.F.R. § 46 (2009). https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/sites/default/files/ohrp/policy/ohrpregulations.pdf

Parenthetical citation:   (Protection of Human Subjects, 2009) 

Narrative citation:   Protection of Human Subjects (2009) 

  Federal Regulation (Not Codified) :  (published in the  Federal Register , abbreviated as "F.R.")

Title or Number, Volume F.R. Page (proposed Month Day, Year) (to be codified at Volume C.F.R. § xxx). 

Defining and Delimiting the Exemptions for Executive, Administrative, Professional, Outside Sales and Computer Employees, 81 F.R. 32391 (proposed May 23, 2016) (to be codified at 29 C.F.R. § 541).

Parenthetical citation :  (Defining and Delimiting, 2016) 

Narrative citation :  Defining and Delimiting (2016) 

Executive Orders:

Executive order:  Exec. Order No. xxxxx, 3 C.F.R. Page (Year). 

Reference page:  Exec. Order No. 13,676, 3 C.F.R. 294 (2014). 

Parenthetical citation:   (Exec. Order No. 13,676, 2014) 

Narrative citation:   Executive Order No. 13,676 (2014)

Constitution:   You do not need a citation in your Reference page if you are merely mentioning a federal or state constitution: "The U.S. Constitution has 26 amendments." or "The Massachusetts Constitution was ratified in 1780."   You need a citation when discussing specific articles or amendments.  The U.S. Constitution is abbreviated as “U.S. Const.”  Consult Cornell’s Legal Information Institute for state abbreviations when citing state constitutions: https://www.law.cornell.edu/citation/4-500

U.S. Constitution article and amendment numbers are Roman numerals. State constitution article numbers are Roman numerals, amendment numbers are Arabic numerals. It is not necessary to include a date  unless an amendment has been repealed  (see below). URLs are not necessary.

U.S. Constitution : U.S. Const. art. xxx, § x. 

Reference page:   U.S. Const. art. I, § 3.  

Parenthetical citation:   (U.S. Const. art. I, § 3)  Narrative citation:   Article I, Section 3, of the U.S. Constitution   

State constitution: State Const. art. xxx, § x.

Reference page:   S.C. Const. art. XI, § 3. 

Parenthetical citation:   (S.C. Const. art. IX, § 3)  Narrative citation:   Article IX, Section 3, of the South Carolina Constitution 

Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: U.S. Const. amend. xxx. 

Reference page:   U.S. Const. amend. XIX.  Parenthetical citation :  (U.S. Const. amend. XIX)  Narrative citation :  Amendment XIX to the U.S. Constitution 

Repealed amendment to the U.S. Constitution: U.S. Const. amend. xxx (repealed year).

Reference page:   U.S. Const. amend. XVIII (repealed 1933).  Parenthetical citation :  (U.S. Const. amend. XVIII, repealed 1933)  Narrative citation :  Amendment XVIII to the U.S. Constitution was appealed in 1933

Include the title as it appears on the document.  Add subcommittee and/or committee names, separating multiple names by a comma. Indicate number of the Congress, the year in parentheses, and “testimony of” with name of the person who gave the testimony in separate parentheses. If the testimony is online, include a URL. 

Federal testimony: 

Title of testimony , xxx Cong. (Year) (testimony of Testifier Name).

References page : Federal real property reform: How cutting red tape and better management could

achieve billions in savings, U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs ,

114th Cong. (2016) (testimony of Norman Dong). 

Parenthetical citation: ( Federal Real Property Reform , 2016)  Narrative citation: Federal Real Property Reform (2016) 

Full federal hearing:  

Title of hearing , xxx Cong. (Year).

Reference page: Strengthening the federal student loan program for borrowers: Hearing before the U.S.

Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor & Pensions , 113th Cong. (2014). 

Parenthetical citation: ( Strengthening the Federal Student Loan Program , 2014)  Narrative citation: Strengthening the Federal Student Loan Program (2014) 

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A Quick Guide to Referencing | Cite Your Sources Correctly

Referencing means acknowledging the sources you have used in your writing. Including references helps you support your claims and ensures that you avoid plagiarism .

There are many referencing styles, but they usually consist of two things:

• A citation wherever you refer to a source in your text.
• A reference list or bibliography at the end listing full details of all your sources.

The most common method of referencing in UK universities is Harvard style , which uses author-date citations in the text. Our free Harvard Reference Generator automatically creates accurate references in this style.

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Table of contents

Referencing styles, citing your sources with in-text citations, creating your reference list or bibliography, harvard referencing examples, frequently asked questions about referencing.

Each referencing style has different rules for presenting source information. For in-text citations, some use footnotes or endnotes , while others include the author’s surname and date of publication in brackets in the text.

The reference list or bibliography is presented differently in each style, with different rules for things like capitalisation, italics, and quotation marks in references.

Your university will usually tell you which referencing style to use; they may even have their own unique style. Always follow your university’s guidelines, and ask your tutor if you are unsure. The most common styles are summarised below.

Harvard referencing, the most commonly used style at UK universities, uses author–date in-text citations corresponding to an alphabetical bibliography or reference list at the end.

Harvard Referencing Guide

Vancouver referencing, used in biomedicine and other sciences, uses reference numbers in the text corresponding to a numbered reference list at the end.

Vancouver Referencing Guide

APA referencing, used in the social and behavioural sciences, uses author–date in-text citations corresponding to an alphabetical reference list at the end.

APA Referencing Guide APA Reference Generator

MHRA referencing, used in the humanities, uses footnotes in the text with source information, in addition to an alphabetised bibliography at the end.

MHRA Referencing Guide

OSCOLA referencing, used in law, uses footnotes in the text with source information, and an alphabetical bibliography at the end in longer texts.

OSCOLA Referencing Guide

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

In-text citations should be used whenever you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source (e.g. a book, article, image, website, or video).

Quoting and paraphrasing

Quoting is when you directly copy some text from a source and enclose it in quotation marks to indicate that it is not your own writing.

Paraphrasing is when you rephrase the original source into your own words. In this case, you don’t use quotation marks, but you still need to include a citation.

In most referencing styles, page numbers are included when you’re quoting or paraphrasing a particular passage. If you are referring to the text as a whole, no page number is needed.

In-text citations

In-text citations are quick references to your sources. In Harvard referencing, you use the author’s surname and the date of publication in brackets.

Up to three authors are included in a Harvard in-text citation. If the source has more than three authors, include the first author followed by ‘ et al. ‘

The point of these citations is to direct your reader to the alphabetised reference list, where you give full information about each source. For example, to find the source cited above, the reader would look under ‘J’ in your reference list to find the title and publication details of the source.

Placement of in-text citations

In-text citations should be placed directly after the quotation or information they refer to, usually before a comma or full stop. If a sentence is supported by multiple sources, you can combine them in one set of brackets, separated by a semicolon.

If you mention the author’s name in the text already, you don’t include it in the citation, and you can place the citation immediately after the name.

• Another researcher warns that the results of this method are ‘inconsistent’ (Singh, 2018, p. 13) .
• Previous research has frequently illustrated the pitfalls of this method (Singh, 2018; Jones, 2016) .
• Singh (2018, p. 13) warns that the results of this method are ‘inconsistent’.

The terms ‘bibliography’ and ‘reference list’ are sometimes used interchangeably. Both refer to a list that contains full information on all the sources cited in your text. Sometimes ‘bibliography’ is used to mean a more extensive list, also containing sources that you consulted but did not cite in the text.

A reference list or bibliography is usually mandatory, since in-text citations typically don’t provide full source information. For styles that already include full source information in footnotes (e.g. OSCOLA and Chicago Style ), the bibliography is optional, although your university may still require you to include one.

Format of the reference list

Reference lists are usually alphabetised by authors’ last names. Each entry in the list appears on a new line, and a hanging indent is applied if an entry extends onto multiple lines.

Different source information is included for different source types. Each style provides detailed guidelines for exactly what information should be included and how it should be presented.

Below are some examples of reference list entries for common source types in Harvard style.

• Chapter of a book
• Journal article

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Your university should tell you which referencing style to follow. If you’re unsure, check with a supervisor. Commonly used styles include:

• Harvard referencing , the most commonly used style in UK universities.
• MHRA , used in humanities subjects.
• APA , used in the social sciences.
• Vancouver , used in biomedicine.
• OSCOLA , used in law.

Your university may have its own referencing style guide.

If you are allowed to choose which style to follow, we recommend Harvard referencing, as it is a straightforward and widely used style.

References should be included in your text whenever you use words, ideas, or information from a source. A source can be anything from a book or journal article to a website or YouTube video.

If you don’t acknowledge your sources, you can get in trouble for plagiarism .

To avoid plagiarism , always include a reference when you use words, ideas or information from a source. This shows that you are not trying to pass the work of others off as your own.

You must also properly quote or paraphrase the source. If you’re not sure whether you’ve done this correctly, you can use the Scribbr Plagiarism Checker to find and correct any mistakes.

Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

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Citing Your Sources Guide

• MLA In-Text Citations - The Basics
• Introduction to Citations
• APA In-text Citations - The Basics
• APA Reference List - The Basics
• APA Reference List - Examples
• APA Handouts
• Citing AI in APA Style
• House and Senate Reports and Documents
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• Foreign Relations of the United States
• State Legislative Documents
• State Statutes (Laws)
• Court Cases (decisions/opinions)
• Government Agencies
• MLA Works Cited List - The Basics
• MLA Works Cited - Examples
• Chicago/Turabian - The Basics
• Chicago/Turabian in-text citations
• Chicago/Turabian Bibliography - Examples
• APA Art Citations
• MLA Art Citations
• Chicago Art Citations
• ArtSTOR Citations
• AMA reference list
• Citing Business Resources This link opens in a new window
• Citation Managers

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MLA In-text Citations - The Basics

In MLA, referring to the works of others within text of your paper is done using  parenthetical citations . This means placing relevant source information in parentheses whenever a sentence uses a quotation or paraphrase. Usually, the simplest way is to put all of the source information in parentheses at the end of the sentence (i.e., just before the period). However, as seen below, there are situations where it makes sense to put the parenthetical elsewhere in the sentence, or even to leave information out.

General Guidelines

• upon the source medium (e.g. print, web, DVD)
• upon the source’s entry on the Works Cited page.
• Any source information that you provide in-text must correspond to the source information on the Works Cited page. More specifically, whatever signal word or phrase you provide to your readers in the text must be the first thing that appears on the left-hand margin of the corresponding entry on the Works Cited page. This is so your reader can connect your in-text citation to the right line in your Works cited page.
• Be sure to check the full selection of examples for in-text citations below, they vary slightly depending on the type of source you are citing.

MLA in-text citations

MLA format follows the author-page method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the page number(s) from which the quotation or paraphrase is taken must appear in the text, and a complete reference should appear on your Works Cited page. The author's name may appear either in the sentence itself or in parentheses following the quotation or paraphrase, but the page number(s) should always appear in the parentheses, not in the text of your sentence. For example:

• Wordsworth stated that Romantic poetry was marked by a "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" (263).
• Romantic poetry is characterized by the "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" (Wordsworth 263).
• Wordsworth extensively explored the role of emotion in the creative process (263).

Both citations in the examples above, (263) and (Wordsworth 263), tell readers that the information in the sentence can be located on page 263 of a work by an author named Wordsworth. If readers want more information about this source, they can turn to the Works Cited page, where, under the name of Wordsworth, they would find the following information:

• Wordsworth, William.  Lyrical Ballads . Oxford UP, 1967.

While the above is the general rule, there are some variations depending on the source of the quote or paraphrase. Here are a few examples, but please review the MLA Manual of Style for more detailed and specific information about in-text citations.

In-text citations by type

• Print Sources - Known author
• Print Sources - Corporate author
• Print Sources - No known author
• Classic works with multiple editions
• Works in an anthology
• Multiple authors
• Multiple works by same author
• Multivolume works
• Web sources

For print sources like books, magazines, scholarly journal articles, and newspapers, provide a signal word or phrase (usually the author’s last name) and a page number. If you provide the signal word/phrase in the sentence, you do not need to include it in the parenthetical citation.

• Human beings have been described by Kenneth Burke as "symbol-using animals" (3).
• Human beings have been described as "symbol-using animals" (Burke 3).

These examples must correspond to an entry that begins with Burke, which will be the first thing that appears on the left-hand margin of an entry on the Works Cited page:

• Burke, Kenneth.  Language as Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method . University of California Press, 1966.

When a source has a corporate author, it is acceptable to use the name of the corporation followed by the page number for the in-text citation. You should also use abbreviations (e.g., nat'l for national) where appropriate, so as to avoid interrupting the flow of reading with overly long parenthetical citations.

• Climate change is now "an important factor in developing new engineering systems" (EPA 321).
• The EPA has stated in a recent study, Climate change is now " an important factor in developing new engineering systems" (321). 

When a source has no known author, use a shortened title of the work instead of an author name, following these guidelines.

• Place the title in quotation marks if it's a short work (such as an article), or italicize it if it's a longer work (e.g. plays, books, television shows, entire Web sites) and provide a page number if it is available.

Titles that are longer than a standard noun phrase should be shortened into a noun phrase by excluding articles. For example,  To the Lighthouse  would be shortened to just  Lighthouse .

If the title cannot be easily shortened into a noun phrase, the title should be cut after the first clause, phrase, or punctuation:

• The world needs to act to reverse climate change, because it "is here, and it’s causing a wide range of impacts that will affect virtually every human on Earth in increasingly severe ways. . . ." ("Climate Impacts").

In this example, since the reader does not know the author of the article, an abbreviated title appears in the parenthetical citation, and the full title of the article appears first at the left-hand margin of its respective entry on the Works Cited page. Thus, the writer includes the title in quotation marks as the signal phrase in the parenthetical citation in order to lead the reader directly to the source on the Works Cited page. The Works Cited entry appears as follows:

• "Climate Impacts."  Union of Concerned Scientists . 2022. www.ucsusa.org/climate/impacts. Accessed 24 Mar. 2022.

If the title of the work begins with a quotation mark, such as a title that refers to another work, that quote or quoted title can be used as the shortened title. The single quotation marks must be included in the parenthetical, rather than the double quotation.

Page numbers are always required, but additional information can help literary scholars, who may have a different edition of a classic work, like Marx and Engels's  The Communist Manifesto .

In these cases, give the page number from your edition (making sure the edition is listed in your Works Cited page, of course) followed by a semicolon, and then the appropriate abbreviations for volume (vol.), book (bk.), part (pt.), chapter (ch.), section (sec.), or paragraph (par.). For example:

• Marx and Engels described human history as marked by class struggles (79; ch. 1).

When you cite a work that appears inside a larger source (for instance, an article in a periodical or an essay in a collection), cite the author of the  internal  source (i.e., the article or essay). For example, to cite Albert Einstein's article "A Brief Outline of the Theory of Relativity," which was published in  Nature  in 1921, you might write something like this:

• Relativity's theoretical foundations can be traced to earlier work by Faraday and Maxwell (Einstein 782).

For a source with two authors, list the authors’ last names in the text or in the parenthetical citation:

• Best and Marcus argue that one should read a text for what it says on its surface, rather than looking for some hidden meaning (9).
• The authors claim that surface reading looks at what is “evident, perceptible, apprehensible in texts” (Best and Marcus 9).

For a source with three or more authors, list only the first author’s last name, and replace the additional names with et al (which means "and others")

• According to Franck et al., “Current agricultural policies in the U.S. are contributing to the poor health of Americans” (327).
• The authors claim that one cause of obesity in the United States is government-funded farm subsidies (Franck et al. 327).

If you cite more than one work by an author, include a shortened title for the particular work from which you are quoting to distinguish it from the others. Put short titles of books in italics and short titles of articles in quotation marks.

Citing two articles by the same author:

• Lightenor has argued that computers are not useful tools for small children ("Too Soon" 38), though he has acknowledged elsewhere that early exposure to computer games does lead to better small motor skill development in a child's second and third year ("Hand-Eye Development" 17).

Citing two books by the same author:

• Murray states that writing is "a process" that "varies with our thinking style" ( Write to Learn  6). Additionally, Murray argues that the purpose of writing is to "carry ideas and information from the mind of one person into the mind of another" ( A Writer Teaches Writing  3).

**Additionally, if the author's name is not mentioned in the sentence, format your citation with the author's name followed by a comma, followed by a shortened title of the work, and, when appropriate, the page number(s):

• Visual studies, because it is such a new discipline, may be "too easy" (Elkins, "Visual Studies" 63).

If you cite from different volumes of a multivolume work, always include the volume number followed by a colon. Put a space after the colon, then provide the page number(s). (If you only cite from one volume, provide only the page number in parentheses.)

• . . . as Quintilian wrote in  Institutio Oratoria  (1: 14-17).

In your first parenthetical citation referencing the bible, you want to make clear which bible you're using (and underline or italicize the title), as each version varies in its translation, followed by book (do not italicize or underline), chapter, and verse. For example:

• Ezekiel saw "what seemed to be four living creatures," each with faces of a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle ( New Jerusalem Bible , Ezek. 1.5-10).

If future references are to the same edition of the bible you’re using, list only the book, chapter, and verse in the parenthetical citation:

• John of Patmos echoes this passage when describing his vision (Rev. 4.6-8).

For electronic and Internet sources, follow the following guidelines:

• Include in the text the first item that appears in the Work Cited entry that corresponds to the citation (e.g. author name, article name, website name, film name).
• Do not provide paragraph numbers or page numbers based on your Web browser’s print preview function.
• Unless you must list the Web site name in the signal phrase in order to get the reader to the appropriate entry, do not include URLs in-text. Only provide partial URLs such as when the name of the site includes, for example, a domain name, like  CNN.com  or  Forbes.com,  as opposed to writing out http://www.cnn.com or http://www.forbes.com.
• One online film critic stated that  Fitzcarraldo  "has become notorious for its near-failure and many obstacles" (Taylor, “Fitzcarraldo”)
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What Is Cite This For Me's Citation Generator?

Cite This For Me’s open-access generator is an automated citation machine that turns any of your sources into citations in just a click. Using a citation generator helps students to integrate referencing into their research and writing routine; turning a time-consuming ordeal into a simple task.

A citation machine is essentially a works cited generator that accesses information from across the web, drawing the relevant information into a fully-formatted bibliography that clearly presents all of the sources that have contributed to your work.

If you don’t know how to cite correctly, or have a fast-approaching deadline, Cite This For Me’s accurate and intuitive citation machine will lend you the confidence to realise your full academic potential. In order to get a grade that reflects all your hard work, your citations must be accurate and complete. Using a citation maker to create your references not only saves you time but also ensures that you don’t lose valuable marks on your assignment.

Not sure how to format your citations, what citations are, or just want to find out more about Cite This For Me’s citation machine? This guide outlines everything you need to know to equip yourself with the know-how and confidence to research and cite a wide range of diverse sources in your work.

Why Do I Need To Cite?

Simply put, referencing is the citing of sources used in essays, articles, research, conferences etc. When another source contributes to your work, you have to give the original owner the appropriate credit. After all, you wouldn’t steal someone else’s possessions so why would you steal their ideas?

Any factual material or ideas you take from another source must be acknowledged in a reference, unless it is common knowledge (e.g. President Kennedy was killed in 1963). Failing to credit all of your sources, even when you’ve paraphrased or completely reworded the information, is plagiarism. Plagiarizing will result in disciplinary action, which can range from losing precious points on your assignment to expulsion from your university.

What’s more, attributing your research infuses credibility and authority into your work, both by supporting your own ideas and by demonstrating the breadth of your research. For many students, crediting sources can be a confusing and tedious process, but it’s a surefire way to improve the quality of your work so it’s essential to get it right. Luckily for you, using Cite This For Me’s citation machine makes creating accurate references easier than ever, leaving more time for you to excel in your studies.

In summary, the referencing process serves three main functions:

• To validate the statements and conclusions in your work by providing directions to other sound sources that support and verify them.
• To help your readers locate, read and check your sources, as well as establishing their contribution to your work.
• To give credit to the original author and hence avoid committing intellectual property theft (known as ‘plagiarism’ in academia).

How Do I Cite My Sources With The Cite This For Me's Citation Machine?

Cite This For Me’s citation generator is the most accurate citation machine available, so whether you’re not sure how to format in-text citations or are looking for a foolproof solution to automate a fully-formatted works cited list, this citation machine will solve all of your referencing needs.

Referencing your source material doesn’t just prevent you from losing valuable marks for plagiarism, it also provides all of the information to help your reader find for themselves the book, article, or other item you are citing. The accessible interface of this citation builder makes it easy for you to identify the source you have used – simply enter its unique identifier into the citation machine search bar. If this information is not available you can search for the title or author instead, and then select from the search results that appear below the citation generator.

The good news is that by using tools such as Cite This For Me, which help you work smarter, you don’t need to limit your research to sources that are traditional to cite. In fact, there are no limits to what you can reference, whether it be a YouTube video, website or a tweet.

To use the works cited generator, simply:

• Select from APA, MLA, Chicago, ASA, IEEE and AMA * styles.
• Choose the type of source you would like to cite (e.g. website, book, journal, video).
• Enter the URL , DOI , ISBN , title, or other unique source information into the citation generator to find your source.
• Click the ‘Cite’ button on the citation machine.
• Copy your new reference from the citation generator into your bibliography or works cited list.
• Repeat for each source that has contributed to your work.

*If you require another referencing style for your paper, essay or other academic work, you can select from over 7,500 styles.

Once you have created your Cite This For Me account you will be able to use the citation machine to generate multiple references and save them into a project. Use the highly-rated iOS or Android apps to create references in a flash with your smartphone camera, export your complete bibliography in one go, and much more.

What Will The Citation Machine Create For Me?

Cite This For Me’s citation maker will generate your reference in two parts; an in-text citation and a full reference to be copied straight into your work.

The citation machine will auto-generate the correct formatting for your works cited list or bibliography depending on your chosen style. For instance, if you select a parenthetical style on the citation machine it will generate an in-text citation in parentheses, along with a full reference to slot into your bibliography. Likewise, if the citation generator is set to a footnote style then it will create a fully-formatted reference for your reference page and bibliography, as well as a corresponding footnote to insert at the bottom of the page containing the relevant source.

Parenthetical referencing examples:

In-text example: A nation has been defined as an imagined community (Anderson, 2006).* Alternative format: Anderson (2006) defined a nation as an imagined community.

*The citation machine will create your references in the first style, but this should be edited if the author’s name already appears in the text.

Bibliography / Works Cited list example: Anderson, B. (2006). Imagined Communities. London: Verso.

Popular Citation Examples

• Citing archive material
• Citing artwork
• Citing an audiobook
• Citing the Bible
• Citing a blog
• Citing a book
• Citing a book chapter
• Citing a comic book
• Citing conference proceedings
• Citing a court case
• Citing a database
• Citing a dictionary entry
• Citing a dissertation
• Citing an eBook
• Citing an edited book
• Citing an email
• Citing an encyclopedia article
• Citing a government publication
• Citing an image
• Citing an interview
• Citing a journal article
• Citing legislation
• Citing a magazine
• Citing a meme
• Citing a mobile app
• Citing a movie
• Citing a newspaper
• Citing a pamphlet
• Citing a patent
• Citing a play
• Citing a podcast
• Citing a poem
• Citing a presentation
• Citing a press release
• Citing a pseudonym
• Citing a report
• Citing Shakespeare
• Citing social media
• Citing a song
• Citing software
• Citing a speech
• Citing translated book
• Citing a TV Show
• Citing a weather report
• Citing a website
• Citing Wikipedia article
• Citing a YouTube video

What Are Citation Styles?

A citation style is a set of rules that you, as an academic writer, must follow to ensure the quality and relevance of your work. There are thousands of styles that are used in different academic institutions around the world, but in the US the most common are APA, MLA and Chicago.

The style you need to use will depend on the preference of your professor, discipline or academic institution – so if you’re unsure which style you should be using, consult your department and follow their guidelines exactly, as this is what you’ll be evaluated on when it comes to grading.

Referencing isn’t just there to guard against plagiarism – presenting your research in a clear and consistent way eases the reader’s comprehension. Each style has a different set of rules for both page formatting and referencing. Be sure to adhere to formatting rules such as font type, font size and line spacing to ensure that your work is easily legible. Furthermore, if your work is published as part of an anthology or collected works, each entry will need to be presented in the same style to maintain uniformity throughout. It is important to make sure that you don’t jump from one style to another, so follow the rules carefully to ensure your reference page and bibliography are both accurate and complete.

If you need a hand with your referencing then why not try Cite This For Me’s citation builder? It’s the quickest and easiest way to reference any source, in any style. The citation generator above will create your references in MLA format style as standard, but this powerful citation machine can generate fully-formatted references in thousands of the widely used global college styles – including individual university variations of each style. So, whether your subject requires you to use the APA citation , or your professor has asked you to adopt the Chicago style citation so that your work includes numbered footnotes, we’re sure to have the style you need. Cite This For Me also offers a citation machine and helpful formatting guide for styles such as ASA , IEEE or AMA . To access all of them, simply create your free account and search for your specific style.

Popular Citation Styles

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How Do I Format A Works Cited List Or Bibliography?

Drawing on a wide range of sources greatly enhances the quality of your work, and reading above and beyond your recommended reading list – and then using these sources to support your own thesis – is an excellent way to impress your reader. A clearly presented works cited list or bibliography demonstrates the lengths you have gone to in researching your chosen topic.

Typically, a works cited list starts on a new page at the end of the main body of text and includes a complete list of the sources you have actually cited in your paper. This list should contain all the information needed for the reader to locate the original source of the information, quote or statistic that directly contributed to your work. On the other hand, a bibliography is a comprehensive list of all the material you may have consulted throughout your research and writing process. Both provide the necessary information for readers to retrieve and check the sources cited in your work.

Each style’s guidelines will define the terminology of ‘ works cited ’ and ‘ bibliography ’, as well as providing formatting guidelines for font, line spacing and page indentations. In addition, it will instruct you on how to order your works cited list or bibliography – this will usually be either alphabetical or chronological (meaning the order that these sources appear in your work). Before submitting your work, be sure to check that you have formatted your whole paper – including your reference page and bibliography – according to your style’s formatting guidelines.

Sounds complicated? Referencing has never been so easy; Cite This For Me’s citation machine will automatically generate fully-formatted references for your works cited page or bibliography in your chosen style. Sign in to your Cite This For Me account to save and export your bibliography straight into Microsoft Word, Evernote, EndNote and more. If that sounds like too much work.

How Do Citations Actually Work?

Although the citation generator will create your bibliography and works cited list for you in record time, it is still useful to understand how this system works behind the scenes. Understanding how a citation machine actually generates references will greatly increase the quality of your work.

As well as saving you time with its citation maker, Cite This For Me provides the learning resources to help you fully understand the citing process and the benefits of adopting great referencing standards.

The referencing process:

• Find a book, journal, website or other source that will contribute to your work.
• Save the quote, image, data or other information that you will use in your work.
• Save the source information that enables you to find it again (i.e. URL, ISBN, DOI etc.).
• Format the source information into a reference.
• Copy and paste the reference into the body of the text.
• Repeat for each source that contributes to your work.
• Export or copy and paste the fully-formatted reference into your bibliography.

Manage all your citations in one place

Create projects, add notes, cite directly from the browser and scan books’ barcodes with a mobile app.

Sign up to Cite This For Me – the ultimate citation management tool.

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Zotero and Zotero Bib

In your time at Harvard, you'll hear more than one librarian suggest that you use Zotero, a "citation management tool."  Zotero will be great for big projects that require you to keep track of many sources -- semester-long research assignments, capstone projects that are research heavy, and senior theses, for example.

Next semester, or next year, you might want to graduate into using  Zotero  itself.  It will take the process of collecting and organizing sources and  incorporating footnotes or in-text citations to the next level. 

In the meantime,   we recommend you generate citations with   ZoteroBib . 

It's more reliable than the internal HOLLIS citation generator and you don't need an account or special software to use it.  Some of its handy features are  described on this page .

A good guide to  Zotero itself, if you're interested, is available here:  https://guides.library.harvard.edu/zotero

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APA 7th Edition Citation Examples

• Volume and Issue Numbers
• Page Numbers
• Undated Sources
• Citing a Source Within a Source

Citing a Source within a Source

• In-Text Citations
• Academic Journals
• Encyclopedia Articles
• Book, Film, and Product Reviews
• Online Classroom Materials
• Conference Papers
• Technical + Research Reports
• Court Decisions
• Treaties and Other International Agreements
• Federal Regulations: I. The Code of Federal Regulations
• Federal Regulations: II. The Federal Register
• Executive Orders
• Charter of the United Nations
• Federal Statutes
• Dissertations and Theses
• Interviews, E-mail Messages + Other Personal Communications
• Social Media
• Business Sources
• PowerPoints
• AI: ChatGPT, etc.

Scenario: You read a 2007 article by Linhares and Brum that cites an earlier article, by Klein. You want to cite Klein's article, but you have not read Klein's article itself.

Reference list citation

Linhares, A., & Brum, P. (2007). Understanding our understanding of strategic scenarios: What role do chunks play? Cognitive Science , 31 (6), 989-1007. https://doi.org/10.1080/03640210701703725

Your Reference list will contain the article you read, by Linhares and Brum. Your Reference list will NOT contain a citation for Klein's article.

In-text citation

Klein's study (as cited in Linhares & Brum, 2007) found that...

Your in-text citation gives credit to Klein and shows the source in which you found Klein's ideas.

See  Publication Manual , p. 258.

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Lizzo Pens New Essay About Her Feelings Amid Controversy Over 'I Quit' Statement

Lizzo is opening up about her feelings and how she overcame “rules” ingrained in her since childhood.

The 35-year-old singer recently alluded to various controversies surrounding her and declared, “ I didn’t sign up for this s-it. I QUIT. ”

However, days later, she clarified what she meant by saying she quits , confirming that she’s not quitting music.

Now, Lizzo shared a Tumblr post of an essay she penned, where she talks about her feelings and how she was essentially taught to suppress her own feelings when she was a kid.

Keep reading to find out more…

“Melissa hated her feelings,” the essay on her Tumblr page began. “She buried them in a chest in the 5th grade (along with her ability to express them). Other peoples’ feelings on the other hand was her forte. She could process, decipher and regurgitate other peoples emotions effortlessly.”

Lizzo went in to talk about how when she was a child, she would have to help mediate family fights, and there were three rules, “1.) Don’t cry. 2.) Stay neutral; Deescalate 3.)Don’t take anything personal. This isn’t about you.”

She shared one particular instance where she broke all the rules, then how after her father passed away, she still wouldn’t break the rules, and how “Traumas began to compact on Melissa, as they do.”

After putting pain into rock music, she started to find “reason and purpose” in her voice.

Lizzo concluded, “Melissa began to fall for her feelings. Her feelings gave life purpose. They weren’t always logical, as feelings seldom are. They were sloppy and embarrassing and rude and so fucking uncomfortable. But they were hers. And they were real. And when she sat alone sipping wine, staring at the moon…They were the only ones still by her side. Ready to break the rules for her because they loved her. And she finally loved them back.”

Check out Lizzo’s full essay below…

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MLA Works Cited Page: Books

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MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used to write papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities. This resource, updated to reflect the MLA Handbook (9 th ed.), offers examples for the general format of MLA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the Works Cited page.

When you are gathering book sources, be sure to make note of the following bibliographic items: the author name(s), other contributors such as translators or editors, the book’s title, editions of the book, the publication date, the publisher, and the pagination.

The 8 th  edition of the MLA handbook highlights principles over prescriptive practices. Essentially, a writer will need to take note of primary elements in every source, such as author, title, etc. and then assort them in a general format. Thus, by using this methodology, a writer will be able to cite any source regardless of whether it’s included in this list.

Please note these changes in the new edition:

• Commas are used instead of periods between Publisher, Publication Date, and Pagination.
• Medium is no longer necessary.
• Containers are now a part of the MLA process. Commas should be used after container titles.
• DOIs should be used instead of URLS when available.
• Use the term “Accessed” instead of listing the date or the abbreviation, “n.d."

Below is the general format for any citation:

Author. Title. Title of container (do not list container for standalone books, e.g. novels), Other contributors (translators or editors), Version (edition), Number (vol. and/or no.), Publisher, Publication Date, Location (pages, paragraphs URL or DOI). 2 nd  container’s title, Other contributors, Version, Number, Publisher, Publication date, Location, Date of Access (if applicable).

Basic Book Format

The author’s name or a book with a single author's name appears in last name, first name format. The basic form for a book citation is:

Last Name, First Name. Title of Book . City of Publication, Publisher, Publication Date.

* Note: the City of Publication should only be used if the book was published before 1900, if the publisher has offices in more than one country, or if the publisher is unknown in North America.

Book with One Author

Gleick, James. Chaos: Making a New Science . Penguin, 1987.

Henley, Patricia. The Hummingbird House . MacMurray, 1999.

Book with More Than One Author

When a book has two authors, order the authors in the same way they are presented in the book. Start by listing the first name that appears on the book in last name, first name format; subsequent author names appear in normal order (first name last name format).

Gillespie, Paula, and Neal Lerner. The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Peer Tutoring . Allyn and Bacon, 2000.

If there are three or more authors, list only the first author followed by the phrase et al. (Latin for "and others") in place of the subsequent authors' names. (Note that there is a period after “al” in “et al.” Also note that there is never a period after the “et” in “et al.”).

Wysocki, Anne Frances, et al. Writing New Media: Theory and Applications for Expanding the Teaching of Composition . Utah State UP, 2004.

Two or More Books by the Same Author

List works alphabetically by title. (Remember to ignore articles like A, An, and The.) Provide the author’s name in last name, first name format for the first entry only. For each subsequent entry by the same author, use three hyphens and a period.

Palmer, William J. Dickens and New Historicism . St. Martin's, 1997.

---. The Films of the Eighties: A Social History . Southern Illinois UP, 1993.

Book by a Corporate Author or Organization

A corporate author may include a commission, a committee, a government agency, or a group that does not identify individual members on the title page.

List the names of corporate authors in the place where an author’s name typically appears at the beginning of the entry.

American Allergy Association. Allergies in Children . Random House, 1998.

When the author and publisher are the same, skip the author, and list the title first. Then, list the corporate author only as the publisher.

Fair Housing—Fair Lending. Aspen Law & Business, 1985.

Book with No Author

List by title of the book. Incorporate these entries alphabetically just as you would with works that include an author name. For example, the following entry might appear between entries of works written by Dean, Shaun and Forsythe, Jonathan.

Encyclopedia of Indiana . Somerset, 1993.

Remember that for an in-text (parenthetical) citation of a book with no author, you should provide the name of the work in the signal phrase and the page number in parentheses. You may also use a shortened version of the title of the book accompanied by the page number. For more information see the In-text Citations for Print Sources with No Known Author section of In-text Citations: The Basics .

A Translated Book

If you want to emphasize the work rather than the translator, cite as you would any other book. Add “translated by” and follow with the name(s) of the translator(s).

Foucault, Michel. Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason . Translated by Richard Howard, Vintage-Random House, 1988.

If you want to focus on the translation, list the translator as the author. In place of the author’s name, the translator’s name appears. His or her name is followed by the label, “translator.” If the author of the book does not appear in the title of the book, include the name, with a “By” after the title of the book and before the publisher. Note that this type of citation is less common and should only be used for papers or writing in which translation plays a central role.

Howard, Richard, translator. Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason . By Michel Foucault, Vintage-Random House, 1988.

Republished Book

Books may be republished due to popularity without becoming a new edition. New editions are typically revisions of the original work. For books that originally appeared at an earlier date and that have been republished at a later one, insert the original publication date before the publication information.

For books that are new editions (i.e. different from the first or other editions of the book), see An Edition of a Book below.

Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble . 1990. Routledge, 1999.

Erdrich, Louise. Love Medicine . 1984. Perennial-Harper, 1993.

An Edition of a Book

There are two types of editions in book publishing: a book that has been published more than once in different editions and a book that is prepared by someone other than the author (typically an editor).

A Subsequent Edition

Cite the book as you normally would, but add the number of the edition after the title.

Crowley, Sharon, and Debra Hawhee. Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students . 3rd ed., Pearson, 2004.

A Work Prepared by an Editor

Cite the book as you normally would, but add the editor after the title with the label "edited by."

Bronte, Charlotte. Jane Eyre,  edited by Margaret Smith, Oxford UP, 1998.

Note that the format for citing sources with important contributors with editor-like roles follows the same basic template:

...adapted by John Doe...

Finally, in the event that the source features a contributor that cannot be described with a past-tense verb and the word "by" (e.g., "edited by"), you may instead use a noun followed by a comma, like so:

...guest editor, Jane Smith...

Anthology or Collection (e.g. Collection of Essays)

To cite the entire anthology or collection, list by editor(s) followed by a comma and "editor" or, for multiple editors, "editors." This sort of entry is somewhat rare. If you are citing a particular piece within an anthology or collection (more common), see A Work in an Anthology, Reference, or Collection below.

Hill, Charles A., and Marguerite Helmers, editors. Defining Visual Rhetorics . Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004.

Peterson, Nancy J., editor. Toni Morrison: Critical and Theoretical Approaches . Johns Hopkins UP, 1997.

A Work in an Anthology, Reference, or Collection

Works may include an essay in an edited collection or anthology, or a chapter of a book. The basic form is for this sort of citation is as follows:

Last name, First name. "Title of Essay." Title of Collection , edited by Editor's Name(s), Publisher, Year, Page range of entry.

Some examples:

Harris, Muriel. "Talk to Me: Engaging Reluctant Writers." A Tutor's Guide: Helping Writers One to One , edited by Ben Rafoth, Heinemann, 2000, pp. 24-34.

Swanson, Gunnar. "Graphic Design Education as a Liberal Art: Design and Knowledge in the University and The 'Real World.'" The Education of a Graphic Designer , edited by Steven Heller, Allworth Press, 1998, pp. 13-24.

Note on Cross-referencing Several Items from One Anthology: If you cite more than one essay from the same edited collection, MLA indicates you may cross-reference within your works cited list in order to avoid writing out the publishing information for each separate essay. You should consider this option if you have several references from a single text. To do so, include a separate entry for the entire collection listed by the editor's name as below:

Rose, Shirley K, and Irwin Weiser, editors. The Writing Program Administrator as Researcher . Heinemann, 1999.

Then, for each individual essay from the collection, list the author's name in last name, first name format, the title of the essay, the editor's last name, and the page range:

L'Eplattenier, Barbara. "Finding Ourselves in the Past: An Argument for Historical Work on WPAs." Rose and Weiser, pp. 131-40.

Peeples, Tim. "'Seeing' the WPA With/Through Postmodern Mapping." Rose and Weiser, pp. 153-67.

Please note: When cross-referencing items in the works cited list, alphabetical order should be maintained for the entire list.

Poem or Short Story Examples :

Burns, Robert. "Red, Red Rose." 100 Best-Loved Poems, edited by Philip Smith, Dover, 1995, p. 26.

Kincaid, Jamaica. "Girl." The Vintage Book of Contemporary American Short Stories , edited by Tobias Wolff, Vintage, 1994, pp. 306-07.

If the specific literary work is part of the author's own collection (all of the works have the same author), then there will be no editor to reference:

Whitman, Walt. "I Sing the Body Electric." Selected Poems, Dover, 1991, pp. 12-19.

Carter, Angela. "The Tiger's Bride." Burning Your Boats: The Collected Stories, Penguin, 1995, pp. 154-69.

Article in a Reference Book (e.g. Encyclopedias, Dictionaries)

For entries in encyclopedias, dictionaries, and other reference works, cite the entry name as you would any other work in a collection but do not include the publisher information. Also, if the reference book is organized alphabetically, as most are, do not list the volume or the page number of the article or item.

"Ideology." The American Heritage Dictionary.  3rd ed. 1997. 

A Multivolume Work

When citing only one volume of a multivolume work, include the volume number after the work's title, or after the work's editor or translator.

Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria . Translated by H. E. Butler, vol. 2, Loeb-Harvard UP, 1980.

When citing more than one volume of a multivolume work, cite the total number of volumes in the work. Also, be sure in your in-text citation to provide both the volume number and page number(s) ( see "Citing Multivolume Works" on our in-text citations resource .)

Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria . Translated by H. E. Butler, Loeb-Harvard UP, 1980. 4 vols.

If the volume you are using has its own title, cite the book without referring to the other volumes as if it were an independent publication.

Churchill, Winston S. The Age of Revolution . Dodd, 1957.

An Introduction, Preface, Foreword, or Afterword

When citing an introduction, a preface, a foreword, or an afterword, write the name of the author(s) of the piece you are citing. Then give the name of the part being cited, which should not be italicized or enclosed in quotation marks; in italics, provide the name of the work and the name of the author of the introduction/preface/foreword/afterword. Finish the citation with the details of publication and page range.

Farrell, Thomas B. Introduction. Norms of Rhetorical Culture , by Farrell, Yale UP, 1993, pp. 1-13.

If the writer of the piece is different from the author of the complete work , then write the full name of the principal work's author after the word "By." For example, if you were to cite Hugh Dalziel Duncan’s introduction of Kenneth Burke’s book Permanence and Change, you would write the entry as follows:

Duncan, Hugh Dalziel. Introduction. Permanence and Change: An Anatomy of Purpose, by Kenneth Burke, 1935, 3rd ed., U of California P, 1984, pp. xiii-xliv.

Book Published Before 1900

Original copies of books published before 1900 are usually defined by their place of publication rather than the publisher. Unless you are using a newer edition, cite the city of publication where you would normally cite the publisher.

Thoreau, Henry David. Excursions . Boston, 1863.

Italicize “The Bible” and follow it with the version you are using. Remember that your in-text (parenthetical citation) should include the name of the specific edition of the Bible, followed by an abbreviation of the book, the chapter and verse(s). (See Citing the Bible at In-Text Citations: The Basics .)

The Bible. Authorized King James Version , Oxford UP, 1998.

The Bible. The New Oxford Annotated Version , 3rd ed., Oxford UP, 2001.

The New Jerusalem Bible. Edited by Susan Jones, Doubleday, 1985.

A Government Publication

Cite the author of the publication if the author is identified. Otherwise, start with the name of the national government, followed by the agency (including any subdivisions or agencies) that serves as the organizational author. For congressional documents, be sure to include the number of the Congress and the session when the hearing was held or resolution passed as well as the report number. US government documents are typically published by the Government Printing Office.

United States, Congress, Senate, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. Hearing on the Geopolitics of Oil . Government Printing Office, 2007. 110th Congress, 1st session, Senate Report 111-8.

United States, Government Accountability Office. Climate Change: EPA and DOE Should Do More to Encourage Progress Under Two Voluntary Programs . Government Printing Office, 2006.

Cite the title and publication information for the pamphlet just as you would a book without an author. Pamphlets and promotional materials commonly feature corporate authors (commissions, committees, or other groups that does not provide individual group member names). If the pamphlet you are citing has no author, cite as directed below. If your pamphlet has an author or a corporate author, put the name of the author (last name, first name format) or corporate author in the place where the author name typically appears at the beginning of the entry. (See also Books by a Corporate Author or Organization above.)

Women's Health: Problems of the Digestive System . American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 2006.

Your Rights Under California Welfare Programs . California Department of Social Services, 2007.

Dissertations and Master's Theses

Dissertations and master's theses may be used as sources whether published or not. Unlike previous editions, MLA 8 specifies no difference in style for published/unpublished works.

The main elements of a dissertation citation are the same as those for a book: author name(s), title (italicized) , and publication date. Conclude with an indication of the document type (e.g., "PhD dissertation"). The degree-granting institution may be included before the document type (though this is not required). If the dissertation was accessed through an online repository, include it as the second container after all the other elements.

Bishop, Karen Lynn. Documenting Institutional Identity: Strategic Writing in the IUPUI Comprehensive Campaign . 2002. Purdue University, PhD dissertation.

Bile, Jeffrey. Ecology, Feminism, and a Revised Critical Rhetoric: Toward a Dialectical Partnership . 2005. Ohio University, PhD dissertation.

Mitchell, Mark. The Impact of Product Quality Reducing Events on the Value of Brand-Name Capital: Evidence from Airline Crashes and the 1982 Tylenol Poisonings.  1987. PhD dissertation.  ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.

List the names of corporate authors in the place where an author’s name typically appears at the beginning of the entry if the author and publisher are not the same.

Fair Housing—Fair Lending. Aspen Law & Business, 1985.

Uvalde mayor abruptly resigns, citing health issues

Cody Smith, the mayor of Uvalde, Tex., who was elected after the 2022 mass shooting at Robb Elementary School, resigned abruptly on Monday, citing health issues.

Smith, who took office in November, thanked members of the community for their support as he recovers “from unexpected medical issues I have experienced in recent weeks.”

“After much consultation and prayer, I have decided to resign as Mayor of the City of Uvalde to focus on my health,” he said in a statement on Monday.

During Smith’s term as mayor, the city released a report from an independent investigator commissioned by the city attorney that defended the actions of local police officers on the day a gunman killed 19 students and two teachers at Robb Elementary School in May 2022. Reports by the Texas House and Department of Justice had previously blamed law enforcement for failing to respond more quickly to the shooting.

Several city council members and victims’ parents denounced the report’s findings in an emotional city council meeting after it was released in March, the Texas Tribune reported . Among them was Kimberly Mata-Rubio , the mother of a 10-year-old-girl killed in the shooting, who ran for mayor against Smith in November.

The Uvalde city council is scheduled to convene for a special meeting on Tuesday to discuss the shooting at Robb Elementary, according to a city agenda. Smith’s resignation also comes shortly before the city’s police chief, Daniel Rodriguez, is scheduled to step down on April 6. Rodriguez, who was not present during the shooting, announced his plans to retire in March shortly after the city’s report was first released.

Smith, who had previously served two terms as Uvalde mayor from 2008 to 2012, was reelected last year after Don McLaughlin, who was mayor during the Robb Elementary shooting, resigned to run for the Texas House.

Smith named Everardo Zamora, an Uvalde city councilman, as mayor pro tempore until the next mayor is elected in November.

Prosecutors say Trump 'stoked and encouraged' the publicity he's now citing as a reason to delay his hush money trial

Prosecutors in New York on Wednesday urged a judge to reject Donald Trump 's bid to delay his impending criminal trial because of pre-trial publicity, arguing the former president "has constantly stoked and encouraged such publicity."

Trump's "own incessant rhetoric is generating significant publicity, and it would be perverse to reward defendant with an adjournment based on media attention he is actively seeking," Manhattan District Attorney Alvin Bragg's office said. The filing was in response to a request by Trump's lawyers to delay the trial for the foreseeable future because of "prejudicial" publicity around the case.

"Defendant here has done much more than simply give occasional statements: instead, he has repeatedly invited public attention to this criminal trial through campaign rallies, online social media posts, television interviews by himself and his counsel, and frequent press conferences — including in the very hallway of the courthouse just steps away from the courtroom before and after court appearances," the DA's filing said.

An attorney for Trump did not immediately respond to NBC News’ request for comment.

Trump's attorneys contended in a court filing last month their client "cannot get a fair trial in New York County right now" because of the large amount of negative press coverage, as well as repeated public statements by two key witnesses in the case, former Trump attorney Michael Cohen and adult film star Stormy Daniels .

Cohen paid Daniels $130,000 in the closing days of the 2016 presidential campaign for her silence about her claims that she had a sexual encounter with Trump years earlier. Trump has denied Daniels' claim, but prosecutors maintain he directed Cohen to make the payment and then repaid him in disbursements that were falsely classified as legal expenses. Trump has pleaded not guilty.

Trump's filing said Cohen "has and will continue to spew vitriol into the public sphere regarding President Trump," and Daniels has made remarks critical of the president while a new documentary about her on NBCUniversal's streaming platform Peacock includes her "prejudicial, false commentary about this case and President Trump." (NBCUniversal is the parent company of NBC News.)

The DA's office said it has no real "means of enforcing restrictions on the speech of Cohen and Daniels, who are private citizens. In any event, there is no indication that their public statements have materially affected the overall level of publicity attached to this case, especially compared to the extensive national press coverage of defendant’s own provocative remarks. Nor is there any reason to think that an adjournment would make a difference: the press is likely to seek comment from these individuals whenever defendant’s trial occurs, regardless of whether the trial begins on April 15 or on a later date."

Prosecutors also noted there will always be publicity swirling around the case.

"Because this trial is a criminal proceeding against a former president, the press attention will be substantial regardless of when (or, for that matter, where) this trial is held," the filing said.  

The DA noted that the judge rejected a similar request by Trump's lawyers in February, and that there's no reason for him to change his position. They also told Judge Juan Merchan the effort is the eighth time Trump has moved to adjourn the trial, which is scheduled to begin jury selection in less than two weeks.

"Defendant simply cannot have it both ways: complaining about the prejudicial effect of pretrial publicity, while seeking to pollute the jury pool himself by making baseless and inflammatory accusations about this trial, specific witnesses, individual prosecutors, and the Court itself," the filing argued.

Tom Winter is a New York-based correspondent covering crime, courts, terrorism and financial fraud on the East Coast for the NBC News Investigative Unit.

Dareh Gregorian is a politics reporter for NBC News.

Microsoft, OpenAI plan $100 billion data-center project, media report says

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Reporting by Arsheeya Bajwa in Bengaluru; Editing by Paul Simao and David Gregorio

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Exclusive: Tesla scraps low-cost car plans amid fierce Chinese EV competition

Tesla has canceled the long-promised inexpensive car that investors have been counting on to drive its growth into a mass-market automaker, according to three sources familiar with the matter and company messages seen by Reuters.

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Guest Essay

Stephen Breyer: The Supreme Court I Served On Was Made Up of Friends

By Stephen Breyer

Justice Breyer is a retired associate justice of the United States Supreme Court and the author of “Reading the Constitution: Why I Chose Pragmatism, Not Textualism.”

Recently, the Supreme Court justices Sonia Sotomayor and Amy Coney Barrett spoke together publicly about how members of the court speak civilly to one another while disagreeing, sometimes vigorously, about the law. Considerable disagreements on professional matters among the Supreme Court justices, important as they are, remain professional, not personal. The members of the court can and do get along well personally. That matters.

In my tenure, this meant that we could listen to one another, which increased the chances of agreement or compromise. It means that the court will work better for the nation that it serves. And I wonder: If justices who disagree so profoundly can do so respectfully, perhaps it is possible for our politically divided country to do the same.

Sandra Day O’Connor was the first woman appointed to the court; Ruth Bader Ginsburg was the second. I remember being slightly surprised when, during a visit to meet with several European judges, they suddenly disappeared. Where had they gone? It seems they went off together to look for suitable women’s collars for their robes. They found some, and Justice Ginsburg wore them ever after.

At about the same time, Justice O’Connor reminded me that our chief justice, William Rehnquist, had decided that he, too, needed something distinctive on his black robe. Inspired by Gilbert and Sullivan’s “Iolanthe ,” he decided to enliven it with a few gold stripes on the sleeves. Justice O’Connor found at a European bookstall a picture of Lorenzo de’ Medici wearing similar stripes. She suggested that we send it to him with a special message from her.

We would do things together outside class. Chief Justice Rehnquist, Justice Anthony Kennedy, Justice O’Connor and I would play bridge with friends and spouses (often changing partners). Today, I gather that justices who do not always agree on legal results nonetheless agree to go to hockey games or play golf together. (Why hockey in Washington, D.C., where baseball, football and basketball abound? Perhaps they just like hockey.)

As is fairly well known, Justice Ginsburg and Justice Antonin Scalia loved opera and became great friends. They even persuaded Justice Kennedy and me to take part in a Washington Opera performance of “Die Fledermaus,” provided, of course, that we simply sat onstage on a sofa and never opened our mouths. Justice Scalia had a good musical voice, however; he, law clerks and other justices would sometimes sing at the court, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, as well as by a friend of Justice Scalia who was a fine pianist and loved Cole Porter.

Justice Scalia and I would talk to students in high school or law school and other audiences about the court. It was obvious to those audiences that while we did not share basic views about how to interpret difficult statutory and constitutional phrases, we were friends.

Certain unwritten rules helped to smooth over differences and maintain good personal relations among court members. At conferences when we discussed cases privately, we proceeded in order of seniority, and no one would speak twice until everyone had spoken once. Thus, everyone could be fairly sure that he or she would have a chance to speak before minds were definitely made up. (This rule helped me, for I was the most junior justice for 11 years.)

Once all had spoken, we would discuss the case, back and forth. But one quickly learned that it did not help to say “I have a better argument than you.” Much better to listen to what others say and to find in their points of view material for working out an agreement or perhaps a compromise.

Chief Justice Rehnquist generally did not approve of jokes made during the business portion of the conference, though I admit I once told him while we were having coffee, after having recently nearly lost a majority on what we thought initially would be a unanimous opinion, “I have discovered how to get five people on a single opinion.” “How?” he asked. “Start with nine,” I replied.

In any event, agreement or disagreement, joke or no joke, in my 28 years on the court I did not hear a voice raised in anger in that conference, nor were snide or personal remarks ever made. The discussion was professional, disagreements reflected legal differences on the merits, and the justices tried to find ways to reach court agreements.

Justice O’Connor maintained that a highly important informal court rule was this: You and I may disagree strongly in respect to Case 1, but that fact has nothing to do with our positions in respect to (not legally related) Case 2, where we may be the strongest of allies. That is, no horse-trading.

After conference we would have lunch, often talking about sports or trading so-called jokes and other nonlegal matters. I remember once saying to Chief Justice Rehnquist that I thought it amazing that we were about to have a pleasant lunch when just 20 minutes before at conference we strongly disagreed about applicable law. His reply suggested that he thought only a short time earlier that half the court thought the other half had lost its mind.

What works for nine people with lifetime appointments won’t work for the entire nation, but listening to one another in search of a consensus might help.

Stephen Breyer is a retired associate justice of the United States Supreme Court.

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