decision making reflective essay

Reflective Decision-Making: Thinking Your Way to a Better Decision

In this article, I'm going to show you how reflective decision-making can help you make better decisions.

You'll come to understand the flow of a decision and see how easily decisions change. Reflection will give you the awareness to see this and much more. It will mean stepping outside of your decision and analysing why you made the choice you made, and that's good.

We succumb to the reward of the outcome and in doing so we tend to ignore all the important parts of a decision .

For example, do you stop and consider the following?

• The situation
• Which information is incomplete?
• Your biases
• The outcome

Each of these impacts every decision we ever make. But how often do we stop to consider them before we decide what to do?  I'll let you ponder the answer to that one.

How Decision's Flow

Decisions come at us thick and fast throughout the day. Most of them we make without a second thought. As Daniel Kahneman noted, in our system one, our intuition just takes over and we make decisions seamlessly. Well, that's how it feels.

 What most of us don't realise is that system one has a presence to think it can decide everything for us. Thus, we find ourselves eating unhealthy food over healthy food, or opting to stay in bed rather than going for a morning run.

System one see's these decisions and takes the easy path. Food is food - and you are hungry - so eat it. It is an intuitive response.

When it comes to more significant choices, system one is scanning our historical decisions to see if it can replicate the choice again. If there is an earlier decision that looks anywhere near similar, then your system one will seize control.

It is a decision flow that happens all the time - and I mean all the time.

Big Decisions

Big decisions - the life-changing decisions are the ones we want to deliberate on . System two as it is known, steps in as we pause, stop, and think through the choices ahead of us.

Even then, the decision is far from simple. Framing, biases, emotion, temporary feelings , and the influence of the situation all impact what we might decide to do. And that's before the appearance of lady luck, the mysteries of what others will do and chance.

Decision-making is tough.

And yet, we live or die on the outcome. We become wealthy or we become poor, we get married or we stay single, we buy or a house or we rent, we live to a set of values or we become consigned to mediocrity. Sometimes, a heap of stuff you can't control happens and you're left in the position you're in.

Shit happens.

Despite the stuff you can't control, there is a ton of stuff you can control. Whether you decide to do something by using your intuition or using deliberation, you have the chance to reflect and learn.

What is Reflective Decision-Making?

We all spend time thinking about decisions. We become consumed by the outcome; if it was a good outcome, we're happy, if not, we're sad.

Thinking about decisions in this way is terrible.

Reflective decision-making is a process of structured thinking to help you analyse your decision. It means being open-minded, honest, and using self-awareness to reflect on your decision-making process, not the decision itself.

As I said, we become occupied with the outcome. We mistake this as a guide in assessing the choice we're about to make. The harsh reality is that we take the credit for a decision with a positive outcome when chance or luck plays a part. This is a false narrative of which we are the greatest authors.

The process of reflection means we need to ask ourselves some tough questions. These questions evolve from the following decision fundamentals.

• Situational awareness
• Incomplete information

The outcome is irrelevant in the reflection process. What matters is what you knew - and didn't know before you decided on your course of action.

What were the facts before you took your decision? Ask yourself what you knew to be true. Don't sugar-coat it, tell it as it was. What were the facts? Did you, as often happens, assume information as facts when they weren't.

What filters could apply to prove the facts for next time?

Situational Awareness

What were the circumstances for the decision? Who, if anyone was influencing you? How did you feel about the situation?

Reflecting on situational awareness means taking looking at the situation from above. Think of yourself as a helicopter pilot, looking at the ground before you. Taking the stance gives a perspective devoid of emotion, it opens you up to your blind spots. The parts of the situation you can't see when you're in the thick of it.

Incomplete Information

We receive incomplete information all the time. There is a lot that happens that we don't know or can't see. Others might be playing a part in your decision, but you can't know what they will do and when they might do it.

Reflecting, you should be looking to find this incomplete information. Label it for what it is and learn to use it correctly when deciding what to do.

Learning from Reflective decision-making

The process of reflection gives you a unique opportunity. To learn, to improve and to adapt your approach to decision-making. By adopting this approach, you are starting to think about how you make decisions.

Without realising it, you've put in place an iterative behaviour.

It's iteration because as this habit becomes more stable, so you're assessing the decision, not the outcome. Each time, assessing through reflection the steps you took as you made your choice.

This is a logical sequence. It's also a self-improving sequence that can give you the ability to upgrade your decisions . Of course, life isn't quite that simple. The myriad of facts, circumstances and incomplete information makes every decision unique. 

Decision Growth Made Easy

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• Acknowledgments

Reflective writing is a process of identifying, questioning, and critically evaluating course-based learning opportunities, integrated with your own observations, experiences, impressions, beliefs, assumptions, or biases, and which describes how this process stimulated new or creative understanding about the content of the course.

A reflective paper describes and explains in an introspective, first person narrative, your reactions and feelings about either a specific element of the class [e.g., a required reading; a film shown in class] or more generally how you experienced learning throughout the course. Reflective writing assignments can be in the form of a single paper, essays, portfolios, journals, diaries, or blogs. In some cases, your professor may include a reflective writing assignment as a way to obtain student feedback that helps improve the course, either in the moment or for when the class is taught again.

How to Write a Reflection Paper . Academic Skills, Trent University; Writing a Reflection Paper . Writing Center, Lewis University; Critical Reflection . Writing and Communication Centre, University of Waterloo; Tsingos-Lucas et al. "Using Reflective Writing as a Predictor of Academic Success in Different Assessment Formats." American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 81 (2017): Article 8.

Benefits of Reflective Writing Assignments

As the term implies, a reflective paper involves looking inward at oneself in contemplating and bringing meaning to the relationship between course content and the acquisition of new knowledge . Educational research [Bolton, 2010; Ryan, 2011; Tsingos-Lucas et al., 2017] demonstrates that assigning reflective writing tasks enhances learning because it challenges students to confront their own assumptions, biases, and belief systems around what is being taught in class and, in so doing, stimulate student’s decisions, actions, attitudes, and understanding about themselves as learners and in relation to having mastery over their learning. Reflection assignments are also an opportunity to write in a first person narrative about elements of the course, such as the required readings, separate from the exegetic and analytical prose of academic research papers.

Reflection writing often serves multiple purposes simultaneously. In no particular order, here are some of reasons why professors assign reflection papers:

• Enhances learning from previous knowledge and experience in order to improve future decision-making and reasoning in practice . Reflective writing in the applied social sciences enhances decision-making skills and academic performance in ways that can inform professional practice. The act of reflective writing creates self-awareness and understanding of others. This is particularly important in clinical and service-oriented professional settings.
• Allows students to make sense of classroom content and overall learning experiences in relation to oneself, others, and the conditions that shaped the content and classroom experiences . Reflective writing places you within the course content in ways that can deepen your understanding of the material. Because reflective thinking can help reveal hidden biases, it can help you critically interrogate moments when you do not like or agree with discussions, readings, or other aspects of the course.
• Increases awareness of one’s cognitive abilities and the evidence for these attributes . Reflective writing can break down personal doubts about yourself as a learner and highlight specific abilities that may have been hidden or suppressed due to prior assumptions about the strength of your academic abilities [e.g., reading comprehension; problem-solving skills]. Reflective writing, therefore, can have a positive affective [i.e., emotional] impact on your sense of self-worth.
• Applying theoretical knowledge and frameworks to real experiences . Reflective writing can help build a bridge of relevancy between theoretical knowledge and the real world. In so doing, this form of writing can lead to a better understanding of underlying theories and their analytical properties applied to professional practice.
• Reveals shortcomings that the reader will identify . Evidence suggests that reflective writing can uncover your own shortcomings as a learner, thereby, creating opportunities to anticipate the responses of your professor may have about the quality of your coursework. This can be particularly productive if the reflective paper is written before final submission of an assignment.
• Helps students identify their tacit [a.k.a., implicit] knowledge and possible gaps in that knowledge . Tacit knowledge refers to ways of knowing rooted in lived experience, insight, and intuition rather than formal, codified, categorical, or explicit knowledge. In so doing, reflective writing can stimulate students to question their beliefs about a research problem or an element of the course content beyond positivist modes of understanding and representation.
• Encourages students to actively monitor their learning processes over a period of time . On-going reflective writing in journals or blogs, for example, can help you maintain or adapt learning strategies in other contexts. The regular, purposeful act of reflection can facilitate continuous deep thinking about the course content as it evolves and changes throughout the term. This, in turn, can increase your overall confidence as a learner.
• Relates a student’s personal experience to a wider perspective . Reflection papers can help you see the big picture associated with the content of a course by forcing you to think about the connections between scholarly content and your lived experiences outside of school. It can provide a macro-level understanding of one’s own experiences in relation to the specifics of what is being taught.
• If reflective writing is shared, students can exchange stories about their learning experiences, thereby, creating an opportunity to reevaluate their original assumptions or perspectives . In most cases, reflective writing is only viewed by your professor in order to ensure candid feedback from students. However, occasionally, reflective writing is shared and openly discussed in class. During these discussions, new or different perspectives and alternative approaches to solving problems can be generated that would otherwise be hidden. Sharing student's reflections can also reveal collective patterns of thought and emotions about a particular element of the course.

Bolton, Gillie. Reflective Practice: Writing and Professional Development . London: Sage, 2010; Chang, Bo. "Reflection in Learning." Online Learning 23 (2019), 95-110; Cavilla, Derek. "The Effects of Student Reflection on Academic Performance and Motivation." Sage Open 7 (July-September 2017): 1–13; Culbert, Patrick. “Better Teaching? You Can Write On It “ Liberal Education (February 2022); McCabe, Gavin and Tobias Thejll-Madsen. The Reflection Toolkit . University of Edinburgh; The Purpose of Reflection . Introductory Composition at Purdue University; Practice-based and Reflective Learning . Study Advice Study Guides, University of Reading; Ryan, Mary. "Improving Reflective Writing in Higher Education: A Social Semiotic Perspective." Teaching in Higher Education 16 (2011): 99-111; Tsingos-Lucas et al. "Using Reflective Writing as a Predictor of Academic Success in Different Assessment Formats." American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 81 (2017): Article 8; What Benefits Might Reflective Writing Have for My Students? Writing Across the Curriculum Clearinghouse; Rykkje, Linda. "The Tacit Care Knowledge in Reflective Writing: A Practical Wisdom." International Practice Development Journal 7 (September 2017): Article 5; Using Reflective Writing to Deepen Student Learning . Center for Writing, University of Minnesota.

How to Approach Writing a Reflection Paper

Thinking About Reflective Thinking

Educational theorists have developed numerous models of reflective thinking that your professor may use to frame a reflective writing assignment. These models can help you systematically interpret your learning experiences, thereby ensuring that you ask the right questions and have a clear understanding of what should be covered. A model can also represent the overall structure of a reflective paper. Each model establishes a different approach to reflection and will require you to think about your writing differently. If you are unclear how to fit your writing within a particular reflective model, seek clarification from your professor. There are generally two types of reflective writing assignments, each approached in slightly different ways.

1.  Reflective Thinking about Course Readings

This type of reflective writing focuses on thoughtfully thinking about the course readings that underpin how most students acquire new knowledge and understanding about the subject of a course. Reflecting on course readings is often assigned in freshmen-level, interdisciplinary courses where the required readings examine topics viewed from multiple perspectives and, as such, provide different ways of analyzing a topic, issue, event, or phenomenon. The purpose of reflective thinking about course readings in the social and behavioral sciences is to elicit your opinions, beliefs, and feelings about the research and its significance. This type of writing can provide an opportunity to break down key assumptions you may have and, in so doing, reveal potential biases in how you interpret the scholarship.

If you are assigned to reflect on course readings, consider the following methods of analysis as prompts that can help you get started :

• Examine carefully the main introductory elements of the reading, including the purpose of the study, the theoretical framework being used to test assumptions, and the research questions being addressed. Think about what ideas stood out to you. Why did they? Were these ideas new to you or familiar in some way based on your own lived experiences or prior knowledge?
• Develop your ideas around the readings by asking yourself, what do I know about this topic? Where does my existing knowledge about this topic come from? What are the observations or experiences in my life that influence my understanding of the topic? Do I agree or disagree with the main arguments, recommended course of actions, or conclusions made by the author(s)? Why do I feel this way and what is the basis of these feelings?
• Make connections between the text and your own beliefs, opinions, or feelings by considering questions like, how do the readings reinforce my existing ideas or assumptions? How the readings challenge these ideas or assumptions? How does this text help me to better understand this topic or research in ways that motivate me to learn more about this area of study?

2.  Reflective Thinking about Course Experiences

This type of reflective writing asks you to critically reflect on locating yourself at the conceptual intersection of theory and practice. The purpose of experiential reflection is to evaluate theories or disciplinary-based analytical models based on your introspective assessment of the relationship between hypothetical thinking and practical reality; it offers a way to consider how your own knowledge and skills fit within professional practice. This type of writing also provides an opportunity to evaluate your decisions and actions, as well as how you managed your subsequent successes and failures, within a specific theoretical framework. As a result, abstract concepts can crystallize and become more relevant to you when considered within your own experiences. This can help you formulate plans for self-improvement as you learn.

If you are assigned to reflect on your experiences, consider the following questions as prompts to help you get started :

• Contextualize your reflection in relation to the overarching purpose of the course by asking yourself, what did you hope to learn from this course? What were the learning objectives for the course and how did I fit within each of them? How did these goals relate to the main themes or concepts of the course?
• Analyze how you experienced the course by asking yourself, what did I learn from this experience? What did I learn about myself? About working in this area of research and study? About how the course relates to my place in society? What assumptions about the course were supported or refuted?
• Think introspectively about the ways you experienced learning during the course by asking yourself, did your learning experiences align with the goals or concepts of the course? Why or why do you not feel this way? What was successful and why do you believe this? What would you do differently and why is this important? How will you prepare for a future experience in this area of study?

NOTE: If you are assigned to write a journal or other type of on-going reflection exercise, a helpful approach is to reflect on your reflections by re-reading what you have already written. In other words, review your previous entries as a way to contextualize your feelings, opinions, or beliefs regarding your overall learning experiences. Over time, this can also help reveal hidden patterns or themes related to how you processed your learning experiences. Consider concluding your reflective journal with a summary of how you felt about your learning experiences at critical junctures throughout the course, then use these to write about how you grew as a student learner and how the act of reflecting helped you gain new understanding about the subject of the course and its content.

ANOTHER NOTE: Regardless of whether you write a reflection paper or a journal, do not focus your writing on the past. The act of reflection is intended to think introspectively about previous learning experiences. However, reflective thinking should document the ways in which you progressed in obtaining new insights and understandings about your growth as a learner that can be carried forward in subsequent coursework or in future professional practice. Your writing should reflect a furtherance of increasing personal autonomy and confidence gained from understanding more about yourself as a learner.

Structure and Writing Style

There are no strict academic rules for writing a reflective paper. Reflective writing may be assigned in any class taught in the social and behavioral sciences and, therefore, requirements for the assignment can vary depending on disciplinary-based models of inquiry and learning. The organization of content can also depend on what your professor wants you to write about or based on the type of reflective model used to frame the writing assignment. Despite these possible variations, below is a basic approach to organizing and writing a good reflective paper, followed by a list of problems to avoid.

Pre-flection

In most cases, it's helpful to begin by thinking about your learning experiences and outline what you want to focus on before you begin to write the paper. This can help you organize your thoughts around what was most important to you and what experiences [good or bad] had the most impact on your learning. As described by the University of Waterloo Writing and Communication Centre, preparing to write a reflective paper involves a process of self-analysis that can help organize your thoughts around significant moments of in-class knowledge discovery.

• Using a thesis statement as a guide, note what experiences or course content stood out to you , then place these within the context of your observations, reactions, feelings, and opinions. This will help you develop a rough outline of key moments during the course that reflect your growth as a learner. To identify these moments, pose these questions to yourself: What happened? What was my reaction? What were my expectations and how were they different from what transpired? What did I learn?
• Critically think about your learning experiences and the course content . This will help you develop a deeper, more nuanced understanding about why these moments were significant or relevant to you. Use the ideas you formulated during the first stage of reflecting to help you think through these moments from both an academic and personal perspective. From an academic perspective, contemplate how the experience enhanced your understanding of a concept, theory, or skill. Ask yourself, did the experience confirm my previous understanding or challenge it in some way. As a result, did this highlight strengths or gaps in your current knowledge? From a personal perspective, think introspectively about why these experiences mattered, if previous expectations or assumptions were confirmed or refuted, and if this surprised, confused, or unnerved you in some way.
• Analyze how these experiences and your reactions to them will shape your future thinking and behavior . Reflection implies looking back, but the most important act of reflective writing is considering how beliefs, assumptions, opinions, and feelings were transformed in ways that better prepare you as a learner in the future. Note how this reflective analysis can lead to actions you will take as a result of your experiences, what you will do differently, and how you will apply what you learned in other courses or in professional practice.

Basic Structure and Writing Style

Reflective Background and Context

The first part of your reflection paper should briefly provide background and context in relation to the content or experiences that stood out to you. Highlight the settings, summarize the key readings, or narrate the experiences in relation to the course objectives. Provide background that sets the stage for your reflection. You do not need to go into great detail, but you should provide enough information for the reader to understand what sources of learning you are writing about [e.g., course readings, field experience, guest lecture, class discussions] and why they were important. This section should end with an explanatory thesis statement that expresses the central ideas of your paper and what you want the readers to know, believe, or understand after they finish reading your paper.

Reflective Interpretation

Drawing from your reflective analysis, this is where you can be personal, critical, and creative in expressing how you felt about the course content and learning experiences and how they influenced or altered your feelings, beliefs, assumptions, or biases about the subject of the course. This section is also where you explore the meaning of these experiences in the context of the course and how you gained an awareness of the connections between these moments and your own prior knowledge.

Guided by your thesis statement, a helpful approach is to interpret your learning throughout the course with a series of specific examples drawn from the course content and your learning experiences. These examples should be arranged in sequential order that illustrate your growth as a learner. Reflecting on each example can be done by: 1)  introducing a theme or moment that was meaningful to you, 2) describing your previous position about the learning moment and what you thought about it, 3) explaining how your perspective was challenged and/or changed and why, and 4) introspectively stating your current or new feelings, opinions, or beliefs about that experience in class.

It is important to include specific examples drawn from the course and placed within the context of your assumptions, thoughts, opinions, and feelings. A reflective narrative without specific examples does not provide an effective way for the reader to understand the relationship between the course content and how you grew as a learner.

Reflective Conclusions

The conclusion of your reflective paper should provide a summary of your thoughts, feelings, or opinions regarding what you learned about yourself as a result of taking the course. Here are several ways you can frame your conclusions based on the examples you interpreted and reflected on what they meant to you. Each example would need to be tied to the basic theme [thesis statement] of your reflective background section.

• Your reflective conclusions can be described in relation to any expectations you had before taking the class [e.g., “I expected the readings to not be relevant to my own experiences growing up in a rural community, but the research actually helped me see that the challenges of developing my identity as a child of immigrants was not that unusual...”].
• Your reflective conclusions can explain how what you learned about yourself will change your actions in the future [e.g., “During a discussion in class about the challenges of helping homeless people, I realized that many of these people hate living on the street but lack the ability to see a way out. This made me realize that I wanted to take more classes in psychology...”].
• Your reflective conclusions can describe major insights you experienced a critical junctures during the course and how these moments enhanced how you see yourself as a student learner [e.g., "The guest speaker from the Head Start program made me realize why I wanted to pursue a career in elementary education..."].
• Your reflective conclusions can reconfigure or reframe how you will approach professional practice and your understanding of your future career aspirations [e.g.,, "The course changed my perceptions about seeking a career in business finance because it made me realize I want to be more engaged in customer service..."]
• Your reflective conclusions can explore any learning you derived from the act of reflecting itself [e.g., “Reflecting on the course readings that described how minority students perceive campus activities helped me identify my own biases about the benefits of those activities in acclimating to campus life...”].

NOTE: The length of a reflective paper in the social sciences is usually less than a traditional research paper. However, don’t assume that writing a reflective paper is easier than writing a research paper. A well-conceived critical reflection paper often requires as much time and effort as a research paper because you must purposeful engage in thinking about your learning in ways that you may not be comfortable with or used to. This is particular true while preparing to write because reflective papers are not as structured as a traditional research paper and, therefore, you have to think deliberately about how you want to organize the paper and what elements of the course you want to reflect upon.

ANOTHER NOTE: Do not limit yourself to using only text in reflecting on your learning. If you believe it would be helpful, consider using creative modes of thought or expression such as, illustrations, photographs, or material objects that reflects an experience related to the subject of the course that was important to you [e.g., like a ticket stub to a renowned speaker on campus]. Whatever non-textual element you include, be sure to describe the object's relevance to your personal relationship to the course content.

Problems to Avoid

A reflective paper is not a “mind dump” . Reflective papers document your personal and emotional experiences and, therefore, they do not conform to rigid structures, or schema, to organize information. However, the paper should not be a disjointed, stream-of-consciousness narrative. Reflective papers are still academic pieces of writing that require organized thought, that use academic language and tone , and that apply intellectually-driven critical thinking to the course content and your learning experiences and their significance.

A reflective paper is not a research paper . If you are asked to reflect on a course reading, the reflection will obviously include some description of the research. However, the goal of reflective writing is not to present extraneous ideas to the reader or to "educate" them about the course. The goal is to share a story about your relationship with the learning objectives of the course. Therefore, unlike research papers, you are expected to write from a first person point of view which includes an introspective examination of your own opinions, feelings, and personal assumptions.

A reflection paper is not a book review . Descriptions of the course readings using your own words is not a reflective paper. Reflective writing should focus on how you understood the implications of and were challenged by the course in relation to your own lived experiences or personal assumptions, combined with explanations of how you grew as a student learner based on this internal dialogue. Remember that you are the central object of the paper, not the research materials.

A reflective paper is not an all-inclusive meditation. Do not try to cover everything. The scope of your paper should be well-defined and limited to your specific opinions, feelings, and beliefs about what you determine to be the most significant content of the course and in relation to the learning that took place. Reflections should be detailed enough to covey what you think is important, but your thoughts should be expressed concisely and coherently [as is true for any academic writing assignment].

Critical Reflection . Writing and Communication Centre, University of Waterloo; Critical Reflection: Journals, Opinions, & Reactions . University Writing Center, Texas A&M University; Connor-Greene, Patricia A. “Making Connections: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Journal Writing in Enhancing Student Learning.” Teaching of Psychology 27 (2000): 44-46; Good vs. Bad Reflection Papers , Franklin University; Dyment, Janet E. and Timothy S. O’Connell. "The Quality of Reflection in Student Journals: A Review of Limiting and Enabling Factors." Innovative Higher Education 35 (2010): 233-244: How to Write a Reflection Paper . Academic Skills, Trent University; Amelia TaraJane House. Reflection Paper . Cordia Harrington Center for Excellence, University of Arkansas; Ramlal, Alana, and Désirée S. Augustin. “Engaging Students in Reflective Writing: An Action Research Project.” Educational Action Research 28 (2020): 518-533; Writing a Reflection Paper . Writing Center, Lewis University; McGuire, Lisa, Kathy Lay, and Jon Peters. “Pedagogy of Reflective Writing in Professional Education.” Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (2009): 93-107; Critical Reflection . Writing and Communication Centre, University of Waterloo; How Do I Write Reflectively? Academic Skills Toolkit, University of New South Wales Sydney; Reflective Writing . Skills@Library. University of Leeds; Walling, Anne, Johanna Shapiro, and Terry Ast. “What Makes a Good Reflective Paper?” Family Medicine 45 (2013): 7-12; Williams, Kate, Mary Woolliams, and Jane Spiro. Reflective Writing . 2nd edition. London: Red Globe Press, 2020; Yeh, Hui-Chin, Shih-hsien Yang, Jo Shan Fu, and Yen-Chen Shih. “Developing College Students’ Critical Thinking through Reflective Writing.” Higher Education Research and Development (2022): 1-16.

Writing Tip

Focus on Reflecting, Not on Describing

Minimal time and effort should be spent describing the course content you are asked to reflect upon. The purpose of a reflection assignment is to introspectively contemplate your reactions to and feeling about an element of the course. D eflecting the focus away from your own feelings by concentrating on describing the course content can happen particularly if "talking about yourself" [i.e., reflecting] makes you uncomfortable or it is intimidating. However, the intent of reflective writing is to overcome these inhibitions so as to maximize the benefits of introspectively assessing your learning experiences. Keep in mind that, if it is relevant, your feelings of discomfort could be a part of how you critically reflect on any challenges you had during the course [e.g., you realize this discomfort inhibited your willingness to ask questions during class, it fed into your propensity to procrastinate, or it made it difficult participating in groups].

Writing a Reflection Paper . Writing Center, Lewis University; Reflection Paper . Cordia Harrington Center for Excellence, University of Arkansas.

Another Writing Tip

Helpful Videos about Reflective Writing

These two short videos succinctly describe how to approach a reflective writing assignment. They are produced by the Academic Skills department at the University of Melbourne and the Skills Team of the University of Hull, respectively.

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Effective Decision Making: Make Clear and Informed Choices

Written by rodaniel.

Life is a journey marked by a series of decisions, each with the power to shape our experiences, opportunities, and the paths we navigate. Whether big or small, the choices we make carry the weight of consequence and the potential for growth. At the heart of this intricate process lies the art of decision making, reflection, and refinement – processes that when we string them together takes us on a journey that influences the course of our lives.

Making good choices is not an automatic process that we are born with. It is a process many of us learn through trial and error. We often reference the school of hard knocks, but what if schools explicitly taught the process, helping us string them together intentionally? 

The Decision Making Process

Decision making is a thought process we engage in daily, from the small matters like choosing breakfast cereal to the profound choices that can alter the trajectory of our education or relationships. The process involves a

 multitude of factors, often including our values, desires, emotions, rational thinking, and external influences.

• Identifying the Decision: The journey begins with recognizing the need for a decision. It might be prompted by an external event or an internal realization that change is required.
• Gathering Information: Once aware of the decision at hand, we collect relevant information. This might entail research, seeking advice, or drawing from our own experiences.
• Weighing Options: With information in hand, we identify and evaluate available options. Each choice holds its own set of pros and cons, resonating differently with our goals and values.
• Considering Emotions: Whether we realize it or not, emotions play an important role in our decision-making process. We often lean on our gut feelings or intuition, which can offer insights and potential traps as part of our analysis.
• Thinking the Solution Through: Reasoning and logic bring structure to our choices. This step involves assessing the potential outcomes and aligning them with our long-term goals and objectives.
• Making the Choice: The culmination of the process results in a decision. This is where the course of action is selected, setting us on a specific path.

Reflection: The Companion of Decision Making

Reflection is the companion that walks hand in hand with decision making, offering a space for introspection, evaluation, and growth. It involves looking back at the choices we’ve made, understanding their impact, and learning from our experiences.

• The Pause for Contemplation: After a decision is made and its consequences begin to unfold, taking a moment to pause and reflect is essential. This pause allows us to detach from the immediate emotions and gain perspective.
• Analyzing the Outcome: Reflection involves an honest evaluation of the outcome – did the decision lead to the expected results? If not, why? This examination isn’t about assigning blame but understanding the dynamics at play. 
• Learning Opportunities: Every decision carries a lesson, regardless of whether it yields success or challenges. Reflecting on these lessons nurtures personal growth and helps refine future decision-making processes.
• Refinement: Reflection often leads to the realization that adjustments are needed. These could range from minor tweaks in approach to an entirely new path. The flexibility to adapt is a hallmark of effective decision makers.
• Adjustment: Once reflection indicates a need to adjust our approach, we go through the decision making process again, this time with new updated information that allows us to choose a different more effective path. 
• Acknowledging Emotional Responses: Reflection isn’t solely intellectual; it involves recognizing and processing the emotions that arise from the outcome of a decision. This emotional awareness can help us learn how to manage our responses more effectively.
• Reinforcing Self-Trust: Positive reflections reinforce our ability to make sound decisions. Trust in oneself grows as we acknowledge the wisdom gained from past choices.

The Symbiotic Relationship

The process of decision making, reflection and refinement is a symbiotic relationship, each influencing the other in a continuous loop. Decision making informs our reflections, and reflections inform refinement and future decision making. This dynamic interplay is what helps us refine our judgment, enhance our self-awareness, and ultimately shape the trajectory of our lives.

In a world of uncertainty and complexity, mastering the art of decision making and reflection is a skill that empowers us to navigate life’s crossroads with intentionality and grace. It’s not a linear process but rather a dance that requires practice, patience, and a willingness to embrace both success and failure as part of the journey. So, as we step onto the floor of choices, let us remember that every step – every decision and every reflection – contributes to the masterpiece that is our life.

At CTL, we don’t expect students to come to school with these skills and processes in place, but we do believe schools can and should help explicitly support their development. Our Critical Reflection Process is an integral componenet of our Postsecondary Success Skills Model and is how we help schools and teachers, operationalize the development of the skills they need to be successful post graduation. 

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Planning and decision making in management Reflective Essay

Planning and decision making are among the most valuable foundations on which businesses and organizations are built. For any organization to succeed in its undertaking, it needs to properly plan for virtually all aspects of its operations. The right decisions have to be made by its managers to see the business through successful operations.

Since the success of managers is reflected by the welfare of the organizations they manage, it is indubitable that planning and decision making cannot be separated from the practice of management. This paper is a thoughtful reflection of the usefulness of planning and decision making skills, acquired in class, in the practice of management.

As an aspiring manager, the ideas I acquired about planning and decision making in organizations will be very useful. This is because the topic was covered with clear explanations of the usefulness of planning and management in management and it also covered how one can plan well and make right and acceptable decisions.

Among the things that will be particularly useful in my life as a manager is the idea that planning and decision making is efficiently done using a bottom-up approach. This is because the use of a bottom-up approach in planning and making of decisions results in decisions that are characterized by sufficient consultation.

More importantly, the decisions made using a bottom-up approach are in most cases acceptable to both managers and junior employees (Smith 33). Other issues covered in the topic were equally useful and I am sure I will be applying most of the ideas I got in class, about this topic, in my life as a manager.

There are so many new things I learnt about planning and decision making. One of the new things that substantially impressed me is the fact that good managers are able to make decisions by just listening to their fellow employees (Smith 35).

That is, if someone comes with an idea of objection to a given plan, a good manager will listen to him/her and after evaluating the value of the suggestion, approve it or reject it. Since his/her evaluation is assumed to be based on shrewd judgment, the suggestion is, in this case, bound to have a positive effect on the organization. Much of the credit from such success goes to the manager for his/her coordination and leadership skills.

My realization of the fact that listening to other people’s ideas makes a good manager will be very useful in my life. This is primarily due to the fact that I like putting my ideas across so much that it sometimes interferes with my listening skills.

After the course, I am a better manager since I can now start working on my listening skills and try to have a positive perspective towards every idea that another person puts across. I now appreciate the fact that to be a good manager, I do not have to do all the thinking and planning work but I should have good evaluation skills for gauging the usefulness of ideas suggested by other people.

As it can be deduced from the discussion above, good managerial skills require good planning and decision making. Taking a course that tackles the same is very important since, as students are taught on how to be good planners and decision makers, they are given a chance to evaluate themselves. This is very useful since after evaluating themselves, students are able to perfect their weaknesses as far as planning and decision making is concerned and consequently be good managers.

Works Cited

Smith, Jane. Planning and Decision Making . New York. Wadsworth Publishing, 1996. Print.

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Reflective Decision-Making in Psychology

Introduction.

Reflective decision making is the process of making judgments based on the knowledge and past experiences possessed by an individual (Griffin, 2007).It involves processes such as contemplation and critical thinking. In addition, it also encompasses assessment and serious mediations. Essentially, reflective decision making is opposed to action decision making. Reflective decision makers are not highly time conscious but instead they focus on the necessity of making the right decision (Fitzgerald & Ayson, 2012).

The key elements of reflective decision making includes exploring predicaments and seeking for solutions, taking expectations and values into consideration and taking charge of personal professional improvement. Other elements include paying attention to the cultures and institutions in the surrounding of an individual as well as enthusiastically taking part in change of systems (Beach, 1996).

Reflective decision making can be applied in different areas such as undergraduate and post graduate education, professions, different ages, and courses. In this assessment, appropriate academic theories, models and frameworks are used to identify the issues that arose from a typical decision that was made in a work place. The decision never resulted in a positive outcome. This is a critical provision when considered comprehensively in regard to decision making.

Reflection of decision making situation

The work place environment for this assessment work is a manufacturing workshop for a company that specializes in making bolts and nuts. There were 20 casual laborers that were employed to work on different machineries. According to industrial safety regulations, all the employees working in a workshop are required to have a safety protection gear while on duty. The safety protection gear includes gloves, overall, boots and helmet. The company provided all these requirements except hand gloves. Handling sharp metals is risky on a bare hand.

Several employees got cuts while on duty. The management of the company was reluctant in getting hand gloves for its employees despite frequent appeals made. Therefore, the decision that was made involved incitement of the casual workers to boycott duty in order to compel the management to provide hand gloves for the employees. Although the original idea was to boycott duty peacefully, some casual laborers resorted to destruction of property. Eventually, this resulted into termination of responsibility as the supervisor of the engineering workshop.

Using academic theories, models and frameworks to identify relevant decision making issues – Using decision making and problem solving

Problem-solving judgments involve a seven step procedure that serve as an effective tool in making appropriate decisions promptly. The mentioned seven steps involve; identification of the problem, collecting much information about the problem based on facts and assumptions, development of various solutions to the problem, examining and comparing different alternative solutions to the problem, making decisions based on the best alternative selected, making a plan for execution and finally applying the plan (Hicks, 2004).

While analyzing the decision made earlier in the company, the mentioned seven steps of problem solving were hardly observed. Even though the problem was identified initially, no attempts were made to gather as much information as possible about the problem. This implies that there could have been facts and assumptions that were ignored. Information could have been gathered from relevant people who are managing the company, the workers and even the relevant agencies that operate outside the company. The assumption that was made during the decision making, that the management were reluctant to get hand gloves, could have been true or false based on the information that could have been gathered.

Another aspect of the decision making process that was ignored was the development of alternative solutions. Based on the information that could have been gathered, alternative solution to the problem could have been developed. According to Aldair (2010) brainstorming is a good technique for developing an alternative solution to the problem. In addition, brainstorming allows time to make the right kind of decision. As indicated in the previous decision made by the management.

No any alternative solution to the problem was developed. Creating several alternative solutions to the problem, assist in comparingdifferent options and eventually coming up with the best solution. Proper analysis of the decision made reveal that decision was made steered by emotions which is not the right method of making decisions. Probably a different alternative solution could have been used rather than the original decision.

Proper decision making procedure should involve gathering enough information, developing them, evaluating, and comparing different alternative solutions to the problem. Instincts and feelings should be taken into consideration to come up with the best solution to the problem. This should be followed by proper planning and execution of the decision to solve the problem. However, these steps were not involved in making the decision. This resulted in poor decision which resulted to termination of duty.

Analysis of the decision using the psychology of decision making theory

According to Beach and Connolly (2005), psychology of rational decision making involves both the descriptive and normative decision making theories. These theories have different features and follow particular procedures in making the right decision. Normative theory takes significant axioms into consideration while decision is being made. If an individual acknowledges these conventional values, then he or she can develop any kind of normative theory that he prefers. Conversely, descriptive theory of making of decisions focuses on the significance of psychological elements and how they impact on the decision making process. While descriptive models involve perception in clarifying the decision making process, normative theories includes the rational constituents that point out how a particular decision should be made.

While an individual is making decisions based on rational decision models, he or she first investigates several alternative solutions to the problem before coming up with the best decision. The alternatives can be considered depending on the scenario that is likely to be experienced as a consequence of the decision made. Even though different circumstances are considered by the possibilities, an individual making the decision can be able to predict the likely impact of each and every alternative. The ultimate option for the course of action will be based on the alternative that can result into the best possible consequence (Shanks, 2007).

Using this model to analyze the decision made, improper decision was made because different alternatives were not considered as required in this model. Although, the decision to boycott duty was expected to possibly cause negative scenario, no responsibility was taken by the decision maker to consider other options.The assumption that is taken while using this model is that the decision maker is aware of the possible outcomes of the kind of the decision he or she is making. Therefore, proper and rational decision should be made only if an individual considers that the decision will have the best outcome (Adair, 2010).

If this fact was taken into consideration before making the decision, appropriate solution to the problem could have been developed. Possible consequences such as termination of duty as well as destruction of properties could have been perceived early enough before making of decisions. The normative theory of decision making describes how an individual makes use of different alternatives in solving a problem. These two models are very effective in helping to make the most appropriate decision in a particular situation.

How these issues could have been dealt with based on current knowledge

Based on the different models discussed, the right decision process would be considered. At the onset, the problem would be identified accurately. The problem could be identified as unavailability of hand gloves in the workshop. The causes of the problem would be analyzed carefully to understand the problem completely. All relevant information would be gathered from different sources. For instance, the information about the position of the management with regard to this crisis, when and how the management of the company would be planning to acquire this equipment, cost of the equipment, other alternatives to using the equipment, the feelings of the laborers towards the crisis and the labor laws and regulations concerning this crisis.

After gathering adequate information, different course of action would be considered. At this stage, both the benefits and the disadvantages of each and every decision to be made would be analyzed. In addition, various stakeholders such as the casual laborers, the management and different agency representatives would be involved to identify appropriate courses of actions. The advantage of involving stakeholders in developing a course of action is that they are likely to support the execution of the plan for the particular action they recommended (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998). Besides, this technique will really help in increasing the interest in the particular problem.

The decision will then be made taking into consideration personal feelings and emotions. However, the decision made will be based on rational thinking as well as the kind of outcome expected. Only right decision that will result into the best outcome will be considered. Then a plan would be developed. The plan would have to involve specific things to be done, which people to execute them and at what time they should be done. For instance, if the decision is made to hold a consultative forum, the plan would be where it is to take place, at what time and who is to attend. Contingencies will also be developed. It is important that flexibility is also allowed as it may be necessary from time to time. The plan would then be executed and evaluated if the desired result would be achieved.

Decision making is very important in an individual not only in work place but in any kind of an environment. Emotions should not compel an individual into making wrong decisions in any kind of situation. As observed from the academic theories that have been discussed, proper decision making process involves; careful analysis of the problem, gathering as much information as possible about the problem, developing various course of actions that can be taken, analyzing different alternatives, selecting the best course of action then planning and executing the option appropriately.

Adair, J. (2010). Decision Making and Problem Solving Strategies . London: Kogan Page Publishers.

Beach, L. (1996). Decision Making in the Workplace: A Unified Perspective. New York, NY: Routledge.

Connolly, M. & Beach, L. (2005). The Psychology of Decision Making: People in Organizations , California, CA: SAGE.

Fitzgerald, M. & Ayson, S. (2012). Managing under uncertainty: a qualitative approach to decision making , Sydney: Pearson.

Griffin, R. (2007). Fundamentals of Management . New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Hicks, M. (2004). Problem Solving and Decision Making: Hard, Soft and Creative Approaches . New York, NY: Cengage Learning EMEA.

Schunk, D & Zimmerman, B. (1998). Self-Regulated Learning: From Teaching to Self-Reflective Practice . New York, NY: Guilford Press.

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Reflective Ethical Decision-Making Process for Advancing Social Work

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• Monika Čajko Eibicht 3 &
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The study presents reflectivity as a key tool of inter-personal practice in the health and social care professions. Adopted from psychotherapeutic contexts, reflectivity enhances accountable practice through critical self-awareness. This chapter briefly reports on the results of comparative research that found significant differences between both professional groups against the background of their respective practice and training experiences. This has implications for selecting candidates for both professions and provides a broader understanding of how reflective practices can involve practitioners critically in ongoing global social and policy developments. The authors stress a comprehensive and detailed understanding of reflection and ‘‘mindfulness’’ for social care and health professionals, as vital to protect their professional autonomy against impositions arising from managerial controls.

• Social work competence
• Reflective practice
• Mindfulness

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Eibicht, M.Č., Lorenz, W. (2022). Reflective Ethical Decision-Making Process for Advancing Social Work. In: Tan, N.T., Shajahan, P. (eds) Remaking Social Work for the New Global Era. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08352-5_9

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3.8: Process of Reflective Writing

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Learning Objectives

• Recognize possible structures for reflective writing
• Recognize component skills of reflective writing

Reflective writing is a balancing act with many factors at play: description, analysis, interpretation, evaluation, and future application. Reflective writers must weave their personal perspectives with evidence of deep, critical thought as they make connections between theory, practice, and learning. The steps below should help you find the appropriate balance among all these factors.

1st Step: Review the assignment

As with any writing situation, the first step in writing a reflective piece is to clarify the task. Reflective assignments can take many forms, so you need to understand exactly what your instructor is asking you to do. Some reflective assignments are short, just a paragraph or two of unpolished writing. Usually the purpose of these reflective pieces is to capture your immediate impressions or perceptions. For example, your instructor might ask you at the end of a class to write quickly about a concept from that day’s lesson. That type of reflection helps you and your instructor gauge your understanding of the concept.

Other reflections are academic essays that can range in length from several paragraphs to several pages. The purpose of these essays is to critically reflect on and support an original claim(s) about a larger experience, such as an event you attended, a project you worked on, or your writing development. These essays require polished writing that conforms to academic conventions, such as articulation of a thesis and substantive revision. They might address a larger audience than you and your instructor, including, for example, your classmates, your family, a scholarship committee, etc.

It’s important, before you begin writing, that you can identify the assignment’s purpose, audience, intended message or content, and requirements. If you can’t, ask your instructor for clarification.

2nd Step: Generate ideas for content

Refer to the Borton, DIEL, and DIEP models as you generate ideas for your writing. To meet the tasks identified in those models you might consider things like:

• Recollections of an experience, assignment, or course
• Ideas or observations made during that event
• Questions, challenges, or areas of doubt
• Strategies employed to solve problems
• A-ha moments linking theory to practice or learning something new
• Connections between this learning and prior learning
• New questions that arise as a result of the learning or experience
• New actions taken as a result of the learning or experience

3rd Step: Organize content

The Borton, DEAL, and DIEP frameworks can help you consider how to organize your content.  Remember that your reflection will generally include descriptive writing, followed by analysis and interpretation, followed by consideration of significance for future action. That pattern might be developed once throughout a short piece or repeated several times in an academic reflective essay.

When writing an academic reflection essay (as opposed to a short reflection), you’ll need to devise and support a thesis. That thesis should be an interpretive or evaluative claim, or series of claims, that moves beyond obvious statements (such as, “I really enjoyed this project”) and demonstrates you have come to a deeper understanding of what you have learned and how you will use that learning. For example, the thesis below appeared in an end-of-semester reflection essay, written in response to an assignment asking students to consider their writing progress. Notice that the student makes a focused, interpretive claim that can be supported throughout her essay with evidence from her own writing.

Throughout this class, I’ve learned that a skilled writer writes with a central focus in mind. Writing with a central focus results in a greater emphasis on the writer’s message and brings about specificity and clarity within the writing piece.

A word about thesis placement: Because a reflection essay combines personal perception with academic convention, the thesis does not necessarily appear in the introduction. Many writers build to the thesis in the conclusion of their essays. You should place the thesis where it is most effective based on the essay’s structure.

And speaking of structure, there is no one-size-fits-all organization pattern for an academic reflection essay. Some writers introduce the subject, follow the introduction with a series of reflections, and then move to an interpretive close. Others establish a chronology of events, weaving the implications of those events throughout. Still others articulate a series of major points, supporting those points with evidence. You should craft an organizational structure that best fits your distinctive ideas and observations.

However you choose to organize an academic reflection essay, you’ll need to support your claims with evidence. Evidence is defined broadly in an academic reflection, so it might include such things as anecdotes, examples, relevant material from a course or outside sources, explanations of logic or decision-making, definitions, speculations, details, and other forms of non-traditional evidence. In the example below, notice how the writer uses her decision to limit the scope of a project as evidence to support her claim.

Keeping a central focus in mind applies to multimodal compositions as well as written essays. A prime example of this was in my remix. When storyboarding for the video, I wanted to appeal to all college students in general. Within my compressed time limit of three minutes, I had planned to showcase numerous large points. It was too much. I decided to limit the scope of the topic to emphasize how digitally “addicted” Ole Miss college students are and that really changed the project in significant ways.

4th Step: Draft, Revise, Edit, Repeat

A single, unpolished draft may suffice for short, in-the-moment reflections. Longer academic reflection essays will require significant drafting, revising, and editing. Whatever the length of the assignment, keep this reflective cycle in mind:

• briefly describe the event or action;
• analyze and interpret events and actions, using evidence for support;
• demonstrate relevance in the present and the future.
• Process of Reflective Writing. Authored by : Karen Forgette. Provided by : University of Mississippi. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• Meme: Ask not what balance can do for you. License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Fair Use

Decision Making Reflection

This sample essay on Decision Making Reflection offers an extensive list of facts and arguments related to it. The essay’s introduction, body paragraphs, and the conclusion are provided below.

Introduction

Decision making is a complex process that involves giving consideration to numerous factors and perspectives. If decision making as an individual action is difficult enough, it is all the more complicated when performed by a group. In our group, the four members Aleksandar Burneski (110064964), Rocco Guiducci (110065658), Kuir Alaak (100044490) and I Mossab Aljamdi (110079132) have different personality types and character traits.

Hence we bring a wide range of inputs to the process of decision making. Two features of our deliberations are conflict and conciliation. Conflict is inevitable in any group interaction, but we make sure that it is constructive and instructive. What we strive as a group is to talk, deliberate, analyse and eventually concur on our decisions. The objective of our project was to compile a report on End User Development (EUD), which is a buzzing concept in the world of Information Technology.

Numerous decisions were taken at various stages of the project. This reflection will touch upon salient features of our group decision making process. My views are informed by theory and practical knowledge that I learnt through various key texts during the course.

Decision Style Effects on Group Decision Making

Scholar Efraim Turban denotes a list of guiding principles that comprise a decision modelling. These are “1.Will analytics solve the problem? 2.Can an existing solution be leveraged? 3. Is a tool needed?” (Turban, p.

Proficient in: Decision

“ Ok, let me say I’m extremely satisfy with the result while it was a last minute thing. I really enjoy the effort put in. ”

39) Although these guiding questions were offered in the context of an Information Technology company, Hewlett- Packard, their essence can be extrapolated to any situation. So our group adopted this framework in our decision making process. But this framework does not work in isolation from our individual personalities. For example, Aleksandar is someone who uses a Behavioral decision making style which comes naturally to him. Rocco and Kuir’s approach to decisions tend to fall under the Directive type. I think of my style as Analytical with due modesty. Hence, conflict is an expected feature of our discussions. Actually, this diversity of styles creates a vibrant atmosphere during the discussions. Though we have set individual styles, our group members are also good listeners. Aleksandar, Rocco and Kuir lend their ear to what I have to say and correct me if I’ve made a logical or factual error. So what is evident in our group dynamics is a constant flux of inputs and outputs. Just as each member gives his inputs, each in turn receives an evaluation of their views through others’ responses. I would claim on behalf of my group that it is an enjoyable process overall.

Personality Type Effects on Group Decision Making

Analytical individuals like me enjoy problem solving and enjoy a good challenge. Fair to say, the challenging nature of our project actually served as a motivation for me. People of my type enjoy data crunching and rigorous analysis. I am happy to state that the project in question provided me satisfaction on both counts. I also enjoy written communication, which is why I took to the task of compiling this report with enthusiasm. My strengths suitably complement what Aleksandar, Rocco and Kuir have to offer. Aleksandar falls under the Behavioural type, which means he is a good team player and very sociable. He negotiates differences through skilful and polite persuasion than aggression. In fact, Aleksandar is the great pacifier in our meetings. We love him for it. Rocco and Kuir are the Directive types. They are very focussed on getting things done and can be a little aggressive at times. But they are valuable for the group for the technical knowledge they bring to the project. To give an anatomical analogy, Rocco and Kuir would form the muscles and bones whereas Aleksandar would be the heart of our group. I myself, again with due modesty, would be its brain.

Team Development and its effect on Group Decision Making

Team size is a factor that bears upon group dynamics. Our team of 4 members is relatively small and that helps in creating strong bonds between members. Aleksandar, Rocco, Kuir and I are not only classmates but also good friends. This helps create an atmosphere of camaraderie during our discussion. The odd personal jibe or a practical joke lightens the burden of our projects. Speier et. al. have brought new understanding to group dynamics. Their work on ‘interruptions’ reveal that for cognitively simpler and space-oriented tasks interruptions do not have a negative effect. On the other hand, for complex tasks interruptions prove to be a hindrance. Our group project is neither too simple nor too complex. Hence it is fair to assume that on the whole interruptions will slightly undermine our work. But thanks to a strong team ethic that we’ve built over the course, the numbers of interruptions were minimal. If I was giving a presentation to the group, Aleksandar, Rocco and Kuir would carefully pay attention to what I have to say. They would raise their questions at the end of the presentation. I would return the favour during their presentations.

Future Improvements

I am fairly happy with how our group has performed its coordinative tasks. However, there are areas for improvement also. While our communication skill in the conventional sense is quite solid, we do lag in terms of English language proficiency. This is an area all four of us must improve, for we all recognize how language is the vehicle for thoughts and expressing ideas. Even the best co-ordinated of our efforts will only be as good as our language level allows it to be expressed. Other areas where our team can do better are planning and organization. At times during the project we found ourselves acting and taking decisions in an ad-hoc manner. It betrayed a lack of professionalism in our approach. This we want to remedy in upcoming group activities.

References:

Turban, Efraim, Decision Making, Systems, Modeling, and Support, Chapter 2, Decision support and business intelligence systems, pp. 38-69. Boston : Prentice Hall, c2011.

Cheri Speier, Iris Vessey, Joseph S. Valacich. The Effects of Interruptions, Task Complexity, and Information Presentation on Computer-Supported Decision-Making Performance, Decision Sciences, Volume 34 Number 4, Fall 2003.

Bazerman, Max H. & Moore, Don A., Judgment in managerial decision making, Ch. 11, pp. 179-199, Improving decision making, Hoboken, NJ : J. Wiley & Sons, c2009.

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Effective decision-making: applying the theories to nursing practice.

Samantha Watkins

Emergency Department Staff Nurse, Frimley Health NHS Foundation Trust, Frimley

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Many theories have been proposed for the decision-making conducted by nurses across all practices and disciplines. These theories are fundamental to consider when reflecting on our decision-making processes to inform future practice. In this article three of these theories are juxtaposed with a case study of a patient presenting with an ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). These theories are descriptive, normative and prescriptive, and will be used to analyse and interpret the process of decision-making within the context of patient assessment.

Decision-making is a fundamental concept of nursing practice that conforms to a systematic trajectory involving the assessment, interpretation, evaluation and management of patient-specific situations ( Dougherty et al, 2015 ). Shared decision-making is vital to consider in terms of patient autonomy and professional duty of care as set out in the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) (2018) Code, which underpins nursing practice. Consequently, the following assessment and decision-making processes were conducted within the remits of practice as a student nurse. Decision-making is a dynamic process in nursing practice, and the theories emphasise the importance of adaptability and reflective practice to identify factors that impact on patient care ( Pearson, 2013 ). Three decision-making theories will be explored within the context of a decision made in practice. To abide by confidentiality requirements, the pseudonym ‘Linda’ will be used throughout. Patient consent was obtained prior to writing.

Linda was a 71-year-old who had been admitted to the cardiac ward following an episode of unstable angina. She was on continuous cardiac monitoring as recommended by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2016) guideline for chest pain of recent onset. During her stay on the ward, the tracing on the cardiac monitor indicated possible ST-segment elevation ( Thygesen et al, 2018 ). It was initially hypothesised that she might be experiencing an ACS ( Box 1 ) and could be haemodynamically unstable.

Box 1. Acute coronary syndrome

• Acute coronary syndrome is an umbrella term that includes three cardiac conditions that result from a reduction of oxygenated blood through the coronary arteries, causing myocardial ischaemia. An ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) connotes the complete occlusion of one or more of the coronary arteries, which is demonstrated by patient symptoms and ST-segment elevation seen on an electrocardiogram (ECG)
• A non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) results from a partial occlusion of a coronary artery. Patient symptoms often present alongside dynamic ST-segment depression, T-wave inversion or a normal ECG
• Unstable angina is a result of a transient occlusion of the coronary arteries causing symptoms at rest or on minimal exertion, which may be eased/resolved with rest with or without glyceryl trinitrate (GTN)
• Signs and symptoms of ischaemia experienced by patient include: chest pain with or without radiation to jaw, neck, back, shoulders or arms, which is described as squeezing or crushing. Associated symptoms of lethargy, syncope, pre-syncopal episodes, diaphoresis, dyspnoea, nausea or vomiting, anxiety or a feeling of impending doom often also prevail

Source: Deen, 2018

The possibility that Linda was experiencing ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) meant that she needed rapid assessment of her condition. Stephens (2019) recommended the use of the ABCDE assessment as a timely and effective tool to identify physiological deterioration in patients with chest pain. The student nurse's ABCDE assessment of Linda is shown in Box 2 .

Box 2. ABCDE assessment * of ‘Linda’

• Airway: patent, no audible sounds of obstruction; however, unable to speak in full sentences due to dyspnoea
• Breathing: dyspnoeic, respiratory rate of 27, saturations of 85% on room air—with guidance from the senior charge nurse, 80% oxygen via non-rebreathe mask was administered ( O'Driscoll et al, 2017 )
• Circulation: tachycardia of 112 beats per minute, hypotensive at 92/50 mmHg, oliguric, diaphoretic, and with cool peripherals and a thready radial pulse
• Disability: She was alert on the AVPU scale, but anxious and feeling lethargic. Blood glucose was 5.7 mmol/litre
• Exposure: no erythema or wounds noted. She stated she had central chest pain, which was radiating to her jaw and back, described as ‘pressure’, and rated as a seven out of ten

* in line with Resuscitation Council (2015)

NICE (2016) recommends that the first investigation for patients with chest pain is to conduct an ECG as a rapid and non-invasive assessment for a cardiac cause of the pain. This was carried out and 2 mm ST-segment elevation in the precordial leads V1-V3 was noted, indicating a possible anterior STEMI ( Amsterdam et al, 2014 ). The student nurse had had basic ECG interpretation training as part of the nursing degree undertaken, but had also received informal teaching from registered nursing staff in cardiology. The ECG findings were confirmed by the senior charge nurse after they were alerted to Linda's condition, symptoms, and National Early Warning Score 2 (NEWS 2) ( Royal College of Physicians, 2017 ). The senior charge nurse escalated her care to the cardiology team. A diagnosis of STEMI was made by the cardiology team using the ECG findings and her physiological signs of deterioration from their assessment, within the context of her initial presentation to hospital for unstable angina. This diagnosis, coupled with the deterioration in her condition, meant that she required primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). The NICE (2014) quality standard for acute coronary syndromes and the clinical guideline on STEMI ( NICE, 2013a ) recommend that primary PCI is initiated within 120 minutes to reperfuse the myocardium and prevent further myocardial cellular necrosis. This improves long-term patient outcomes ( Thygesen et al, 2018 ).

Decision-making theories

The recognition of an evolving STEMI on the cardiac monitor corresponds with the model of hypothetico-deductive reasoning ( Pearson, 2013 ) within the descriptive and normative theories ( Box 3 ). Thompson and Dowding (2009) highlighted that this model recognises that decision-making comprises four stages, beginning with cue acquisition. The specific pre-counter cues can be identified as the recognition of the abnormal tracing on the cardiac monitor ( Pearson, 2013 ), suggestive of ST-segment elevation, that indicated Linda might be experiencing haemodynamic deterioration with a cardiac cause. Subsequently, the decision to assess Linda formed the hypothesis generation phase of the decision and the recognition of the clinical signs as indicating STEMI ( Nickerson, 1998 ; Johansen and O'Brien, 2016 ). This hypothesis focused the assessment to identify and examine pertinent factors that supported this conjecture ( Pearson, 2013 ). However, the student nurse required more data to formulate a robust hypothesis thereby initiating the cue interpretation phase by conducting an ABCDE systematic assessment, including ECG. Lindsey (2013) argued that during cue interpretation, the health professional uses prescriptive guidelines to direct the assessment process and provide a rationale.

Box 3. Decision-making theories considered

• Descriptive theory: is concerned with each individuals’ moral beliefs regarding a particular decision
• Normative theory: connotes what decisions individuals should make logically
• Prescriptive theory: encompasses the policies that govern the remits of a decision within the evidence base that informs practice

Source: Pearson, 2013

Arguably, however, clinical knowledge of the pathophysiology of ACS is fundamental to effective cue interpretation, not simply the individual's knowledge of the NICE guidance ( NICE, 2013a ; 2013b ; 2014 ; 2016 ). The student nurse's existing knowledge of the symptoms of ACS supported the cue interpretation with assessing Linda's condition and possible diagnosis of ACS. This knowledge enriched the student nurse's understanding of the guidance, which could then effectively be applied as the central aspect of cue interpretation ( Deen, 2018 ).

Elstein and Schwartz (2002) conceded that the prescriptive theory knowledge synthesised for the decision must be accurate and evidence-based for hypothetico-deductive reasoning to be effective. Courtney and McCutcheon (2009) argued that reliance solely on clinical guidelines can limit decision-making and result in erroneous outcomes and should consequently be used in collaboration with the evidence base. By combining normative theory with prescriptive guidance, clinical decisions can be enriched and validated. Stevens (2013) highlighted that it is vital that the guidance used in corroboration with decision-making models is valid and reliable and therefore prescriptive theory must be critically evaluated against the evidence-base. The guidance published by NICE (2013a) is supported by the American College of Cardiology ( O'Gara et al, 2013 ), European Resuscitation Council ( Nikolaou et al, 2015 ), European Society of Cardiology ( Steg et al, 2012 ) and Cardiac Society of Australia and New Zealand ( Chew et al, 2016 ). Accordingly, these guidelines highlight the clinical signs of STEMI and the diagnostic investigations pertinent to this condition. Within the remits of practice as a student nurse, this evidence supported the decision to escalate Linda's condition.

Antithetically, during cue interpretation and the hypothesis generation phases, Pearson (2013) emphasised the importance of considering multiple hypotheses extrapolated from the clinical data, resulting in the selection of the most appropriate hypothesis when more data are obtained. Despite this, during the interpretation of the cues for the hypothesis, the student nurse failed to consider differential diagnoses, such as pneumothorax or pulmonary embolism, which have similar presentations to STEMI ( Deen, 2018 ). Consequently, this hypothesis generation had an element of uncertainty ( Bjørk and Hamilton, 2011 ), which could have impeded Linda's care by erroneously considering only one potential diagnosis and therefore focusing the assessment on that diagnosis. Student nurses can be considered ‘novice’ health professionals, demonstrating limitations in knowledge regarding differential diagnoses and therefore in potential hypotheses. Pearson (2013) argued that this is because student nurses lack the requisite experience to cluster information as effectively as an ‘expert’ health professional. Consequently, the presentation of one hypothesis is permissible within the remits of practice as a student nurse.

Assessment tools such as ABCDE ( Resuscitation Council UK, 2015 ) ensure that all factors indicative of deterioration are recognised. Consequently, by using a systematic assessment, any potential erroneous hypothesis can be precluded. Therefore, as Carayon and Wood (2010) state, the assessment tool was a barrier to active failure to recognise alternative diagnoses thus circumventing any serious consequences, highlighting the importance of comprehensive assessment to avoid error and safeguard the ethical principle of non-maleficence ( Beauchamp and Childress, 2013 ) fundamental to nursing. Antithetically, Benner et al (2008) argued that even the novice nurse should be able to consider multiple hypotheses within a situation, although they may not be able to reflect on these decisions within the moment. However, as Keller (2009) noted, the hypothetico-deductive model is based on presuppositions recognised by the health professional, such as the evolving cardiac tracing and history of pain, indicating that STEMI was the higher probable cause ( Deen, 2018 ). Consequently, a limitation of hypothetico-deductive reasoning is sufficient experience to aid in generating hypotheses.

Thereafter, in the hypothesis generation phase, the decision-making process evolved to include elements of pattern recognition theory ( Croskerry, 2002 ). The clinical decision that focuses on a single hypothesis can be compared to the use of pattern recognition ( Pearson, 2013 ) where existing knowledge is used to establish the hypothesis. Pearson (2013) commented that hypothetico-deductive reasoning is based on the synthesising and analysing of information whereas the formulation of one hypothesis is suggestive of pattern recognition, where the nurse uses previous experience to evaluate the situation. Consequently, the student nurse's previous experience of assessing a patient in acute STEMI may have guided practice to recognise ST-segment elevation on the telemetry, and then subsequently to conduct an ECG, and to recognise the associated clinical signs of STEMI and to gather a history of the pain using NICE (2013b) guidance on unstable angina, in line with Linda's initial presentation. Croskerry (2002) identified that health professionals who rely on pattern recognition initially recognise visual cues that are then supplemented with more in-depth data, often using assessment tools such as NEWS (and now NEWS 2) and ABCDE. Arguably, the recognition of similarities in clinical presentation, past medical history, and cardiac monitoring tracing of Linda's case to the previous case and use of ABCDE and NEWS 2 to further assess her condition and extrapolate data, identifies that previous experience can facilitate decision-making outcomes.

Finally, in the last phase of the decision-making in the hypothetico-deductive model, the student nurse evaluated the hypothesis and by using the merits from the cues ( Banning, 2008 ) established that STEMI was the most probable cause of Linda's deterioration and could escalate her care appropriately using the prescriptive theory tools described above.

Arguably, by using previous experience to guide practice, an element of confirmation bias may have affected the selection of data ( Thompson and Dowding, 2009 ) and consequently the student may have neglected other important data ( Croskerry, 2003 ). For instance, student nurses are inexperienced with chest auscultation and consequently could not have ruled out differential respiratory diagnoses. Stanovich et al (2013) acknowledged that confirmation bias can be circumvented when evidence is assimilated with hypothesis generation. The consideration that Linda may have been at an increased risk of myocardial infarction due to her age, history of smoking and admission to hospital for unstable angina ( Piepoli et al, 2016 ), indicated that the cause of her deterioration would most likely be cardiac. Thus, an evidence-based approach could inform practice and consequently, any limitations as a ‘novice’ would be minimised through rationalisation and critical thinking. Indeed, Stanovich et al (2013) argued that rationalising and critical thinking are markedly more important than existing knowledge. This is because even an ‘expert’ in a specific field does not have completely comprehensive knowledge, and therefore relies on a critical thought process to make rational decisions.

Conclusively, health professionals must be able to rationalise their decisions ( Johansen and O'Brien, 2016 ) and justify these decisions within the context of each presentation as a central concept of nursing ( NMC, 2018 ).

Communication is vital to establishing consent to treatment where the patient is regarded as having capacity under the Mental Capacity Act 2005. This is particularly significant when conducting investigations and escalating care to ensure that the patient's wishes are respected, and that the patient is empowered with knowledge regarding their condition and care ( Coultier and Collins, 2011 ). Linda was informed that her care required escalation to the appropriate clinical team, and then subsequently recommended to have PCI intervention as the most effective treatment for STEMI ( NICE, 2013a ; 2014 ). Presenting a default decision and using choice architecture can be construed as methods of liberal paternalism used to avoid impeded decision-making from choice overload ( Rosenbaum, 2015 ) or irrational decision bias ( Marewski and Gigerenzer, 2012 ). To escalate Linda's care within the recommended timeframe ( NICE, 2013a ; 2014 ), it was important to use elements of liberal paternalism ( Beauchamp and Childress, 2013 ) while preserving Linda's autonomy of choice ( Kemmerer et al, 2017 ). Linda had a right to make a decision against medical advice as per Re B (Adult, refusal of medical treatment) [2002] and these choices were presented to her by the cardiology team. As a health professional, a duty of care was owed to the patient to escalate concerns regarding her condition under the Code ( NMC, 2018 ).

Conclusively, all three theories of decision-making pertained to this patient's effective care. Nurses must be accountable for their decisions and act within the remits of the NMC (2018) Code. Patient care must consequently be effective, evidence-based and patient-centred. Accountability requires the health professional to act within the remits of their role to ensure safe care is delivered to the patient. This is a fundamental aspect of patient-centric care and principal to effective decision making. Demonstrably, the use of descriptive and normative theories can be interchangeable, however, the use of prescriptive theory is pivotal to validate clinical decision-making. The decision-making process can be further facilitated by use of structured assessment tools to reduce margin of error and improve outcome. Collaborative decision making is pivotal to advancing patient autonomy and empowerment but certain decisions require elements of paternalism to improve the process and uphold the ethical principles of beneficence and non-maleficence. Nevertheless, health professionals have a duty of care to adhere to decisions made by patients established to have capacity to give informed consent, irrespective of the personal beliefs of the professional.

• This article is a reflection on a case scenario where decisions were made in the care of a patient admitted for cardiac monitoring
• Nursing decision making is complex and involves a multitude of processes based on experience, knowledge and skill.
• Understanding the importance of decision-making theory and how these theories apply to practice can be effective in reflecting on practice, and the application of theory to practice can inform patient care

CPD reflective questions

• Consider the three different theories of decision making outlined here—which theory do you deem the most important to your practice? How does this affect your practice?
• Consider how reflecting on your own decision making can improve practice
• What can you do to enrich your own knowledge regarding patients with chest pain?