flexible learning experience essay

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In this EdWeek blog, an experiment in knowledge-gathering, Ferlazzo will address readers’ questions on classroom management, ELL instruction, lesson planning, and other issues facing teachers. Send your questions to [email protected]. Read more from this blog.

Students Reflect on Their Distance Learning Experiences

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(This is the second post in a multipart series. You can see Part One here .)

Here is the new question-of-the-week:

What has your online learning experience been as a student? What did you like about it? What didn’t you like about it? How does it compare with your experience as a student in a physical classroom? In the future, if you could choose, would you want to do more online learning? If so, why? If not, why not?

In Part One , five students from the high school where I teach in Sacramento, Calif., shared their reflections.

Today, the first three contributions come from students in Austin Green’s 1st grade class in Utah.

All other student commentators today work with Robert G Taylor, Ed.S., and Jon Harding at the Kansas State School for the Blind.

“I miss my teacher!”

Tristan Fitzgerald is a 1st grade student at Fremont Elementary School, age 6:

I’m doing good at online learning. I miss my friends. I spend lots of time at home. My sister distracts me!!! I miss my teacher! I’m doing the same things. It is harder because of my sister. I want to learn in the classroom because I would miss my teacher.

“School is over fast”

Sydni Buckner is a 1st grade student at Fremont Elementary School, age 7:

What I like about remote learning. First, school is over fast. Next, there’s no waiting on students and it’s quiet. Last, I like to use the computer. I like remote learning.

Carsen Gordon is a 1st grade student at Fremont Elementary School, age 7:

I have liked doing math with remote learning. I have also liked that it is shorter time than at school. My teacher is doing Zoom meetings to teach us. He has made it easy to understand the work I need to do. I would like to do more online learning.

“Learn at my own pace”

Jay Walker is a junior at Smithville High School in Smithville, Mo.:

At first, it was incredibly difficult transitioning from traditional high school to online learning, but gradually as the months go by I am slowly starting to get used to it. Though I feel like I’m not getting a good amount of social interaction from my peers, I find online learning to be much more beneficial for me as a student. Not being in the pressurized environment of a classroom gives me the opportunity to learn at my own pace, whether that be faster or slower than the original classroom, and if clarification is needed, I can simply rewind the lecture videos my teachers are putting out, or send an email to my teacher quickly and efficiently.

Being visually impaired in a high school Is challenging, next to navigating the hallways and putting a lot of trust into my technology for it to work properly that day, I feel as though my anxiety has dropped tremendously while being home, because if something were to go wrong with my tech, I can simply pause what I’m doing and fix it, and not have to worry about missing something or slowing the others down.

I would love to have online learning integrated into the natural high school environment, seeing as I am getting so much more done in such a shorter time, and I feel like I’m actually learning the material and not just grazing over it like I would in a standard classroom.

“I can more easily express what accommodations I need”

Rich Yamamoto is a junior at the Kansas State School for the Blind in Kansas City:

As a sophomore, I did a couple of online classes through my public school in Andover, while attending the Kansas State School for the Blind (KSSB). Those experiences compared to this year were less than pleasant, simply because at the time, I didn’t know what I was doing, and I tended to overwork myself silly. This year, we’re doing all of our classes via Zoom, and that’s greatly impacted my views on online learning. I’m always in constant verbal communication with my teachers, I can more easily express what accommodations I need, and I can get to know my teacher a lot better than if we were just communicating over a comment thread in Google Classroom or email. It’s much more relaxed now, and I must say, it’s rather enjoyable.

I don’t know if I would want to have more online learning in the future because if I’m being truly honest, I like the look and feel of a regular classroom sometimes. However, that doesn’t mean that I would be opposed to doing assignments online; I just want the instruction to be in a classroom, because it’s nice to know that you’re truly not the only one who may be lost. Unfortunately, because of the time we are living in right now, online learning is becoming more of a necessity if we want to keep on learning the skills that we learn in the classroom, and something tells me that due to updates in technology, online learning is going to be a lot more prevalent even after this pandemic is over.

Oral commentaries from a podcast

Patrick Wilson Jr., Mara Hug, and Rich Yamamoto (the same student who wrote the preceding contribution) are hosts of Discover Podcasting at the Kansas State School for the Blind.

Rich (Junior) is an all-around student, participating in sports; forensics; and is popular with others students and adults for his willingness to help others.

Patrick (Freshman) loves being creative and trying anything new in technology. He loves talking about technology and amazes us on the topics he is familiar with.

Mara (Freshman) loves to read and spend time with her friends. She has used a variety of technologies and loves to apply them with everyday challenges.

Here is their podcast titled “Distance Learning Reflections From the Students’ Point Of View” :

Thanks to Tristan, Sydni, Carsen, Jay, Rich, Patrick, and Mara for their contributions!

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Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at [email protected] . When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it’s selected or if you’d prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind.

You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo .

Education Week has published a collection of posts from this blog, along with new material, in an e-book form. It’s titled Classroom Management Q&As: Expert Strategies for Teaching .

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• Research Article
• Open access
• Published: 17 February 2023

Learning effectiveness of a flexible learning study programme in a blended learning design: why are some courses more effective than others?

• Claude Müller   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1987-6662 1 ,
• Thoralf Mildenberger   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7242-1873 1 &
• Daniel Steingruber 1  

International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education volume  20 , Article number:  10 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

14k Accesses

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Flexible learning addresses students’ needs for more flexibility and autonomy in shaping their learning process, and is often realised through online technologies in a blended learning design. While higher education institutions are increasingly considering replacing classroom time and offering more blended learning, current research is limited regarding its effectiveness and modifying design factors. This study analysed a flexible study programme with 133 courses in a blended learning design in different disciplines over more than 4 years with a mixed-methods approach. In the analysed flexible study programme, classroom instruction time was reduced by 51% and replaced with an online learning environment in a blended learning format ( N students = 278). Student achievement was compared to the conventional study format ( N students = 1068). The estimated summary effect size for the 133 blended learning courses analysed was close to, but not significantly different from, zero ( d  = − 0.0562, p  = 0.3684). Although overall effectiveness was equivalent to the conventional study format, considerable variance in the effect sizes between the courses was observed. Based on the relative effect sizes of the courses and data from detailed analyses and surveys, heterogeneity can be explained by differences in the implementation quality of the educational design factors. Our results indicate that when implementing flexible study programmes in a blended learning design, particular attention should be paid to the following educational design principles: adequate course structure and guidance for students, activating learning tasks, stimulating interaction and social presence of teachers, and timely feedback on learning process and outcomes.

Introduction

Considering the digitalisation of society, there is an increasing need to constantly develop one’s competencies in the sense of continuous lifelong learning (OECD, 2019 ). In this context, higher education should be adapted to the learners' diverse needs and specific live phases (Barnett, 2014 ; Martin & Godonoga, 2020 ) and accessible to broader sections of the population (Dziuban et al., 2018 ; Orr et al., 2020 ). The concept of flexible learning addresses these needs and tries to afford learners more flexibility and autonomy in shaping the learning process regarding when, where, and how they learn (Boer & Collis, 2005 ; Hrastinski, 2019 ; Lockee & Clark-Stallkamp, 2022 ; Smith & Hill, 2019 ; Vanslambrouck et al., 2018 ; Wade, 1994 ). From a pedagogical point of view, different dimensions of flexible learning can be distinguished. Li and Wong ( 2018 ) analysed previous publications and identified the following dimensions of flexible learning—time, content, entry requirement, delivery, instructional approach, performance assessment, resources and support, and orientation or goal. The frequently mentioned dimension of place (e.g. Chen, 2003 ) belongs in this concept to the delivery dimension. By designing the above dimensions according to learners' needs, the students should actually perceive learning as flexible. From a technical perspective, flexible learning has often been attempted through online technologies (Tucker & Morris, 2012 ). According to Allen et al. ( 2007 ) learning environments can be classified according to their proportion of online content delivery either as traditional with no online delivery content, as web-facilitated (with an online delivery proportion of between 1 and 29 per cent), blended learning (with an online delivery proportion of between 30 and 79 per cent) or online learning with more than 80 per cent of online delivery content. Accordingly, flexible learning is often associated and used in connection with blended or online learning (Anthony et al., 2020 ).

The COVID-19 pandemic, with its global shift to remote instruction, has accelerated the demand for flexible learning options in higher education (Lockee & Clark-Stallkamp, 2022 ; Pelletier et al., 2022 ). Current student evaluations have shown that the experienced learning flexibility during ‘emergency distance learning’ (Hodges et al., 2020 ) is appreciated (Gherheș et al., 2021 ; Shim & Lee, 2020 ) and students are demanding more flexible learning options in the aftermath of the pandemic as well (Clary et al., 2022 ; Lockee & Clark-Stallkamp, 2022 ). In response, higher education institutions are now considering replacing classroom time and offering more online and blended learning formats (Kim, 2020 ; Pelletier et al., 2021 ; Peters et al., 2020 ; Saichaie, 2020 ).

Despite the apparent popularity of blended learning, academics are often concerned about the effectiveness of blending for student learning (Huang et al., 2021 ), and educational institutions will only be able to offer and expand blended learning formats when they are confident that students will perform as they would in a conventional classroom setting (Owston & York, 2018 ). Meta-analyses (Bernard et al., 2014 ; Means et al., 2013 ; Müller & Mildenberger, 2021 ; Vo et al., 2017 ) point out that blended learning is not systematically more or less effective than conventional classroom learning. At the same time, they have pointed out that the number of controlled studies is still limited and that the studies have examined mostly single courses with a study period of one semester; there is a particular lack of controlled studies at a degree level (i.e., with many courses taught over a longer period). In addition, variance in the learning effectiveness of the courses found in the studies was large, with a shortage of studies on the implementation and design success factors of blended learning based on objective learning achievement rather than student and lecturer evaluation (Bernard et al., 2019 ; Graham, 2019 ; Means et al., 2014 ).

Research questions

This study addressed the above issues of learning effectiveness and modifying factors of blended learning at the study and course levels. The focus of the researched study programme was to give students more flexibility in the learning process, especially regarding time and place, by replacing classroom time with an online learning environment in a blended learning design (see details in the research context). Accordingly, the term ‘flexible learning’ is used in this paper as desired study characteristics at the programme level. The term ‘blended learning’ is used to describe the educational design of the courses under investigation in the experimental condition.

The two research questions (RQ) were:

What is the impact on student achievement (measured as exam results) of blended learning with classroom time reduced by half at the course level and study programme level in a flexible learning study programme compared with the conventional study format?

What are the modifying factors for the learning effectiveness of blended learning courses with reduced classroom time in a flexible learning study programme?

Literature review

Student achievement.

Several studies have explored the acceptance and effectiveness of blended or online environments with reduced classroom time in recent years. In a study by Asarta and Schmidt ( 2015 ), presence in classroom sessions in a traditional course was compared with an experimental setting where lectures were also made available online. In the two settings, the exams, learning materials, and number of planned classroom sessions were identical, but students could choose whether to attend classroom sessions in the blended learning version. Data analysis showed that students reduced their average attendance to between 49 and 63%. Asarta and Schmidt ( 2015 ) concluded that—in line with the student preferences—the classroom attendance rate in blended learning courses could be reduced by approximately one-half compared with conventional courses. This is one of few studies in which students had control over the blend ratio; usually, the instructor decides and takes responsibility for the proportion of instruction delivered in a blended learning format (Boelens et al., 2017 ).

Owston and York ( 2018 ) investigated the relationship between the proportion of online time spent in blended learning courses and student satisfaction and performance. The clustering was determined by the ratio of time spent on online activities replacing classroom sessions. The results showed that students in courses with high (50%) and medium (between 36 and 50%) online proportions rated their learning environments more positively and performed significantly better than their peers in blended learning courses with low (27–30%) or supplemental online segments. Consequently, Owston and York ( 2018 ) concluded that across a wide variety of subject areas and course levels, student perceptions and performance appeared to be higher when at least one-third to one-half of regular classroom time was replaced with online activities.

Hilliard and Stewart ( 2019 ) came to similar conclusions concerning satisfaction. They examined the student perceptions of the various aspects of the community of inquiry (COI) model, and their findings indicated that students in high blend (50% online) classes perceived higher levels of teaching, social, and cognitive presence than students in medium blend (33% online) classes.

In a recent review, Müller and Mildenberger ( 2021 ) examined the impact of replacing classroom time with an online learning environment. Their meta-analysis of blended learning ( k  = 21 effect sizes) applied strict inclusion criteria concerning research design, learning outcomes measurement, and blended learning implementation. In particular, it was a requirement that the attendance time in the blended learning format was reduced by 30–79% compared to the conventional learning environment, drawing on Allen et al. ( 2007 ). In this meta-analysis, the estimated effect size (Hedge’s g) was 0.0621, although not significantly different from zero. The confidence interval [lower 95th − 0.13, upper 95th 0.25] suggests that overall differences between blended and conventional classroom learning were small, and, at best, very small negative or moderate positive effects were plausible. This implies that despite a reduction in classroom time of between 30 and 79 per cent, equivalent learning outcomes were found. However—in line with authors of other blended learning reviews (Bernard et al., 2014 ; Means et al., 2013 ; Spanjers et al., 2015 ; Vo et al., 2017 )—it was pointed out that the number of controlled studies in the field of blended learning was still limited. More primary studies of the highest methodological quality must be conducted in various disciplines to validate the results further and investigate the effectiveness of blended learning in different disciplines and contexts. Additionally, the authors emphasised considerable heterogeneity in the effect sizes between the various studies. McKenna et al. ( 2020 ) also stated that simply offering a blended learning course is not enough to ensure success; research on blended learning design should, therefore, differentiate specific study contexts to derive practice guidelines from it.

Modifying design factors

To explain the considerable differences in the effect sizes of the primary studies, various potential moderators were analysed in the meta-analysis. Out of a total of 41 potential moderators investigated [ N  = 21 in Means et al. ( 2013 ); N  = 6 in Bernard et al. ( 2014 ); N  = 6 in Spanjers et al. ( 2015 ); N  = 2 in Vo et al. ( 2017 ); and N  = 6 in Müller and Mildenberger ( 2021 )], very few have turned out to be significant. In contrast to other meta-analyses, Vo et al. ( 2017 ) found a significantly higher mean effect size in STEM disciplines compared to that of non-STEM. From an educational design perspective, it is interesting to note that the use of quizzes (or regular tests with feedback for students) has a significant and positive influence on the effectiveness and attractiveness of blended learning (Spanjers et al., 2015 ).

Bernard et al. ( 2019 ) analysed the moderator analysis in more retrospective meta-analyses from 2000 to 2015. They concluded that student interaction, collaboration, and discussion emerged as a moderating influence in several studies. Additionally, practices, feedback, and incremental quizzes (i.e., formative evaluation) also appeared important in several studies. However, they also pointed out that there is a large amount of literature showing that these instructional elements were equally valuable in all educational settings.

The above explanations have shown that the past moderator analyses in meta-analyses could not explain the heterogeneity of the student achievements with the design factors in blended learning, other than confirming that quizzes could enhance effectiveness. Studies based on surveys of students and lecturers—which assess the subjectively perceived learning success and the design factors—can provide further indications for an effective educational design in a blended learning format.

Owston and York ( 2018 ) and Hilliard and Stewart ( 2019 ) emphasised in their student survey-based studies that regardless of the chosen online or face-to-face ratios, care must be taken when designing a learning environment to integrate interactive and cooperative activities between students as well as between students and instructors. Other studies based on student evaluations (Castaño-Muñoz et al., 2014 ; Cundell & Sheepy, 2018 ; McKenna et al., 2020 ) have also emphasised the importance of student interaction in blended learning. According to Cundell and Sheepy ( 2018 ), passive online activities such as videos and readings are not as effective as well-structured activities in which students collaborate with or learn from other students. Content delivery does not equate to a well-designed learning environment or, as Merrill ( 2018 , p. 2) put it, ‘information alone is not instruction’. Thus, students need adequate stimulation, especially in the online part of blended learning (Lai et al., 2016 ; Manwaring et al., 2017 ; Pilcher, 2017 ). Often mentioned is also a thoughtful balance between face-to-face and distance moments (Vanslambrouck et al., 2018 ). Different instructional strategies were proposed for a blended learning format (McKenna et al., 2020 ), but these have not been scientifically analysed (except for the flipped classroom, e.g., Müller and Mildenberger ( 2021 )).

In Cundell and Sheepy ( 2018 ), peer feedback was also found to be effective for learning; students benefit from analysing the work of others and providing feedback to each other. The importance of feedback in the learning process is well known (Hattie & Timperley, 2007 ) and has also been shown as a critical design factor in other blended learning studies (Garcia et al., 2014 ; Martin et al., 2018 ; Vo et al., 2020 ).

In addition, other studies also highlight the importance of the social presence of instructors (Goeman et al., 2020 ; Law et al., 2019 ; Lowenthal & Snelson, 2017 ) and the creation of an affective learning climate (Caskurlu et al., 2021 ; McKenna et al., 2020 ). These aspects should help reduce social isolation (Gillett-Swan, 2017 ) in the online part of blended learning. Further studies (Caskurlu et al., 2021 ; Ellis et al., 2016 ; Han & Ellis, 2019 ; Heilporn et al., 2021 ) have also identified course structure and guidance as important design factors in blended learning.

These last factors, in particular, depend strongly on the teacher’s commitment and understanding of their role. However, implementing a new blended learning format is challenging and time-consuming for instructors and may also provoke resistance (Bruggeman et al., 2021 ; Huang et al., 2021 ). Accordingly, plausible motives need to be presented as to why these changes are necessary, and incentives are required to engage lecturers (Andrade & Alden-Rivers, 2019 ).

Based on the individual studies, the syntheses and reviews (Boelens et al., 2017 ; McGee & Reis, 2012 ; Nortvig et al., 2018 ) come to similar conclusions regarding the key design factors in blended learning. Findings like these indicate which design factors are perceived by students and lecturers as conducive to learning. However, the limitation here is that these factors were surveyed based on subjectively perceived learning success rather than on objectively assessed learning achievement. One such study by Vo et al. ( 2020 ) investigated how design factors assessed by students were related to final grades. Of the eight design factors studied, only ‘clear goals and expectations’ and ‘collaborative learning’ were significant predictors of student performance as measured by final grades in different courses. However, the level of final grades measured in various courses may not only depend on performance or instructional design but be influenced by other factors such as the bell-curve tendency of grading (Brookhart et al., 2016 ), when the grade often represents a student's relative achievement within the whole group (Sadler, 2009 ). It is, therefore, questionable whether course grades alone can be used as an objective measure to compare the effectiveness of different courses. Accordingly, other factors investigated by Vo et al. ( 2020 ), such as instructor feedback, support and facilitation, and face-to-face/online content presentation, may positively affect the quality of the learning environment and student performance; however, they are not adequately captured by comparing grades across courses.

Although research has shown some general patterns across blended learning modalities, the root causes for the learning outcomes in blended learning environments are still not apparent. Graham ( 2019 ) suspected the above in the pedagogical practices of blended learning, requiring research to examine more closely what happens at the activity level in blended learning.

Methodology

Research context.

The Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW) launched a new flexible learning study programme in a blended learning format (FLEX) in 2015 as part of a comprehensive e-learning strategy (Müller et al., 2018 ). Its Bachelor’s degree programme in Business Administration is a successful, well-established course of study offered both full-time (FT) and part-time (PT). The FLEX format is, therefore, the third study format for this degree programme.

All Bachelor’s programmes have two levels — the ‘Assessment’ level (60 ECTS credits; two semesters for FT students, three semesters for PT and FLEX students) followed by the ‘Main Study’ level (120 ECTS credits; four semesters for FT students, five semesters for PT and FLEX students) with specialisations in Banking & Finance (B&F) and General Management (GM). For the PT and FLEX formats, a part-time job or family commitment of no more than 60%–70% is recommended. The concept for the new blended learning format was developed in 2014 and tested by running a Business Administration FLEX course. After the pilot course was evaluated and found to be effective (Müller et al., 2018 ), a total of 44 courses were transformed for the BSc in Business Administration degree programme (2015–2020). The first cohort of FLEX students graduated in 2019.

The main objective of the new blended learning format FLEX was to offer students the best possible opportunities to combine their work and personal responsibilities with a flexible learning study programme. Regarding the number and distribution of classroom sessions over the 14-week term, compatibility with a distant place of residence was the guiding principle. More specifically, the maximum number of overnight stays away from home that would be acceptable to potential students had to be determined. At the same time, regular physical classroom sessions were also considered essential to enable students to reflect on the online content. As a result of these considerations, face-to-face classes for FLEX were reduced by approximately half (51%) compared with the part-time programme and replaced with a virtual self-study phase. This means that FLEX students attended the campus every three weeks for two days and the interjacent asynchronous self-study phase should allow them to learn flexibly. According to the typology of Allen et al. ( 2007 ) and the inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis of Müller and Mildenberger ( 2021 ), the design can be classified as blended learning. Concerning the dimensions of flexible learning, according to Li and Wong ( 2018 ), the FLEX format offered greater flexibility in terms of time, delivery, instructional approach, resources, and support than the conventional study format; however, the format was the same as a traditional course regarding the dimensions content, entry requirement, orientation or goal, and performance assessment.

After the time structure for the new course of study had been determined, the transition to the blended learning design was carried out at the course level. Considering that the design aspects activation, interaction and formative performance assessment have been found in empirical studies to be important for asynchronous online environments, care was taken to ensure that content was not only delivered (using learning videos, learning texts, etc.), but that students elaborated and reflected on it in the virtual self-study phases. In so-called ‘scripting workshops’ (Müller et al., 2018 ), the content was sequenced, and the educational design was created from scratch (Alammary et al., 2014 ), according to a defined process using a specially developed didactic visualisation language (see also Molina et al., 2009 ). Web-based technologies such as LMS Moodle and other tools were used and the content was delivered in digital form, mainly using learning videos produced in-house. Interaction with the teachers during the three-week self-study phases was possible in asynchronous form using the Moodle tools such as forums and chat, but no scheduled online class sessions via video conferencing tools were provided. Table 1 shows key features of the course designs in terms of the number of activities for the design aspects activation, interaction, and formative performance assessment (feedback) in the self-study phases, per course. Since learning videos are an important element of an asynchronous online learning environment and have proven to be effective for learning in the pilot study (Müller et al., 2018 ) and a recent meta-analysis (Noetel et al., 2021 ), the number of learning videos per course was also assessed. The number of pedagogical design factors was collected in the LMS Moodle, and the results show the range of the design characteristics in the FLEX implementation for the levels ‘Assessment’ (semesters 1–3) and ‘Main Study’ (semesters 4–8), and overall (semesters 1–8).

Research design

The research design consisted of the cohorts of the experimental FLEX group (B&F cohorts 2015–2019 and GM cohorts 2017–2019, N students = 278) with students attending all courses in the new FLEX format and the corresponding cohorts of the control group PT ( N students = 1068). The FLEX format was implemented in a blended learning design with a reduced classroom teaching time, whereas the PT-learning format was implemented conventionally via classroom teaching. Students of the FLEX and PT cohorts were allocated to classes of 30–60 students each. The number of students ( N ) who started the corresponding study programme in the first semester changed over time because of voluntary dropouts, failed exams, transfers between specialisations, and repeaters.

The gender ratio was almost the same in the experimental FLEX cohort as in the control PT cohort (proportion of female FLEX students = 35%; proportion of female PT students = 36%); however, the average age was slightly higher for FLEX students (24.7 years) compared to PT students (22.2 years). Concerning personality traits, various tests were used to investigate whether students differed regarding teamwork affinity (Lauche et al., 1999 ), ICT literacy (Kömmetter, 2010 ), general mental ability (Heller & Perleth, 2000 , only cohorts 17), and the competencies of self-study and study organisation and learning-relevant emotions including motivation (Schmied & Hänze, 2016 , only cohorts 17). These tests all showed no significant difference between the experimental FLEX group and the PT control group. With the entrance qualification of the vocational baccalaureate, students of a university of applied sciences have similar prior knowledge. To check this assumption, prior knowledge was tested in a pre-test on the topic of business administration for cohort 17 (with specialisations B&F and GM). The questions corresponded to the questions on the topic of business administration in past examinations for the vocational baccalaureate. The results of the pre-test showed no significant differences in prior knowledge between students in the FLEX and PT format in either BF [ t (94) = 0.619, p  = 0.537] or the GM [ t (69) = 0.182, p  = 0.856] specialisation.

The student eligibility requirements, lecture content, exam questions, and grading scales were identical for all students in the experimental FLEX and the control PT conditions. FLEX students took precisely the same examinations and at the same time as students in the conventional PT programme and the exams were not marked by the class teacher but by an independent pool of lecturers, allowing for a comparison of the exam results with high empirical significance.

Analysis methods for student achievement

To assess the effectiveness of the blended learning FLEX format, the exam results of the FLEX students ( N  = 2822 exams) were compared with those of PT students ( N  = 11638) in 133 courses between 2015 and 2019 (nine semesters). The effect size (standardised mean difference, also known as Cohen’s d ) was calculated for each course (i.e., the deviation of the experimental group FLEX test results from the control group PT). A t -test for the difference between the two groups (at α  = 0.05, two-tailed) was performed for each course. Additionally, a test for equivalence with equivalence defined as being between ± 0.5 standard deviations was examined (see also Mueller et al., 2020 ).

To analyse the overall learning effectiveness of the FLEX study format, the results from each course were aggregated using regression analysis (roughly similar to a meta-analysis). A linear mixed-effects regression analysis was performed with the calculated effect sizes as the response, and potential moderator variables study level, specialisation, and discipline as factors (fixed effects). In addition, a random effect for the cohort was included to control for the dependency arising from the same students attending courses. Assessing the size and significance of the random cohort effect was also of interest. Since good estimates of the standard error of the calculated effect sizes can be calculated from the raw grades, a weighted regression was performed where each effect size was weighted by its inverse estimated variance. This corresponds to the usual weighing scheme in fixed-effect meta-analysis. Using the lme4 package for R (Bates et al., 2020 ), estimation was performed using restricted maximum likelihood.

Analysis methods for the modifying factors

An analysis of potential moderating variables that might explain the heterogeneity of the effect sizes was conducted, investigating study level, specialisation of the study programme, disciplines (e.g., quantitative subjects, foreign language, social sciences, or management), and cohorts. As a first step, correlations between various contextual variables (student and lecturer perceptions, educational design characteristics) and the effect sizes of the courses were analysed, and then the critical factors were related to effect size using a multiple linear regression model.

Student perceptions of the new learning design and learning process were analysed through a student course evaluation. At the end of each course, the FLEX group completed a questionnaire consisting of nine items of different instruments—structure, guidance and motivation, coherence (SCEQ), usability (own item), support and learning outcome (HILVE, Rindermann & Amelang, 1994 ), interest/enjoyment (Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, Ryan, 1982 ), and two open-ended questions (‘What do you like about the way the course is designed?’, ‘What do you like less?’). Additionally, student attendance in on-campus classes was determined. The surveys took place after the classes had been completed but before the examination period.

Lecturers also rated the implementation conditions with a specially developed 20-item instrument according to the change dimensions in Knoster et al. ( 2000 ). This survey took place at the end of the semester when a course was first implemented. Only courses whose instructors were involved in both the development and the implementation of the courses were included in the correlation. Because instructors for individual courses changed in some cases during the test period, a smaller number of courses was analysed than the total number of courses (see Table 6 ).

The qualitative analysis aimed to discover which factors (especially educational design characteristics) were crucial for the success of a FLEX course. For this purpose, the courses were divided into groups according to their effect size and student evaluation ratings. For the student evaluation criteria (scale 1–5), the courses were divided into three clusters (terciles) with high, medium, and low student ratings. ‘Good practice’ courses were defined as courses with a positive effect size and a high student rating (first tercile). ‘Bad practice’ courses were defined as courses with negative effect size and low student ratings (third tercile). For the qualitative analysis, from a total of 133 FLEX courses, 27 ‘good practice’ courses with a total of 493 student comments (to the question ‘What do you like about the way the course is designed?’), and 30 ‘bad practice’ courses with a total of 429 student comments (to the open-ended questions ‘What do you like less?’ and ‘Do you have ideas on how the course could be developed further?’) were included. These data were imported into MAXQDA, and each student comment was labelled with the study specialisation, semester, student number, course name, and good/bad-practice course designation (e.g., ‘SBF15_HS15_8BWL_good’).

An initial version of a category system was created, which was theory-driven and based on the principles for designing the FLEX courses. The following five categories were defined—educational design (with subcodes: content sequencing, guidance, blend online/classroom-learning), activation (with subcodes: tasks/exercises, cases, solutions), learning resources (with subcodes: textbooks, learning videos), interaction (with subcodes: with peers, with instructor), and performance assessment.

The entire dataset was coded independently by two coders. Because the category system we developed was being applied for the first time, intercoder agreement checks were started after only a few codings in two iterations to identify weaknesses (Kuckartz & Rädiker, 2019 ). An initial review was based on 10 ‘good practice’ and 10 ‘bad practice’ comments randomly selected from the dataset. A second review took place based on another 15 ‘good practice’ and 15 ‘bad practice’ comments, which were deliberately drawn according to the criterion of completing the theory-based coding guide. In both iteration cycles, the coding was checked for mismatches. The segments where non-matches occurred formed the starting point for a systematic discussion between the two coders about the disagreement, which resulted in an adaptation of the category system and the coding guide (Kuckartz & Rädiker, 2019 ). Comments that belonged to two subcategories were assigned to the main category.

Next, the two coders independently coded the entire data set. The intercoder agreement was checked at the segment level with a setting of 90% overlap, which resulted in a kappa value of 0.57. One of the coders analysed the mismatched segments and standardised them with reference to the coding guide. The coded segments were then analysed. Initially, a frequency analysis (descriptive counting of code frequency) was conducted by counting the individual codes using MAXQDA. Then, the most important aspects of the respective categories were summarised and provided with appropriate quotations.

Student achievement at the course level

The FLEX and PT samples were independent, and the sample size and histograms of the test results did not indicate a violation of the requirements of normal distribution and uniformity of variance. The effect size of the students’ exam results (Cohen’s d ) was calculated by comparing the FLEX courses with the respective PT courses. The direction was indicated by the sign of the effect size (Cohen’s d ); for example, in 61 of the 133 courses examined, the mean values of the FLEX cohort were higher than those of the PT, corresponding to positive values for the effect size (see Table 2 ).

The courses were categorised into four subject groups—quantitative subjects (statistics, mathematics, quantitative methods), foreign language (English), social sciences (law, skills, communication, leadership & ethics), and management (e.g., strategy, accounting, marketing). The distribution of the effect sizes according to the study level, course of study (BF or GM), and subject domain is shown in Fig.  1 .

Standardised mean differences (effect sizes) of analysed courses ( N  = 133)

The results for the 133 courses in the ‘Assessment’ and the ‘Main Study’ levels showed that there is little difference in the exam scores of students in the FLEX format compared with the PT format (see Table 2 ). A t -test ( α  = 0.05, two-tailed) indicated a significant difference in only 24 of the 133 courses; FLEX students showed significantly higher exam scores in 10 courses and PT students in 14 courses. To compare FLEX and PT learning performance, it is important to consider that comparative studies usually aim to demonstrate significant change. More precisely, the goal is to reject the H 0 hypothesis (no differences between groups) and confirm the H 1 hypothesis (difference between groups exists at a particular significance level). The experimental group (in our case, the FLEX cohort) would, therefore, be expected to perform significantly different from the control group (PT cohort). However, in the research context, this was not a priority. Due to the changed conditions caused by the reduction of classroom time by more than 50 per cent, the goal was instead to ensure that students achieved equivalent exam results with the self-study assignments in the blended learning format compared with the control group, despite the reduction in classroom time. Where the aim is to prove that there are no differences between the results of the two groups, an equivalence test is used. We regard standardised mean differences as equivalent if they are smaller than 0.5 in absolute value, and a statistical equivalence was found in 36 courses. In 73 courses, the difference was inconclusive (no statement possible about statistical difference or equivalence).

Student achievement at the programme level

The estimated coefficients of the linear mixed-effects regression analysis can be found in Appendix , Table 6 . The estimated summary effect size d is close to and not significantly different from zero (see also Table 3 ). The confidence interval [− 0.206, 0.094] suggests that overall differences between the blended learning format FLEX and the conventional classroom format PT are small and, at best, moderately negative or very small positive effects are plausible. This means that equivalent learning outcomes were found despite a reduction in classroom time for FLEX compared with PT students of over 50 per cent.

Modifying factors

Moderator analysis.

In Table 4 , similar to the moderator analysis in a meta-analysis, the results are presented as group means with corresponding standard errors and 95% confidence intervals. These are not averages of the raw data per group, but calculated from the regression results using the emmeans package for R (Lenth, 2021 ); for each moderator variable, the other factors were held constant at the proportion in the data set. The overall effect was similarly obtained from the regression estimate, not from averaging the original effect sizes. The significance of the effects of potential moderators was assessed using the Likelihood Ratio Test as implemented in lme4 for R (Bates et al., 2020 ), with none of the variables having a significant effect.

The significance of the random cohort effect was tested by comparing the full model to a classical linear model including all variables except the cohort effect, again using the Likelihood Ratio Test; this was not significant either ( LR  = 2.098, df  = 1, p  = 0.1475). Moreover, the estimated standard deviation for the cohort effect is 0.1186, which is only roughly one-third of the estimated residual standard deviation of 0.3502.

Correlation and regression analysis of contextual variables

Although the implementation context of the courses (conceptualisation of blended learning, measurement of learning outcomes, and implementation period of one semester) was quite similar, the effect sizes showed a considerable variance between the courses (see Fig.  1 ). A correlation analysis was therefore conducted to examine to what extent the student evaluation of the course quality (including attendance rate), the quantitative educational design characteristics, or the survey on the implementation conditions among the lecturers showed a correlation with the effect sizes.

The results of the correlation analysis (Pearson, 2-tailed) indicate the strongest correlation between student course evaluations and effect sizes (see Appendix , Table 7 ). All items show a significant correlation between student evaluation of course quality and the effect size (e.g., item ‘I like the course’ r  = 0.289, p  = 0.001). The course quality assessed by the students, thus, has a significant correlation with the learning effectiveness measured as standardized mean differences between blended and conventional courses. This is remarkable because the course evaluation took place at the time when classes had been completed but before the examination period.

There is also a significant correlation with the reported attendance of the classes; courses whose classroom sessions were attended more frequently show a higher effect size. In contrast, the number of different learning resources and activities in the courses—such as the number of tasks, forum posts, formative quizzes, or learning videos—has no significant correlation with the effect size of the courses.

The correlation between the implementation conditions and the effect size of the courses shows a differentiated picture. For example, the dimensions ‘incentives’ and ‘resources’ do not show a significant correlation with the effect size; however, a significant correlation is reported for the ‘competences’, ‘vision’, ‘action plan’, and ‘satisfaction’ (e.g., item ‘I am satisfied with the introduction of FLEX at the ZHAW’ r  = 0.303, p  = 0.013).

A multiple linear regression model was used to evaluate the contribution the data collected from students and lecturers make to the standardised mean difference. Because of substantial correlations between the evaluation variables (‘student course evaluation’ and ‘implementation survey instructors’), the items covering different aspects were averaged to form one aggregated variable for the student evaluation (i.e., ‘student evaluation’) and six aggregated variables for aspects of the instructor evaluation (‘incentives’, ‘resources’, ‘skills’, ‘vision’, ‘action plan’, and ‘satisfaction with the implementation’). To avoid collinearity issues, a stepwise forward procedure was used. Starting from an intercept-only model, all models adding one of the variables were fitted, but only ‘student evaluation’ ( F  = 11.2449, df  = 1, p  = 0.0014) and ‘action plan’ were significant ( F  = 7.2867, df  = 1, p  = 0090). Starting from a model containing only an intercept and ‘student evaluation’, adding ‘action plan’ did not significantly improve the fit ( F  = 2.3329, df  = 1, p  = 0.1320), but adding ‘student evaluation’ to a model that only included ‘action plan’ does ( F  = 5.9408, df  = 1, 0.0178). In a model including both variables, ‘student evaluation’ is significant ( t  = 2.437, df = 1, p  = 0.0178) while ‘action plan’ is not ( t  = 1.527, df  = 1, p  = 0.1320). The optimal model was obtained by the forward selection, containing only an intercept and ‘student evaluation’, although the adjusted R-squared value is not high (0.1438). For this reason, the results are not reported here in detail.

Qualitative analysis of educational design quality

The frequency of coded student comments on educational design quality is reported in Table 5 . The student comments contained a vast number of mentions related to educational design in both the ‘good practice’ and the ‘bad practice’ courses (60.4% and 50.0% of all mentions). Within this category, it is also noticeable that many comments referred to the blending of online and classroom components (20.9% and 28.6%). Furthermore, many comments addressed the guidance provided (10.6% and 9.3%). There were a similar number of mentions in the learning videos subcategory (9.9% and 9.3%). Noticeably fewer mentions were related to the textbook/other texts (6.2% and 10.5%), assignments (6.2% and 6.5%), and performance assessment (6.2% and 6.0%). In the case of the ‘bad practice’ courses, the subcategory solutions also stand out (8.9%). There were a very low number of mentions related to interaction with peers (0.4% and 1.2%).

Student comments indicate that an adequate structure and guidance are essential for the quality of the FLEX blended learning courses. The structure is described as the clear distinctness of topics and their logical sequencing as follows: ‘ The exact structuring of the topics’ (SBF15_HS15_8BWL_good) and ‘ better delimitation and structuring of individual topics’ (SGM17_FS18_1FAC_bad). As guidance, the focus concerning exam relevance in the classroom course is mentioned as ‘The content is clearly linked to the exams, and it is clear what is expected’ (SBF17_HS17_9MAR_good). This aspect also includes the desire for mock exams or the availability of exams from previous years. In addition, guidance is described as a review and outlook by the lecturers and the indication of the learning progress in the learning management system.

The subcategory ‘blending’ contains the appropriate combination of the online and classroom phase(s) (and vice-versa). This link can be achieved by taking up and deepening certain content from the online phase in the classroom or by linking to it and continuing with it. A diverging picture emerges concerning the design of the classroom phase. While some students would have liked to repeat the content from the online phase and set a focus, others would have preferred to consolidate and deepen the content from the online phase through exercises and discussions. The following statements well illustrate this divide: ‘I did not like the fact that some students came to the lectures unprepared and asked basic questions. In this way, the other students did not benefit. […] I talked to many students, and many of them had done very little preparation before the lecture and then asked many questions in the lecture. That really doesn’t work, in my opinion’. (SBF17_HS17_19MAT_bad); ‘More complex topics are treated in the classroom phase’. (SGM17_HS17_1MAR_good); ‘Teaching could be more efficient. It cannot be assumed that all FLEX students have solved everything that is on Moodle [tasks on the Learning Management System]. A misconception’. (SBF15_FS17_7MAC_bad); and ‘Repetition of the material learned in the online phase’. (SGM17_HS17_14MAR_good).

The following student statements also raise the question of optimal allocation of scarce classroom time: ‘The lecturer asks few questions and delivers many monologues. For that, I could actually watch a video instead’. (SGM19_HS19_10WIR_bad) and ‘ The way the classroom sessions are structured is good. At the beginning, a short repetition of the theory and then working on tasks. This helps us to repeat and apply all the material learned’. (SGM18_HS19_3MIK_good).

In the category ‘content delivery’, the compactness of the learning resources and their alignment with the online weeks was mentioned. The linking of instructional texts, PowerPoint slides, and learning videos was brought up in the context of learning resources. In the case of instructional texts, students mentioned their comprehensibility and, in the case of learning videos, their existence, quality, and adequate length: ‘Good structure with linking of book, slides, and videos’. (SBF19_HS19_19MAR_good).

In the ‘activation’ category, the number and variety of exercises and their consistency with the theory learned were mentioned. In addition, the existence of solutions to tasks and exercises was cited as crucial for the online phase in three respects—the solutions must be complete (i.e., solutions to all tasks), sufficiently detailed (i.e., with solution path included), and readily available (i.e., at the time when students solve the tasks); ‘Not having a complete solution script inhibits the learning process very much if I always have to ask for the solution in the forum every time I have [already] finished an assignment. When then the answer finally comes, I am already somewhere else again—very counterproductive’! (SBF16_HS17_14MIK_bad).

In the ‘interaction’ category, the opportunity to ask questions and get a quick answer from the lecturers was frequently mentioned for both the classroom and the online phases. A well-maintained forum (opportunity to place questions in the LMS system) was also mentioned for the online phase. Although there were few comments about peer interaction, it was noticeable that group work was seriously questioned: ‘In general, the obligation to participate in group performance assessments is paradoxical and pointless in the context of the goals of this part-time FLEX course’. (SBF15_FS17_19EBF_bad).

In the ‘performance assessment’ category, formative tests with automatic and immediate feedback were mentioned: ‘I also like the small exams for self-testing because you can check what you have understood’. (SGM18_HS18_1WIR_good).

Discussion and conclusions

Results from the first research question demonstrated that the estimated effect size for a flexible learning study programme in a blended learning design with a 51% reduced on-site classroom time was close to and not significantly different from zero. This result is in line with previous studies (e.g., Müller & Mildenberger, 2021 ), suggesting that a blended learning format with reduced classroom time is not systematically more or less effective than a conventional study format. This study also indirectly confirmed the recommendations of various authors (Hilliard & Stewart, 2019 ; Owston & York, 2018 ) to divide the online and face-to-face portions of blended learning in half. Similar to the results of other studies and reviews on blended learning (Bernard et al., 2014 ; Means et al., 2013 ; Müller & Mildenberger, 2021 ; Spanjers et al., 2015 ; Vo et al., 2017 ), the effect sizes of the courses were broadly scattered around zero, with almost one standard deviation in the minus to over one standard deviation in the plus.

Findings from the second research question addressed the modifying factors for the learning effectiveness of blended learning courses with reduced classroom time. The analysed moderators of ‘study level’, ‘specialisation’, and ‘disciplines’ can be classified as moderating effects of condition (Means et al., 2013 ). The non-significant results for the study level are in line with the findings of systematic reviews by Bernard et al. ( 2014 ) and Means et al. ( 2013 ), who found no moderation effects on the course level (undergraduate vs graduate course). The non-significant result of the moderator ‘discipline’ corroborates the systematic reviews of Müller and Mildenberger ( 2021 ) and Bernard et al. ( 2014 ). However, it is not in line with Vo et al. ( 2017 ), who found a significantly higher effect size for STEM disciplines. Different definitions of these disciplines may explain the differences in these findings.

Based on the results of this study and the systematic reviews conducted in the past, it can be concluded that the heterogeneity of the results is not likely to be attributable to conditional factors such as the study level or discipline. However, significant correlations were reported between the effect sizes of the courses and the educational quality and design evaluated by students, the implementation conditions evaluated by lecturers, and on-site class attendance. There is collinearity between these aspects, and it can be assumed that there is a causal relationship in the sense that on-site attendance is influenced by the educational design and the quality of the course. Furthermore, the latter, in turn, is impacted by the attitude and motivation of the lecturers towards the FLEX programme. However, apart from the educational quality as evaluated by the students, significant direct and indirect effects could not be established with the fitted multiple linear regression model.

The importance of the educational design for the effectiveness of blended learning was supported by the significant moderator analyses of Spanjers et al. ( 2015 ) regarding the use of quizzes. In contrast, no correlation was shown between the number of online learning resources and activities in the courses, such as the number of assignments, forum posts, formative quizzes, or learning videos, on the one hand, and the effect sizes, on the other. This indicates that educational quality goes beyond the mere number of activities or particular learning resources and that an appropriate educational design is decisive (Graham, 2019 ; Nortvig et al., 2018 ).

The qualitative design analysis of the courses with high vs low learning effectiveness identified several crucial design factors for learning-effective blended courses. Regarding educational design, an adequate course structure and guidance for students are recognised as essential. In the context of an undergraduate programme, this means, in particular, that the learning environment has a clear structure, and that sufficient guidance is provided. This factor is significant in blended learning because the combination of online and face-to-face teaching and the partial distance between teachers and students increase the complexity of the learning environment. In this regard, a thoughtful alignment of the online and on-site learning phases was also mentioned; however, the feedback was contradictory concerning the instructional strategy (McKenna et al., 2020 ). While some students prefer to consolidate and deepen the content from the online phase through exercises and discussions, others simply prefer to repeat it. Such feedback must be seen in the context of the flexible learning study programme FLEX, which offers students opportunities to combine their work and personal responsibilities with study and, therefore, possibly attracts students who place a high priority on pedagogic efficiency. The delicate balance between work, private life, and education is, therefore, more keenly felt by these students and could result in insufficient time to complete all the online tasks. Consequently, guidance also means that instructors should explain how the online and on-site phases are integrated and help their students understand that the online environment is an essential part of the blended learning experience (see also Ellis et al., 2016 ; Han & Ellis, 2019 ).

Regarding content delivery, good practice is characterised by learning resources that are well linked and aligned with other elements, such as the tasks in the learning environments. In line with the pilot study (Müller et al., 2018 ) and a recent systematic review (Noetel et al., 2021 ), learning videos are appreciated by students and considered to have many educational benefits.

The relevance of activation was also pointed out in the qualitative analysis. These learning activities enable students to transform the information they have acquired into knowledge and skills and facilitate their ability to apply learned knowledge and skills in new and real-life situations. In addition to previous studies (Cundell & Sheepy, 2018 ; Lai et al., 2016 ; Manwaring et al., 2017 ; Pilcher, 2017 ), the instant availability of complete and detailed solutions when students learn with tasks and exercises is essential for the learning process and its effectiveness.

Regarding the aspects of interaction and assessment, the results corroborate previous studies as the good practice is associated with the social presence of instructors and their prompt feedback (Goeman et al., 2020 ; Law et al., 2019 ; Lowenthal & Snelson, 2017 ) and the availability of formative tests with immediate, often automatic feedback (Garcia et al., 2014 ; Martin et al., 2018 ). At the same time, the interaction between students is controversial, and group work is questioned. This may result from the previously discussed need for efficiency in a flexible learning study programme. However, other studies (Gillett-Swan, 2017 ; Vanslambrouck et al., 2018 ; Vo et al., 2020 ) have also pointed out that a blended learning design may also be associated with specific costs, such as the practical issue of organising group work.

Theoretical and practical implications

The presented work in this study has theoretical and practical contributions and implications. Theoretically, this study expanded the database regarding the learning effectiveness of blended learning with reduced attendance time in several ways and provides important findings. First, past studies on blended learning with reduced classroom time were, with a few exceptions (e.g. Chingos et al., 2017 ), designed as single studies with a limited duration of usually one semester (Müller & Mildenberger, 2021 ). In contrast, this study extended these findings at the study programme level encompassing many courses (133 courses) in different disciplines over more than four years (nine semesters). Additionally, it was not designed as a model project with privileged conditions such as selected lecturers and additional resources but introduced using existing equipment and regular teaching staff. Accordingly, a high ecological validity can be assumed.

Similar to the meta-analyses on blended learning (Bernard et al., 2014 ; Means et al., 2013 ; Müller & Mildenberger, 2021 ; Vo et al., 2017 ), the observed variance in the learning effectiveness of the individual courses was large. The findings of this study demonstrated that the heterogeneity of the effect sizes could be explained by differences in the implementation quality of the educational design factors. This study is the first we are aware of that investigated design factors based on the relative effect sizes of individual courses and not only on student and lecturer evaluation.

The results of this study provide institutions and administrators with practical guidance for their flexible learning initiatives, especially concerning learning effectiveness and the related design principles of a flexible learning programme in a blended learning format. Based on our findings, we recommend paying particular attention to the following educational design principles when implementing blended learning courses:

Adequate course structure and guidance for students.

Activating learning tasks.

Stimulating interaction and social presence of teachers.

Timely feedback on the learning process and outcomes.

Instructors are responsible for designing and implementing these factors, and this study showed that the quality of the educational design was significantly related to lecturer attitudes towards blended learning with reduced on-site classroom time. Accordingly, when introducing blended learning to an educational institution, it is vital not only to provide the necessary infrastructure and resources and develop the skills needed to teach a blended learning format but also to provide lecturers with incentives for engagement. At the same time, a shared vision of a flexible learning environment in a blended learning design should be developed to initiate and establish a new learning culture.

Finally, the student evaluation of the course quality has a significant correlation with the relative effect sizes of the individual courses. Thus, students seem to have a good sense of what blended learning conditions they require to succeed. Accordingly, we recommend educational institutions actively involve students in developing blended learning designs, even to the extent of forming pedagogical partnerships (Cook-Sather et al., 2019 ).

Limitations and future directions

The design of this study was strictly controlled for a field study in an educational area. Due to identical learning objectives and exams, the framework conditions of the two study formats were comparable, the presence of a control group ensured a quasi-experimental design, and selection bias was controlled. Additionally, as this study was not carried out in a model project with unique resources, support, and incentives, a high ecological validity can be assumed in an authentic university setting with regular lecturers. Nevertheless, the study is subject to the inherent limitations of a real-life setting.

Concerning the data set, because the university had to switch from a mainly on-site format to exclusively hybrid and online formats during the COVID-19 pandemic, cohorts could be surveyed at different study levels, and only one complete cohort could be observed, uninterrupted, from entry to graduation. Accordingly, relatively few courses from the upper semesters of the ‘Main Study’ level were included compared to ‘Assessment’ level courses.

Another limitation of this study is that the flexible learning study programme in a blended learning design we analysed appeals necessarily to a particular student population, namely those with limited time and/or a greater need for spatial flexibility, often because of a demanding job or family commitments. As a result, although the FLEX and PT groups were similar in terms of the control variables and the pre-test, bias due to self-selection could not be ruled out. It should, therefore, be acknowledged that the results concerning the blended learning format are of limited generalizability beyond a context of a flexible learning study programme. It was also shown that the needs of students regarding flexible learning programmes can be highly specific. Therefore, in the future, it would be essential to differentiate research on the design of blended learning depending on the particular study context.

Furthermore, this study identified design factors for blended learning courses based on the relative effect sizes of individual courses. Future studies should verify and differentiate the results of this study to arrive at validated practice guidelines.

Conclusions

This work contributes to the growing literature on the implementation of flexible learning study programs in a blended learning design. Overall, this study found equivalent overall learning effectiveness in a blended learning format with reduced classroom time by 51% compared with the conventional study format. The study provides evidence that making education more flexible by offering blended learning with reduced classroom time can improve access to education without compromising learning effectiveness. Additionally, the learning effectiveness of the individual courses was found to be moderated by the implementation quality of the educational design factors. Specifically, an adequate course structure and guidance for students, activating learning tasks, stimulating interaction and social presence of teachers, as well as timely feedback on the learning process and outcomes, were identified as crucial design principles for learning-effective blended learning courses.

The results encourage higher education institutions to offer flexible study programmes in a blended learning format with reduced classroom time but also underscore the importance of the educational design quality.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Banking & Finance

Coronavirus disease 2019

Flexible learning study programme

Full-time study programme

General management

Learning management system

Part-time study programme

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (subjects)

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Müller, C., Mildenberger, T. & Steingruber, D. Learning effectiveness of a flexible learning study programme in a blended learning design: why are some courses more effective than others?. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 20 , 10 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-022-00379-x

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• Blended learning
• Flexible learning
• Learning effectiveness
• Higher education
• Educational design

Flexible learning: a literature review 2016-2021

In recent times, the notion of flexible learning has become more prominent and important. But like many other aspects of life, flexible learning has a different meaning to different people – it’s contingent on the eye of the beholder. Flexible learning has a long history, so it is not a new phenomenon. Nonetheless, given the intensive innovations in pedagogies and technologies, keeping track of developments related to flexible learning this, which is already a very malleable concept, can be challenging. Hence, this literature review gives us the opportunity to take stock of what is happening in and with flexible learning.

The aim of the literature review is to identify and summarise flexible learning trends, issues and impact from 2016 to the end of 2021. In particular, the review will focus on identifying what ‘works’ in the design, development and implementation of flexible learning. Eighty-four papers were included in the final review. In terms of the geographic spread of the studies, participants in the studies reviewed came from 28 countries. Scopus and Web of Science, containing mostly peer-reviewed articles, were used as to identify the literature. The papers were thematically analysed using two frameworks, the Context-Intervention-Mechanism-Outcomes and Advance HE Flexible Learning frameworks.

What the literature says

‘Context’ compels the evaluation of the drivers of flexible learning. ‘Interventions’ are the wide-ranging actions or activities related undertaken by HEI and/or educators (eg using new technologies, creating new pedagogies). ‘Mechanisms’ are the underpinnings of the interventions that enable the aggregation (ie common themes) in flexible learning in the studies reviewed. ‘Mechanisms’ are akin to the cogs-and-wheels of the concept. Finally, ‘outcomes’ relate to the ‘results’ derived from flexible learning (eg student achievement). The ‘context’ element includes micro drivers (with sub-themes of exploring field-based pedagogies and development of the HE teaching profession) and macro drivers (with sub-themes of Covid-19, professional and vocational development, the affordance of technologies and socially based drivers). There were two central ‘interventions’: technological configurations (with sub-themes of digitalising the classroom, gamification and interactivity, learning analytics, personal learning environments, selective deployment of technologies and intuitive technologies for educators) and explorative approach to pedagogies (with various examples). There were three themes in ‘mechanism’: a systems approach, the role of educators (both with various examples), including highlighting the importance of reflexivity and communication). Finally, the ‘outcomes’ elements had two main themes: student impact (with sub-themes of student learning and student behaviours in learning) and organisational learning (with sub-themes of learning from trial-and-error and advancing socially orientated aims). The results of the analysis using the CIMO have revealed myriad reasons why flexible learning is adopted, the different forms it takes, and how it is implemented.

The second part of the findings involves assessing the literature against Advance HE’s Flexible Learning Framework. Specifically, the findings highlight significant trends that may inform and update the Framework in terms of its four dimensions: 1) technology-enhanced learning (with sub-themes of adaptive technologies, artificial intelligence, learning analytics, specialist/discrete technologies, ubiquitous technologies and adapting existing TEL technologies); 2) pedagogic approach (with subthemes of integration of approaches, balancing priorities, entanglement with local contexts, adopting multiple perspectives, cognition-based theories, teaching languages and technology-based pedagogies); 3) employment (with sub-themes of work-based learning and learner engagement, and e-learning and interactivity); and 4) institutional systems and structure (with sub-themes of strategic approach, national policies, bottom-up approach and academic workforce development).

So what, what works?

The results of the analysis using the CIMO framework have revealed myriad reasons why flexible learning is adopted, the different forms it takes and how it is implemented. What appears to be consistent is that it produces positive outcomes in terms of student impact, but this is not without caution and caveat, especially with regards to unintended consequences if adopted purely from an instrumental perspective. From a technological perspective, the utility and functionality (and the cost) of technologies are both facilitators and limitations of flexible learning. From a pedagogical viewpoint, the study indicates that educators adopt (in part or in whole) approaches that have a degree of validation either from their own experience and/or the profession. as highlighted in the Mechanism dimension, the educators’ role is critical. Indeed, the educators’ creativity, inventiveness and improvisation in combining and integrating technologies and pedagogies is the only limit. In addition, another underlying Mechanism is the systems approach. Successful flexible learning initiatives tend to be implemented as a whole, ie the ‘elements’ complement and/or reinforce one another. Finally, the review of the Outcomes dimension shows that flexible learning does contribute to student impact, not just in terms of their learning of the curriculum but also in shaping their attitudes towards learning and their sense of self-efficacy.

Overall, the findings from the literature review are broadly consistent with the four aspects of Advance HE’s Flexible Learning Framework. The literature reviewed shows advancement in flexible learning in terms of widening its application in different subjects/ fields and even countries. Indeed, given the nature of the teaching of some subjects and how students best learn and acquire knowledge, implementing flexible learning in some subjects may be more straightforward than others. Another key finding is that the implementation of flexible learning is context-sensitivity, which significantly influences the acceptability, feasibility and overall effectiveness of flexibility-based initiatives. The findings also show that, in advancing our understanding of flexible learning, studies have taken approaches that provide more granular insight, e.g. neurodiversity as part of inclusive and lifelong learning.

The full report, Flexible Learning: a literature review 2016-2021 is available for Advance HE members.

Professor Mark Loon Mark is the Research Chair of Management and Organisation Studies at the University of Northumbria, and a Visiting Professor at Université d'Aix-Marseille. Prior, he was the Deputy Pro-Vice-Chancellor of Research at Bath Spa University. He was also the Co-Vice-Chair at the British Academy of Management.

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All colleagues at  Advance HE member institutions  can attend this summit free of charge; please share this link with your colleagues. 

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What is Flexible learning and why it's important?

Cpd news team.

News & updates from CPD News Team

Improvements in technology and the need for a flexible working environment has meant that people increasingly want and expect to have greater choice in the way that they learn. This article will provide a brief overview of what flexible learning is and why flexibility is important for students, while also touching on the advantages of a flexible learning environment.

What is Flexible learning?

Flexible learning, as the name suggests, can be defined as the ability for students to customize how, what, when and where they learn. Generally speaking, flexible learning can be delivered across a variety of settings, including classroom, at home, blended approach or even a work based study program.

It is often used interchangeably with other terms such as open learning, distance learning, as well as e-learning which are all forms of flexible learning.

Why flexibility is important for students

In the fast-paced world that we live in, the need for flexibility has come from the advancement in technology as these developments has created new and exciting opportunities for both personal and professional development.

With flexible forms of learning, students are able to learn and take classes wherever and whenever they want to. This added freedom is important, providing the ideal opportunity to learn at a time or place that suits without the constraints of physical location. This also enables students to fit their learning around family life or work commitments and schedules.

Flexible learning can provide access to a high-quality education and learning experience to students who might not otherwise have had the chance to do so. With this kind of learning approach, students are able to refer to materials and resources as needed, are able to advance through content at their own pace, and choose a course suitable to their existing knowledge and capabilities.

Greater choice in how they learn enables individuals to take personal responsibility for their own study, and a more flexible environment ensures students don’t feel overwhelmed and pressured when it comes to learning. This ensures an integrated learning environment where the needs of all kinds of different people and abilities can be catered for.

How effective is Flexible learning?

When it comes to the effectiveness of learning, a higher level of flexibility allows individuals to adapt their learning pathway to suit their interests and abilities, in order to create a better experience and engage more with what is being taught.

Students are able to take breaks in between learning to recharge, which can often contribute to higher retention of knowledge, producing better results. Learning platforms are now more robust and fit for purpose than in the past, providing better access to course content, while having choice over schedules, learning styles and physical location improves productivity and concentration.

Lack of interaction with instructors, however, is one of the biggest drawbacks of a flexible learning approach, and it still needs to be seen whether it is as effective long term as traditional forms of education.

What are the advantages of a Flexible learning environment?

Perhaps for obvious reasons, flexibility itself is often the most appealing factor to this approach to learning. This has led to many choosing to opt for this route over more conventional forms of learning.

Within a flexible learning environment, individuals are able to gain important life skills that they can later implement within the workplace. Furthermore, being able to demonstrate acquired skills through flexible learning courses and other structured forms of professional learning can often play a later role in career development within an organisation.

There are also several clear advantages to a more flexible and adaptable style of learning. Advantages of a flexible learning environment may include:

• Ability to retain greater knowledge and produce better results
• Able to suit the preferred learning styles and pace of different people
• More choice in types of learning: online, face-to-face, blended
• Lower cost than full-time classroom based learning
• More learner interaction and greater ability to concentrate
• Variety of learning programs and courses available

Where to find Flexible learning CPD courses

The CPD Courses Catalogue offers a wide range of CPD certified courses to help professionals gain the necessary skills needed in their industry and many of these are appropriate for flexible and distance learning. All the courses shown on our website and catalogue have been recognised as meeting the required high quality standards, and are suitable for any Continuing Professional Development requirements.

How to become a CPD accredited training provider

We hope this article was helpful. The CPD Certification Service is the largest and leading CPD accreditation service worldwide, with over 25 years’ experience supporting certified CPD providers across all industry sectors. If you are considering becoming a CPD training provider , please contact our team to discuss in more detail. Alternatively if you are looking to record your CPD, please go to the myCPD Portal where you can manage, track and log your learning in one simple place.

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"Living is easy with eyes closed, misunderstanding all you see." John Lennon and Paul McCartney

"A man, though wise, should never be ashamed of learning more, and must unbend his mind." Sophocles

"Anyone who stops learning is old, whether at twenty or eighty. Anyone who keeps learning stays young." Henry Ford

"It is the art of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it." Aristotle

"Learning is a treasure that will follow its owner everywhere." Chinese Proverb

"Learn everything you can, anytime you can, from anyone you can. There will always come a time when you will be grateful you did." Sarah Caldwell

"Education is the kindling of a flame, not the filling of a vessel." Socrates

"Knowledge speaks, but wisdom listens." Jimi Hendrix

"Education is a progressive discovery of our own ignorance." Will Durant

"Learning is an experience. Everything else is just information." Albert Einstein

"Commit yourself to lifelong learning. The most valuable asset you'll ever have is your mind and what you put into it." Brian Tracey

"Every time man makes a new experiment he always learns more. He cannot learn less." R. Buckminster Fuller

"Science is organised knowledge. Wisdom is organised life." Will Durant

"I am always doing that which I cannot do, in order that I may learn how to do it." Pablo Picasso

"We are born not to be perfect, but to learn and reflect from imperfections" Princess Ramirez

"Light up the darkness." Bob Marley

"Education is not preparation; education is life itself." John Dewey

"Wisdom comes not from age, but from education and learning." Anton Chekhov

"All the world is my school and all humanity is my teacher." George Whitman

"Learning never exhausts the mind." Leonardo da Vinci

"The mind is not a vessel to be filled, but a fire to be ignited." Plutarch

"The beautiful thing about learning is nobody can take it away from you." B.B. King

"We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, therefore, is not an act, but a habit." Aristotle

"Much to learn, you still have." Yoda

"You can never be overdressed or overeducated." Oscar Wilde

"Education is the key to unlocking the world, a passport to freedom." Oprah Winfrey

"Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I learn." Benjamin Franklin

"The capacity to learn is a gift; the ability to learn is a skill; the willingness to learn is a choice." Brian Herbert

"The roots of education are bitter, but the fruit is sweet." Aristotle

"You do not learn to walk by following rules. You learn by doing, and falling over." Richard Branson

"You don't understand anything until you learn it more than one way." Marvin Minsky

"Live as if you were to die tomorrow. Learn as if you were to live forever." Mahatma Gandhi

"Mistakes are great, the more I make the smarter I get." R. Buckminster Fuller

"Education's responsibility is to replace an empty mind with an open one." Malcolm Forbes

"Education is not the filling of a pail, but the lighting of a fire." W.B. Yeats

"In learning you will teach, and in teaching you will learn." Phil Collins

"I had six honest men. They taught me all I knew. Their names were: Where, What, When, Why, How and Who." Rudyard Kipling

"Self-education is, I firmly believe, the only kind of education there is." Isaac Asimov

"I am still learning." Michelangelo, age 87

"Teaching is only demonstrating that it is possible. Learning is making it possible for yourself." Paulo Coelho

"Education is not the learning of facts, but the training of the mind to think." Albert Einstein

"Education is the movement from darkness to light." Allan Bloom

"I am learning all the time. The tombstone will be my diploma." Eartha Kitt

"You cannot open a book without learning something." Confucius

"Gold has a price, but learning is priceless." Chinese Proverb

"Real learning comes about when the competitive spirit has ceased." Jiddu Krishnamurti

"For the best return on your money, pour your purse into your head." Benjamin Franklin

"It does not matter how slowly you go as long as you do not stop." Confucius

"It’s taken me all my life to learn what not to play." Dizzy Gillespie

"The noblest pleasure is the joy of understanding." Leonardo da Vinci

"I was obliged to be industrious. Whoever is equally industrious will succeed equally well." Johann Sebastian Bach

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Flexible learning pathways: A more relevant future for all

Transitioning towards flexible learning pathways that widen education opportunities for youths and adults is a crucial policy focus for revitalising higher education systems. By doing so, we can address the triple policy objectives of improving access, quality, and equity in higher education provision. Learning pathways outline the sequential advancement of learning vertically across different levels and establish the comparability of diverse types of learning horizontally at corresponding levels. These pathways are clearly illustrated in the charts of national education systems, if not the national qualifications frameworks available in many countries. However, traditional education systems are usually characterised by limited options for academic and vocational learning programmes, as well as the closed nature of the progression of different learning routes, particularly for students transitioning from secondary to higher education. The new global Higher Education Roadmap,  Beyond Limits: New Ways to Reinvent Higher Education , unveiled by UNESCO at the World Higher Education Conference 2022 [WHEC 2022], advocates flexible learning pathways that connect different levels and types of learning, aiming to ‘enlarge education opportunities for youth and adults and avoid dead ends.’ This vision is also carried out by diverse partners worldwide through  UNESCO’s new Digital Transformation Collaborative . Learning pathways are fundamental to public and private sector efforts to transform education and achieve the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030.

Massification of higher education

The massification of and universal access to higher education make it necessary for countries to diversify their higher education provision. Indeed, increased access should be accompanied by more flexible and diverse learning pathways regarding content and orientation. The expansion of the non-university higher education sector in the Global North in the past century, such as polytechnics and community colleges which were market-oriented and employment-driven, exemplify such changes. Flexibility is often associated with improved agility, relevance and customisation of learning programmes to meet the specific needs of learners and labour markets. However, it is recognised that classroom-based university education, while capable of producing graduates on a large scale, can come at the expense of individuality, specificity and the relevance of the learning programmes. The use of technology has undeniably played a pivotal role in enhancing access to higher education for diverse social groups, particularly those who face disadvantages or barriers. Furthermore, technology has significantly diversified the delivery modalities, empowering learners with enhanced flexibility and personalised options across various learning programmes, whether these programmes are delivered online, offline or through blended learning approaches. With learning spaces expanded by leveraging technologies and embracing lifelong learning perspectives, there is a need to enhance the informality of formal learning by implementing flexible learning pathways. Conversely, non-formal and informal learning should be further formalised by aligning them with national quality frameworks and standards. The global COVID-19 pandemic expedited the adoption of flexible modalities of programme delivery aided by information and communications technologies (ICTs). As we enter the post-pandemic era, online and blended learning persist as the prevailing norms and will continue to be integrated into national higher education ecosystems.

The need for diversity

In terms of learning content, fostering learning flexibility entails creating a diverse range of parallel learning programmes encompassing various tracks and orientations. These programmes should be designed to accommodate individual learners’ diverse talents, interests and aptitudes while maintaining relevance to the labour market and societal needs. Colleges and universities do not face any issues regarding the diversity of learning programmes. It is essential for them to establish, however, robust mechanisms to consistently review and update both national and institutional catalogues of majors, disciplines, programmes and subjects linked to learning programmes. This would empower us to meet the ever-evolving needs of individuals and societies effectively. Further reflection is needed regarding lower-level learning programmes, such as school-leaving diplomas and certificates, to better equip students for diverse learning tracks in higher education. The traditional binary divisions between social and human sciences, natural sciences and academic and vocational tracks at the high school level should be replaced with flexible learning pathways that offer diverse tracks and orientations. Incorporating various forms of learning can significantly augment the flexibility of educational programmes. Once regarded as the sole recognised form of learning, campus and classroom-based formal learning has been progressively complemented by non-formal and informal learning in various environments, including experiential learning within communities, workplaces and beyond. In a similar vein, flexible learning pathways involve going beyond traditional in-person programmes to embrace diverse delivery modalities empowered by technology. Online and blended learning programmes, reinforced by the principles and utilisation of open educational resources (OERs), massive open online courses (MOOCs) and micro-credentials, have thus become integral to national higher education ecosystems. Finally, diversifying learning providers is a crucial aspect of flexible learning pathways. Establishing and gaining recognition for new learning providers, particularly from the private sector, poses challenges alongside traditional colleges and universities. However, new providers have clear advantages: they offer small learning programmes with micro-credentials; they leverage technology for support; and they adapt swiftly to evolving end-user needs.

Qualification frameworks

Establishing and implementing National Qualifications Frameworks (NQFs) is critical for making flexible learning pathways work without causing learning fragmentation. NQFs are reference points to ensure that different levels and types of learning programmes can be vertically and horizontally connected under common quality frameworks and standards. The essential components of the NQFs are the level descriptors that benchmark learning outcomes and the ways to achieve them for different levels of learning programmes. With these crucial tools, flexible learning pathways can be established while ensuring the connectivity, coherence, equivalency, transferability and stackability of diverse learning programmes. With support from the Korea-Funds-in-Trust, UNESCO Bangkok has developed two sets of regional guidelines based on the best policies and practices from experience-rich countries in the Asia-Pacific region. These guidelines aim to assist member states in establishing and implementing NQFs effectively through inclusive stakeholder consultations and extensive international referencing. Substantial challenges remain for the full and meaningful functioning of NQFs, including their operationalisation at the institutional, programme and subject levels; the availability of financial resources required; the establishment of solid and supportive credit bank systems; collective understanding and ownership of the quality frameworks and standards among critical actors and stakeholders; and the buy-in of faculty members at colleges and universities. In recent years, UNESCO Bangkok has extended its support to Bhutan, Fiji, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia and Viet Nam in establishing, implementing, reviewing and updating their NQFs. However, such support has primarily focused on supporting the countries to regulate and harmonise learning outcomes for traditional learning programmes. Additional efforts should be made to link NQFs with developing and implementing flexible learning pathways.

New learning providers

To accommodate flexible learning pathways, it becomes imperative to diversify the range of learning providers available. Given the limited financial and human resources on the part of governments, it is understandable that we should promote greater private involvement in higher education. In fact, private higher education institutions have emerged as prominent learning providers in many countries. Looking at the issue from the supply and demand perspectives, it becomes evident that the current higher education systems, including public and private institutions, are primarily supply-dominated. Better coordination mechanisms could enhance the resonance and alignment between the supply and demand sides. Learning providers closer to the demand side, such as professional bodies, businesses, enterprises and private sector providers which are more sensitive to the needs of individuals and job markets should therefore be encouraged to emerge and flourish. Appropriate measures should be taken to alleviate or remove regulatory barriers associated with their accreditation and licensing. New learning providers are usually tech-savvy and thus at the forefront of leveraging the power of technology. They enable learning programmes to be delivered in non-traditional modes via online and blended learning. Attention therefore should be given to ensure they have robust learning platforms and resources to provide quality and relevant learning programmes. To facilitate the expansion and diversification of learning providers, it is necessary to re-evaluate the conventional criteria for institutional accreditation. Physical infrastructure should extend beyond the campus, encompassing dormitories, buildings, labs, computing centres, libraries, and so forth. Such infrastructure should include enhanced IT infrastructure, e-learning platforms, training for faculty on the pedagogical use of technology, and more. UNESCO promotes cross-border recognition of qualifications, including those obtained via non-traditional modes, through regional and global conventions on academic recognition. We urge more countries to ratify these frameworks and extend their support to new learning providers within their respective national higher education ecosystems.

Blurred boundaries

With flexible learning pathways, we will see increasing diversification of learning venues and how learning is organised. The boundary between formal, non-formal and informal learning has been blurred, as formal learning can now happen outside the classroom and university campus. Community-based and workplace-based learning is not only part of extracurricular activities but also part of formal learning. To address these new scenarios effectively, the implementation of institutional changes is crucial. This involves incorporating flexible modalities of programme delivery into national qualifications frameworks at the system level. Additionally, these changes should also be adequately reflected in the national subject, professional, and occupational quality standards, ensuring smooth operationalisation and localisation at both the institutional and programme levels. For the less centralised systems, colleges and universities should update their internal quality regulations to allow faculty members to incorporate flexible learning modalities into their routine learning programmes. Expanded learning spaces require faculty members to be trained in ICT and pedagogical skills for quality lesson planning, delivery, and reflection – thereby ensuring continuous improvement. Formal learning is no longer exclusive to the classroom. Instead, it can take place in diverse settings such as communities, workplaces and homes. Often, non-traditional spaces provide more effective and relevant learning experiences. These venues offer students not only predetermined learning experiences but also context-specific, tailor-made opportunities for generative learning. Recognising the utilisation of new learning spaces, previously considered non-formal and informal, as an indicator of quality learning is essential. Faculty members now possess the potential to plan, adjust and create learning environments that unlock the predetermined and generative aspects of their learning programmes following the specific parameters of each programme.

Diverse and open educational resources

Flexible learning pathways have sparked a notable diversification of learning resources. While traditional paper-based materials like textbooks remain valuable, they are now effectively supplemented by various online and offline e-learning materials. This shift has significantly improved the relevance and updating frequency of learning resources. The internet has emerged as the largest Open Educational Resources (OER) platform, offering convenient self-learning opportunities empowered by powerful search engines and collaborative tools for knowledge creation and sharing. This transformation has reduced the need for extensive teacher intervention, transforming their role from mere knowledge transmitters to learning facilitators. The rapid progress of ChatGPT has highlighted the crucial roles of artificial intelligence (AI) in advancing education and training. With the infusion of big data, exponential advancements in computing power and the emergence of innovative algorithms, future AI tools can revolutionise teaching and supervision. Therefore, proactive preparation is vital, considering its impact on quality and ethics. At the same time, more organised and thematic quality OERs should be developed through increased public investment and innovative public-private partnerships to expand and enrich students' learning experiences. It would be beneficial to see the global and regional flow of quality content and pedagogy to bridge the quality gaps that continue to exist among countries in various regions. MOOCs can help downsize learning volumes and enhance the agility, flexibility and relevance of learning programmes. However, they should also be quality assured through micro-credentialing to avoid learning fragmentation, and to ensure seamless integration into the national higher education ecosystems underpinned by NQFs.  

Looking ahead

In summary, transitioning towards flexible learning pathways is a crucial policy focus for revitalising our higher education systems. By doing so, we can effectively address the triple policy objectives of improving access, quality and equity in higher education provision. We must take a holistic approach to conceptualising flexible learning pathways, taking into account the diversification of learning programmes; the expansion of learning spaces beyond traditional campuses and classrooms; the involvement of new learning providers; the availability of enriched learning materials and resources; and the utilisation of multiple delivery modalities empowered by technology. National quality frameworks are essential academic infrastructure, ensuring the quality and relevance of flexible learning pathways and preventing the negative impact of learning fragmentation. Furthermore, integrating MOOCs, OERs and micro-credentials can transform our higher education systems towards a more flexible and relevant future for all societies.

This is a lightly adapted version of a keynote speech delivered by the author at the International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies on Higher Education (INQAAHE) 17th Biennial Conference on 'Roadmap to Enabling Quality in Tertiary Education 2030', held from 29 May to 1 June 2023 in Astana, Kazakhstan. It is reprinted by UNESCO Bangkok with kind permission of University World News, where the article first appeared on 17 June 2023 .

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About the authors

Libing Wang is Chief of Section for Education at the UNESCO Regional Office in Bangkok, Thailand.

This article is related to the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals .

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Flexible Learning Experiences

Design and implement engaging and flexible learning experiences for individuals and groups

This has been my main focal point for the time I have been taking my postgraduate diploma in secondary education.  I have learnt that through experience that effective blending of learning and technology gives an excellent flexible model that applies in learning situations for both individuals and groups. I also have immense knowledge in computer troubleshooting and software applications something that will allow me to effectively utilize and dispense electronic and multimedia learning resources which form a vital constituent of online and flexible learning experiences for instance I have been able to prepare comprehensive online models about digestive system and other important science topics which I intend to employ when teaching junior science and biology. Therefore by embracing technology I intend to break the challenges that usually come with teaching science subjects among juniors.

During the course of my studies I have acquired a strong comprehension of learning theories that add to constructive learning experiences, i.e. Piaget and Vygotsky. For instance, I am in a position to evaluate development of skills and knowledge and judge diverse learning theories to get a suitable approach to a given learning situation. For example, through countless assessment of year 10 science class, I learnt a Socratic and POE method is more effective. The students are very involved and inquisitive.  This is accomplished via facilitated theoretical discussions to encourage them to share their ideas, opinions and personal experiences.  

For the time I have been undertaking my postgraduate diploma in secondary education, I have been appropriately exposed on how to develop and implement learning resources (ICT visual aids, computers, whiteboards, telescopes, etc.) in the classroom and also the tools required for effective class management especially when dealing with junior science and biology which is my area of specialization. For instance, starting with simple gathering of handouts, online resources, and textbooks am in a position to create a unique lesson plan that employs a variety of interactive tutorials and class collaboration that are appropriate for flexible delivery and varying student demographics. This will help me to be appropriately prepared to ensure that science concepts that are perceived difficult are appropriately understood by adopting this flexible approach.   

Flexibility also requires one to be all-encompassing especially. In the course of my training, I have equipped myself with appropriate knowledge that will help me to effectively look into this important aspect. For instance during my diversity and inclusive teaching course and Society and Cultural Contexts of Education,  I was able to explore arguments about the nature of inclusion and exclusion and how policy and legislation impact on my own teaching practice – i.e., indigenous policies, Disability and Discrimination Act, etc.

During my stint as an associate teacher, flexibility was also utilized  by regularly changing the learning environment from the routine of full class schedule of lectures to 30 minute lectures; sometimes followed by lab practicals, collaborative classroom discussion or handouts, interactive online activities. I realized that this had a positive impact in provoking the students to fully participate in learning. I plan to utilize this flexibility concept in my teaching career to develop and promote junior science and biology.

During my training as a teacher I have learnt the ideas of social capital (students’ families and communities) and the value that education holds to the society. This will be indispensable in my career as a teacher as it will allow me decide on strategies and resources that will aid me in realizing flexible and diverse ways is essential in setting up an inclusive environment where all students can learn to be supported. The knowledge that I have acquired in the course of my training on literacy and numeracy issues will put me in a perfect position to build and execute flexible avenues of presenting information i.e. PowerPoint presentations or ICT visual demonstrations. I plan to employ these avenues while teaching junior science and biology as tools to effectively explain various science concepts and to make sure that all students develop an insight on these concepts. 

Although it has been considered that curriculum is an aspect that is beyond teacher control, during my studies as a teacher I went through a relevant course in curriculum that enabled me acknowledge factors and influences in developing and implementing a curriculum that can have an effect on the inclusiveness of a class or subject. This helped me realize the role I should play as a teacher in implementing a curriculum that conforms to institutional, legislative and social requirements.

Design and implement learning experiences that develop language, literacy and numeracy

Schools in Australia are characterized by many international students whom nearly all, English is a second language. This creates a big challenge for science teachers like me in making sure that students comprehend various science concepts which are often written in English. This has demanded the awareness and development of language, literacy and numeracy issues in both this client group and the general population. In the course of developing my career, I have prepared myself properly to this situation by developing an understanding on the correlation between socio-economics, social and cultural transformation and educational policies and practice which can be applied to literacy and numeracy. I being from a diversified background, that is, an African American, I am better placed to analyze and evaluate the impact of these and the frameworks of the classroom, learning institutions and community. During my training as a teacher I was exposed to appropriate knowledge and practice in the procedures employed in critical reflection of my own practice of teaching literacy and numeracy. This will play a significant role in my career as a science teacher by ensuring that various science topics are approached in a way that all students comprehend irrespective of the background.  

During the course of my training as a teacher I acquired an insight into curriculum development.  I was introduced to the concepts of intended, enacted and experienced curriculum. This equips me with appropriate tools on this issue that will enable me to effectively examine the relations between the intents and execution of literacy and numeracy in the classroom with the aspiration of promoting teaching of science subjects. I also equipped myself with knowledge on strategies that are employed and enacting the provisions of literacy and numeracy in various learning environments. Monitoring and refreshing my own literacy and numeracy competence through keeping up to date with new technologies, current and relevant curriculum documents, continual reading and subscription to journals and websites. This will enable me to come up with new ways of overcoming challenges in teaching junior science and biology which always demands new and innovative ways. 

The following are literacy strategies I have been able to incorporate into the classrooms:

• Key Word Pictures- this proved to be a great one for the students that really tried, but most ended up just drawing the word. It’s a challenging option for the advanced learners. To ensure that all students are involved, this strategy needs a lot of modeling. I was able to develop the following model which proved to be very viable: Draw the first (appropriate) thing you think of when you hear the word. (i.e., for autotroph, most drew a car), Then read or discuss the definition of the word. Now, draw something else that incorporates your first picture and the meaning of the word. (With the car, some drew the car performing photosynthesis, some drew it flipping a burger-making its own food, and some drew it eating out a trough-like a farm pig!) .I also had them summarize the definition is 5 words or less (autotroph=makes own food-photosynthesis).
• Write, Read, Read, Trade-This strategy worked out like this: – Students write down one example, characteristic, etc about the topic. – Everyone stands, finds a partner, and both people read everything on their card. –  They then write down what the other person said & trade cards. -They continue to find a partner until they have a card with 4 things (characteristics, examples) on it. – When everyone is finished call on students to read one thing off the card while you write them on the board & students cross it out if it’s on their card.  They can’t sit down until they have everything crossed out.

This strategy worked out excellently and helped me in ensuring that every student was actively involved in learning. This method will be of great help to me in as a science teacher because science subjects calls for full participation among students and exposing students to ways which will help them think critically while learning. While undertaking my postgraduate diploma in secondary education, I was exposed to various assessment techniques. I was able to identify that formative assessment is indispensable in assessing and supervising literacy and numeracy demands in students and in science subjects at large. I was also able to equip myself with an understanding on the criterion involved in reporting the results of assessment efficiently.

Various course materials that I have covered on literacy during my training through reading and through qualitative and quantitative research have also helped to develop an awareness of different types of literacies and equip me with the capability to evaluate and analyze the content and purpose of various learning materials. I was also exposed to various literacy theories and how they are applied or used in various classroom situations. My immense knowledge on ICT will play a critical part in my career in helping medesign and implement learning experiences that develop and promote language in science, literacy and numeracy. This can be accomplished through consistently monitoring and evaluating language and comprehension of science development of the students through the use of various observations, assessments and lab practicals.   

Design and implement intellectually challenging learning experiences

Learning is the foundation to teaching. In the course my career building it has been my aspiration to design and implement challenging and appropriate learning experiences. In the course of my studies I was able to develop an insight of concepts involved course development which will play an indispensable role in my career as a teacher in creating challenging learning experiences this employed brainstorming activities to which students incorporated ideas, solutions, possibilities and consequences when given a task; included questioning techniques where as an associate teacher I asked open and close ended-questions; carried out Predict Observe Explain activities where I describe to the students what I am about to do. Their role is to predict and explain what will happen. This worked out excellently and helped me a lot in conveying various science concepts that otherwise student will find hard to comprehend.

While undertaking my studies, I was effectively exposed to various research methodologies, criterion involved in interpreting and setting up an applicable research and inquiry through validating and analyzing quantitative and qualitative research and designing feasible research projects. This equips me with the necessary tools to deal with difficulties that are involved in designing and implementing intellectually challenging learning experiences. In my studies I was able to learn various theoretical foundations which will enable me to decide on the most effective ways of coping with difficulties that entails a variety of complicated issues for instance I am now in a position to utilize proper approaches for important learning that advance student inquisition and high-order thinking. This will be a vital tool at my disposal through my career as a science teacher.

During my studies I covered various course materials on teaching literacy and numeracy. This will be vital in my career as it will help me to categorize and execute appropriate goal setting activities that are both diverse and challenging in nature. Through observing in-class and numeracy am now in a position to utilize various teaching approaches and atmosphere to encourage students through inquiry and engagement. This knowledge is going to help me a lot as a junior science and biology teacher.

While undertaking my post graduate diploma in secondary education, I covered a variety of course materials that have given me an understanding and practice of making use of diverse and challenging learning atmospheres where student knowledge is build and redeveloped through their own critical reflections and experiences. In addition to this, I come from diversified origin thus I will be better placed in my career to design and implement even the most challenging learning experiences.

Also during my studies I went through theories and practices of setting up an inclusive and clear assessment model that will enable individual and group learning. This will play a vital role in my career because analyzing learning requirements and evaluating both the results and the learning itself forms a very significant part of the critical reflection that is essential in developing proper and challenging learning environments. I was also able to learn how to implement inclusive teaching in classroom and the role that it plays in providing the procedure on how to include all students into a purposeful and engaging learning environment. The course materials that I covered on curriculum while undertaking my postgraduate diploma in secondary education equipped me with knowledge on how to put into practice various learning experiences in the classroom set-up in a way that looks into the best satisfaction of the stakeholders in education.           

Design and implement learning experiences that value diversity

Diversity is a very significant element that should always be valued in classrooms especially in Australia which is characterized with students of varying backgrounds. Diversity can be used as learning in itself. Diversity was the key aspect when I was covering my course work on diversity and inclusive teaching in college. This requires that a teacher should acknowledge and appreciate community and student diversity so that he or she is in a position to setup an inclusive environment that brings every student on board. While undergoing my training I came across a variety of learning theories that can be employed in diverse learning experiences, this includes some of the theoretical foundations that will enable me solve problems that entails a range of complicated parameters and how I can put into use right approaches for learning that reflect the knowledge and experiences of students. Myself being an element of diversity, I stand out as a teacher who has a better understanding of what diversity is and how to embrace diversity to promote learning among students irrespective of the challenges that come with it.

The course materials on teaching literacy and numeracy that I covered while training gave me appropriate knowledge and practice of teaching procedures that I can employ as part of diverse learning experiences. While training as a teacher, I have been prepared by being exposed into practices in both design and implementation of experiences through use of various theories and approaches that takes into consideration individual and group learning that bring everybody on board. I intend to use this knowledge to promote learning especially for science subject where I have specialized.

During my training I covered various contemporary theories of diversity and their application in relation to teaching. This will be significant in helping me implementing and designing learning experiences that value diversity. I have also been appropriately exposed to use of technology in meeting teaching objectives and challenges, this has enabled me appreciate the role that ICT plays as part of the diverse learning experience. I have realized that technology plays a critical role in implementing diversity models especially when teaching science subjects.

I understand through experience and exposure through course materials that each individual student has a learning history with unique social-economic and cultural background. This has given me knowledge of the response of schools to diverse learning environments and the impact of not providing diverse learning environment. The fact that I come from I diverse cultural background (Africa-American in Australia) has made me aware of cross cultural perspectives that should be taken into consideration in designing and implementing viable learning experiences that value diversity.   

Assess and report constructively on student learning

While I was undertaking my post graduate diploma in secondary education I covered various course materials on how to effectively assess and report on student learning. This also provided me with knowledge and rigorous practice of designing and implementing assessment. I was able to appreciate the significance that extensive analysis and planning plays in assessing both the students and learning environment especially when teaching science subjects.

Through my teaching course I was exposed to various practices employed in identifying and establishing learning assessment objectives and providing support for students in the classroom. In the course of my training a was able to attend various teaching seminars that gave me an insight of the range of teaching activities and how to design flexible and effective assessment tools in classroom. For instance I was able to learn skills required in conducting and reporting on classroom observable activities such as recording learning events and analyzing and evaluating them in terms of skills and knowledge required- something that worked out well when I was teaching some science topics. During my training I was able to cover various learning theories that gave me a chance to comprehend behavioral, cognitive and social aspects of learning. I have learnt how these theories can be used to analyze the strengths and limitations of cognitive learning in certain learning environment and instructional approaches. I was also able to cover models of inclusive training which gave practice at setting up realistic and learning objectives that puts into account the requirements and expectations of various stakeholders in education in an ethical and inclusive manner.

Through training and attending various workshops on curriculum development, I have been introduced to concepts of intended, enacted and experienced curriculum which has put me in a position to be able to analyze the correlation between the’ intends’ and implementation of learning goals. I was also able to learn activities that are involved in carrying out assessment and reporting and how to design and implement provisions of assessment within education. During this time I was exposed to various theoretical principles that can be utilized in setting learning objectives and goals, assessing student progress and assessing the methods of teaching and assessment used. 

During my training I was able to gain knowledge on the procedures and practices that are employed in gathering information on student capabilities and progress in both the classroom and individual student.  I was also able to appreciate the value of reviewing my own approaches to planning, teaching and assessment.

Support personal development and participation in society

While training as a teacher I covered various course materials such as inclusive teaching, society and cultural context in education, and Development and Learning helped me realize the significance of connecting societal aspects in learning environments to support personal development and involvement in the society. Reflection on my history shows my propensity to lifelong learning, a way of sustaining my personal development and techniques of supporting student development.  During my training I attended several seminars and workshops on the effect of globalization on work, education and leisure (Women at Work and Indigenous cultural awareness). This helped realize strategies and obligations of teachers in blending the concept of globalization into learning environment in order to promote personal development and participation in this ever diversifying society. I intend to use this knowledge to promote learning especially for science subjects.

During my training and at work, I have been exposed to various communication models that can be used in various learning environment to instigate participation among learners. I have also come to learn that participation in any society requires that effective communication models to be put in place. During my training I was exposed to models of inclusive teaching that enable me acknowledge the correlation between the sociological background of students and their personal development and engagement both in the learning environment and in the community at large. This also gave me practice of implementing experiences that uphold these theories.

The course materials that I have covered on curriculum development introduced me into various concepts and theories that will enable me to develop teaching approaches that will foster positive learning environment and participation among the students. This has also equipped me with knowledge on various models that can be used to design and implement the provisions of societal development within education.

While undertaking my postgraduate diploma in secondary education, I was able to learn through course material and through seminars and workshops the theoretical principles that will enable me to decide on the most effective ways of resolving problems that involve a range of complex factors. Because of this am now in a position to use right approaches for significant learning that support and promote engagement outside classroom. 

I have also covered in great details literacy and numeracy and also research procedures involved in various aspects of teaching. This has enabled me to effectively use observation as one of the models of assessing student behavior and development.

I have also been able to cover a wide range of teaching practices including how to implement a wide range of learning experiences. This will provide me with a wide range tools that I will use in making sure that the teaching model I will employ in teaching science lessons effectively takes into account student participation and at the same time support personal development of all students.  I have also been able to learn various theoretical frameworks that can be used to design and implement learning experiences that provide active engagement for a wide range of learners.

Create and maintain safe and supportive learning environments

During my training I covered various course materials that have equipped me with knowledge and practice of this standard of creating and maintaining safe and supportive learning environment. I have gained an insight of motivation and behavioral theories and how to implement them in classroom set up in order to create a safe and supportive environment for the learners.  For instance the course materials that I covered on curriculum development have equipped me with various models that can be used in setting up and implementing supportive learning environments. This will enable me to meet various needs of involved parties by adopting and implementing appropriate models that will enact safe and supportive learning environment.  

During my training I attended several workshops and seminars that gave me understanding and practice in promoting positive social interaction and active learning. Also through this exposure and through course work materials I was able to acknowledge various theoretical foundations that will allow me to determine the most appropriate means in resolving problems that involve a range of complex factors.  I intend to use this knowledge in developing strategies and resources that use the correct approaches for supporting different learning types that promote teaching of science subjects.

The contemporary research and theories that I learnt when covering my course work for instance on literacy and numeracy will assist me in setting up a supportive learning environments that takes into account the individual needs and expectations by the students. My course work also exposed me to theories and practice in individual and group motivation, learning differences and behavioral modification. This will play a fundamental role when developing and implementing safe and supportive environment that satisfies the needs of all learners. I was also able to learn how to implement various learning environments by employing a variety of learning and behavioral management models.

Foster positive and productive relationships with families and the community

Several content of my course work involved analyzing how teaching policy and practice relates to the community. Rapid transformation in society, family structures and economies has an impact on the relationship between education institutions, teachers, families, business and government.  An understanding of these issues will endow with me with the capability to put up positive relationships within both the teaching, and wider community.

During my training as a teacher I was able to acquire tools through course work, seminars, workshops and experience that will help me measure positive community relationships and actions. For instance while researching on the theory of ethics, I found the ideas of communitarianism, consequentialism and situational ethics particularly relevant to myself and my professional relationships. My course work materials on inclusive teaching will help me to develop models of setting up relationships both in class and outside classrooms that cater for a range of student. This will play a significant role in my career in ensuring that am in a position to promote and foster positive and productive relationships not only in class room but also outside classrooms including families and communities.

I have also been effectively exposed to the practice in setting up teaching and learning programs through the use of community based learning activities and collaboration with stakeholders. By making sure that all parties (students, teachers, parents and the community at large) are involved, it helps to easily set up and foster relationship with families and the community. I have also been able to develop knowledge on the theoretical foundations that will enable me apply a range of communication models and to utilize correct approaches for promoting the values and achievement of goals as part of education and the wider community.  

My course work on curriculum Development that I covered during my post graduate diploma in secondary has enabled me to realize how different models can be employed to design and enact the provision relationships with community and education sector. This will play a vital role in ensuring that in my career as a teacher I meet this standard of fostering positive productive relations with families.

During my training I covered several course materials and did a few researches on various teaching strategies which gave me immense knowledge on the practice of wide teaching methodologies that create enriched teaching and learning programs with the aspiration of ensuring that positive and productive relations with families and communities are fostered. Also during my training I was able to develop an insight into the many stakeholders of education here in Australia and strategies that can be utilized in setting up and sustaining positive relations with these stakeholders. For instance by identifying the resources that the stakeholders have and utilizing them in learning and teaching programs. 

List of teams you are a member of and your role

I also acknowledge the significance of teamwork among teachers and student. This is because when complicated issues are approached as a group they are easily solved than when solved individually. During my training I have been a member and sometimes a leader of various teams that have completed various tasks given by our instructor. I have also assisted students form science discussion groups which helped them to collectively face some challenging science topics.  Although working as a team comes with challenges, I understand the aspects that should be emphasized to ensure success. Some of these include effective communication, negotiation, time management, conflict resolution and problem solving techniques.

For the time I have been undergoing training I have gained an insight into the values of peer moderation and participation in team environment. The training that I have gone through promotes the use of goal setting, communication, and negotiation and emphasizes the roles of responsibilities of teams and teaching professional. This has enabled me to appreciate that challenges that we have a head of us as teachers and how I can cooperate with other members of my profession to overcome them and contribute positively to the teaching profession.

Through training and research I have exposed myself appropriately on education change issues and analysis theories against practical situations. Having knowledge of this issues and impacts will enable me to contribute to team management within the learning institute more efficiently. I have also been able to cover in great details through course work and research about values and ethics that are involved in teaching profession. This has helped me to examine and understand issues within teams and justify recommended courses of actions based on ethical grounds. My course work on inclusive gave me practice in enhancing student learning and the critical self-reflection processes used to improve the learning and teaching process. I was also able to cover various assessment models that gives me knowledge to effectively assess learning, teaching programs and teamwork.

Also through my course work I have learnt assessment models that can be used to evaluate group performance and factors that should be emphasized to ensure high performing groups for instance embracing concepts of participation, effective communication and group motivation. I have also been able to appreciate the roles and responsibilities of school-based and other professional teams and how they can be efficiently setup and implemented in meeting various objectives in the learning environments.

Commit to reflective practice and ongoing professional renewal

For the time that that I have been exposed to teaching career I have been able to appreciate the changing role of teachers in the modern learning environment. I describe myself as a learner who reflects on the changing role of the teacher in modern learning environments. During my training I learnt how to identify and assess the contributions of others to the education field.

I have also been able to develop reflective practice in the course of my training. This is something that will help me to acknowledge various ethical dimensions to various situations in the education sector and employ ethical perspectives in designing various ways on how to improve learning activities both inside and outside classrooms and also in identifying areas that needs improvement in learning situations. During the time I have been training as a teacher I have also equipped myself with critical reflection skills that are indispensable in professional development and in building my own teaching and learning skills. I was also able to acknowledge the value of keeping skills up to date so that I am always in a position to overcome various challenges in the profession and to always deliver the best. I have learnt that this can be effectively done through continuous improvement of my current skills through research and embracing technology. During my training I went through mentoring programs through clinical supervision cycles and critical reflection of teaching practices that will enable me to positively develop my profession. Also various research models that I have been exposed to will enable me to identify and asses the contribution of others to the education sector.   

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Flexible Learning Engagements: Exploring the Lived Experiences of the Learners in the New Normal

2022, OAlib

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Home — Essay Samples — Life — Personal Growth and Development — Reflective My Learning Experience

Reflective My Learning Experience

• Categories: Personal Growth and Development

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Published: Mar 19, 2024

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Boosting student success through flexible learning spaces.

How To Increase Student Success Through Flexible Learning Environments

As the world evolves, so does our understanding of education and the spaces in which students learn. While strict, quiet classrooms were once seen as the pinnacle of appropriate education, today, attitudes are beginning to change. Flexible learning spaces are emerging as a potent way to help students learn more enjoyably and effectively. As such, they are beginning to rise in popularity and become a bigger priority for educational institutions across the country. Understanding the ways these alternative educational environments benefit students can make it easier to understand their growing popularity and implementation. Here is how flexible learning spaces are boosting student success.

What Are Flexible Learning Spaces?

The concept of flexible learning spaces is broad and can come in a variety of shapes and sizes. At their core, flexible learning spaces are meant to be adaptable and more engaging, being able to suit a variety of the unique needs of individual students. Typically, these spaces will include moveable furniture that can be altered to fit certain lessons, along with spaces conducive to a variety of different teaching methods. Ultimately, these spaces aim to be welcoming and malleable environments that are conducive to a variety of educational activities, ranging from one-on-one instruction to intensive group projects. As time goes on, it is more than likely that many aspects of flexible learning spaces will be incorporated into all classrooms in order to improve, bolster, and encourage student success.

How Flexible Learning Spaces Benefit Students

Though moveable furniture may seem like an inconsequential trait in the grand scheme of educational ventures, the truth is that flexible learning spaces can benefit students in a variety of significant ways. Gaining an understanding of the various benefits of these educational environments can give one a clearer idea of why they are becoming considered the future of education. Here are some ways that flexible learning environments benefit students.

4 Advantages Of Flexible Learning Spaces

Tailoring education to individual needs.

One of the most valid criticisms of traditional educational methods is the fact that it takes a one-size-fits-all approach to education. As most people are aware, each individual is different and has their own unique needs. When it comes to students, the case is no different, and each individual learns in their own idiosyncratic manner. Because of their malleability, flexible learning spaces are conducive for varying instruction methods to suit students who learn in different ways.

For example, while some students may work better by listening to a lecture, others may have trouble processing information in this way. Flexible learning environments are able to accommodate these students in a variety of ways. One example would be having an area for these students to read along. Another would be having a space for other children to listen to a prerecorded lecture, while the instructor has one-on-one sessions with students who are struggling with a certain subject.

In essence, these educational environments can benefit all students by ensuring that they find a form of learning that suits their needs. In this way, flexible learning environments are able to accomplish an impressive feat that most traditional classrooms fail in doing.

Boosting Student Engagement In The Classroom

Much like different students have different learning styles, different students also have differing stimuli that cause them to feel engaged and attentive. Unfortunately, many students don’t find traditional classrooms very engaging, which can result in them falling behind, feeling unintelligent, and feeling less motivated to apply themselves academically. However, flexible learning environments have the potential to radically alter the learning experience for masses of students. Flexible learning environments have been shown to be incredibly engaging for the majority of students. One key reason for this is their versatility and consistent evolution. This consistent change in environment keeps students engaged and excited, rather than bored.

Another significant reason that students feel more engaged in flexible learning environments is that they have more autonomy over their learning experience. For example, if a certain student needs more time to work on a specific module, they can have a space sectioned off for their personal use. This increased sense of control allows students to feel more engaged and invested in their personal educational and academic experiences.

Cultivating Student Well-Being And Great School Culture

In any educational setting, levels of student well-being should be a top priority. Unfortunately, many educational institutions prioritize academic results over the mental health status of their students, resulting in a stressful learning environment or, in other words, bad school culture. Flexible learning environments have the potential to boost student well-being and improve school culture in key ways.

One significant way that flexible learning environments boost student well-being and improve school culture is by providing a supportive learning environment. In these alternative classrooms, in which unique needs are met, all students truly feel like they are being supported as autonomous individuals. This results in a greater sense of connection to others and improved mental health states. This being the case, it becomes obvious that flexible learning environments can be powerful tools for improving levels of student wellness and school culture.

Improving Academic Results

Believe it or not, new findings are showing that students who learn in flexible learning environments are successful in academic pursuits more frequently than their counterparts who study in traditional classrooms. This indicates that these alternative learning environments, in which students feel more engaged and stimulated, are actually more conducive to learning than rigid classrooms. What’s interesting about these findings is that they highlight a misconception that is quite common in educational institutions around the world. Namely, crafting rigorous learning environments that aren’t very stimulating is the best way to help students retain information and learn at an advanced level.

One potential reason that flexible learning environments increase academic performance in students is the increased level of collaboration with other students. This consistent practice of sharing ideas and working with others helps students develop better critical thinking capabilities. This seems to have a dramatically positive effect on academic pursuits, seemingly making students more capable of thriving and finding solutions to problems. As such, it’s becoming harder and harder for educational institutions to deny the benefit of integrating flexible learning environments into their facilities and curriculums.

Flexible Learning Spaces Are The Future

Though rigid classrooms have reigned supreme as the norm in education for decades, flexible learning environments are quickly rising as a viable alternative. From boosting levels of student engagement to improving academic results, these educational spaces are emerging as a great path for the educational landscape to evolve with the changing times. As such, it is more than likely that flexible educational environments will become a normalized part of schools across the world in the coming decades.

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How to Write Stanford’s “Excited About Learning” Essay

This article was written based on the information and opinions presented by Johnathan Patin-Sauls and Vinay Bhaskara in a CollegeVine livestream. You can watch the full livestream for more info.

What’s Covered:

Choosing an idea vs. an experience, learning for the sake of learning, learning as a means to other ends, be specific.

Stanford University’s first essay prompt asks you to respond to the following:

“ The Stanford community is deeply curious and driven to learn in and out of the classroom. Reflect on an idea or experience that makes you genuinely excited about learning. (100-250 words)”

For this short answer question, your response is limited to a maximum of 250 words. In this article, we will discuss considerations for choosing to write about an idea or experience, ways to demonstrate a love or enthusiasm for learning, and why you should be as specific. For more information and guidance on writing the application essays for Stanford University, check out our post on how to write the Stanford University essays .

Regardless of if you choose either an idea or experience that makes you genuinely excited about learning as a topic, there are a few considerations for each.  

Most people gravitate towards writing about an idea. One challenge that arises with an idea-focused essay is that applicants who are passionate about an idea often become hyper focused on explaining the idea but neglect to connect this idea to who they are as a person and why this idea excites them. 

When writing about an experience, it is important to strike a balance between describing the experience and analyzing the impact of the experience on you, your goals, and your commitment to learning.

This essay question allows you to expand on your joy for learning and your genuine curiosity. Stanford is searching for students who are naturally curious and enjoy the process of learning and educating themselves. For example, a compelling essay could begin with a riveting story of getting lost while hiking the Appalachian Trail and describing how this experience led to a lifelong passion for studying primitive forms of navigation. 

There is a strong tendency among applicants to write about formal academic coursework, however, the most compelling essays will subvert expectations by taking the concept of learning beyond the classroom and demonstrating how learning manifests itself in unique contexts in your life.

If you’re someone for whom learning is a means to other ends, it is important that you convey a sense of genuine enthusiasm and purpose beyond, “I want to go to X school because it will help me get Y job for Z purpose.” You may be motivated to attend college to obtain a certain position and make a comfortable income, however these answers are not necessarily what admissions officers are looking for. Instead, it can be helpful to relate an idea or experience to something more personal to you.

Academic & Professional Trajectory

Consider relating the idea or experience you choose to a major, degree program, research initiative, or professor that interests you at Stanford. Then go beyond the academic context to explain how the idea or experience ties into your future career. 

For instance, if you are interested in the concept of universal health care, then you might describe your interest in applying to public health programs with faculty that specialize in national health care systems. You might then describe your long term career aspirations to work in the United States Senate on crafting and passing health care policy.

Personal Values & Experiences

Another way to tie the ideas in this essay back to a more personal topic is to discuss how the idea or experience informs who you are, how you treat others, or how you experience the world around you. 

You could also focus on an idea or experience that has challenged, frustrated, or even offended you, thereby reinforcing and further justifying the values you hold and your worldview.

Community Building & Social Connectedness

You may also explore how this idea or experience connects you to a particular community by helping you understand, build, and support members of the community. Stanford is looking to find students who will be engaged members of the student body and carry out the community’s core mission, values, and projects, so this essay can be an opportunity to highlight how you would contribute to Stanford. 

Be specific in your choice of idea or the way in which you describe an experience. For example, a response that focuses on the joys of learning philosophy is too broad to be particularly memorable or impactful. However, the mind-body problem looking at the debate concerning the relationship between thought and consciousness is a specific philosophical idea that lends itself to a rich discussion. 

Related CollegeVine Blog Posts

How to Write the Swarthmore College Supplemental Essay: Examples + Guide 2023/2024

TABLE OF CONTENTS

What are the swarthmore college supplemental essay prompts.

• How to write each supplemental essay prompt for Swarthmore College
• Prompt #1: "Community" essay
• Essay Prompt #2: "Learning" essay

If you’re into talking about big abstract ideas like the nature of the universe or niche topics like Vermeer’s choice of texture in that one painting from 1652, Swarthmore College might be the place for you. Located just outside Philadelphia, Swarthmore is known for being very liberal and, in part because of its Quaker history, for its intense focus on community-building. It’s also a place where nerding out is accepted, even celebrated. If this sounds like you, we have some tips and examples below to help you ace your Swarthmore supplemental essay.

Want to get an even better sense of what Swarthmore is looking for? You’ll find an extensive, by-the-numbers look at its offerings, from enrollment and tuition statistics to student life and financial aid information, on its Common Data Set . For deep insights into how this private college envisions student success (and how it wants to grow and evolve), read its Strategic Directions plan .

Swarthmore College Supplemental Essay Prompts

Please complete both prompts below.

Swarthmore College maintains an ongoing commitment of building a diverse, equitable, and inclusive residential community dedicated to rigorous intellectual inquiry. All who engage in our community are empowered through the open exchange of ideas guided by equity and social responsibility to thrive and contribute as bridge builders within global communities. Our identities and perspectives are supported and developed by our immediate contexts and lived experiences – in our neighborhoods, families, classrooms, communities of faith, and more. What aspects of your self-identity or personal background are most significant to you? Reflecting on the elements of your home, school, or other communities that have shaped your life, explain how you have grown in your ability to navigate differences when engaging with others, or demonstrated your ability to collaborate in communities other than your own. (150-250 words)

Swarthmore’s community of learners inspire one another through their collaborative and flexible approach to learning. Swarthmore students are comfortable with intellectual experimentation and connection of ideas across the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and interdisciplinary studies through a liberal arts education. Tell us about a topic that has fascinated you recently – either inside or outside of the classroom. What made you curious about this? Has this topic connected across other areas of your interests? How has this experience shaped you and what encourages you to keep exploring? (150-250 words)

Let’s look at each prompt in more detail.

How to Write each Supplemental Essay Prompt for Swarthmore College

How to write swarthmore supplemental essay prompt #1.

While identity and background can relate to things besides community, one way to approach this prompt is to treat it as what we call a “community essay.” Reflect on how a specific community in your life has shaped you in an important way. Here’s a step-by-step guide to “community” prompts, including multiple samples and analysis, but here’s the short version:

The “What Communities Am I a Part Of?” Exercise

Time: 10-15 minutes

Instructions:  

Step 1: Create a “communities” chart by listing all the communities you’re a part of. Keep in mind that communities can be defined by ...

Place: Groups of people who live/work/play near one another

Action: Groups of people who create change in the world by building, doing, or solving something together (examples: Black Lives Matter, Girls Who Code, March for Our Lives)

Interest: Groups of people coming together based on shared interest, experience, or expertise

Circumstance: Groups of people brought together either by chance or external events/situations

Use four columns in your chart, like this:

Your turn. 

Step 1: Create a “communities” chart by listing as many of your communities as you can think of. Keep in mind that, as shown above, communities can be defined in a variety of ways, including place, culture, interests, political beliefs, hobbies, even your favorite sports team. Get creative.

Step 2: Use the BEABIES exercise to generate your essay content for 2-3 of these communities that seem like your strongest options (as in, they show sides of you that you haven’t gotten to illustrate elsewhere). Simply ask yourself and jot down notes to these questions:

What kinds of problems did I solve or work to solve (personally, locally, or globally) in that community?

What specific impact did I have?

What did I learn (skills, qualities, values)? 

How did I apply the lessons I learned inside and outside that community?

Step 3: Pick a structure for writing this essay and focus on the community that you feel is most compelling and reveals the most about you, then connect those experiences to how you’ll impact the Swarthmore community (for more on how to do this, check our “Why this College” guide ).

Here’s a strong example of a community essay.

I belong to a community of storytellers. Throughout my childhood, my mother and I spent countless hours immersed in the magical land of bedtime stories. We took daring adventures and explored far away lands. Imagination ran wild, characters came to life, and I became acquainted with heroes and lessons that continue to inspire me today. It was a ritual that I will never forget. In school I met many other storytellers­­­­—teachers, coaches, and fellow students whose stories taught me valuable lessons and enabled me to share stories of my own. My stories took shape through my involvement with theatre. I have learned that telling stories can be just as powerful as hearing them. When I tell a story, I can shape the world I live in and share my deepest emotions with the audience. This is exactly why I love theatre so much. The audience can relate to the story in many of the same powerful ways that I do. I love to perform with my theatre class to entertain and educate young audiences throughout my community. To tell our stories, we travel to elementary and middle schools performing plays that help educate younger students of the dangers of drugs, alcohol, and bullying. As storytellers, we aim to touch lives and better the world around us through our stories. (219 words) — — —

Tips + Analysis

Start with a powerful hook, if you can. From the beginning, this student draws you in. Starting off by saying she’s part of “a community of storytellers” is vague, but declarative and intriguing. We want to hear more. The shortness of the sentence adds to its power because it leaves so many questions unanswered. Think of your first sentence (or two) as your first impression on the reader. Starting out strong is a good way to invite them in and engage their interest.

Use structure to create clarity. Notice how the writer breaks her essay into small bite-sized chunks of 2-3 sentences. Instead of one big dense block of text, she’s made the reading experience much more manageable by using mini-paragraphs. Even better is that each block of text touches on slightly different but connected themes and/or moments. The first explores her history of reading stories with her mom, so we get a bit of context as to how storytelling became a force of influence in her life. Then she uses each of the next three paragraphs to map out how storytelling created a broader community outside her home — at school, in theatre, and in the elementary and middle schools where her troupe performs. You can think of this approach as a montage , which we liken to a beaded bracelet, with each short paragraph a bead that connects to an element of the community, and the thread of “storytelling” binding it all together.

Explain the impact you’ve made. Remember, your answer to this question shouldn’t stop at the end of your learning experience. The prompt asks how you’ve “grown or changed” because of the community’s influence on you. Notice how this student talks about learning experiences with her mom and in her theatre program but ends on a final paragraph about teaching younger students in her community. This is an important addition because it conveys a sense of how the student is paying her lessons forward. We all learn lots of things on a daily basis; it’s what we do with that knowledge that sets us apart — and that’s exactly what Swarthmore is seeking to learn about you.

how to write Swarthmore Supplemental Essay Prompt #2

This prompt really gets at the core of Swarthmore’s intellectual spirit. You can tell that school officials place a lot of value on learning, both inside and outside the classroom, and on learning in unconventional ways. That means (yay!) you don’t have to talk about the 20 AP or honors classes you took in high school (besides, all that’s clear from your transcripts). Instead, try to think creatively about what learning looks like and the contexts in which it can take place.

Here are some steps you can take that might help you approach this essay:

Step 1: Do the Values Exercise . Why? Your values are the things that inspire, motivate, and drive you through life, and those are exactly the insights Swarthmore wants to know about you. Use the exercise to come up with your top 10 values, then think of a learning experience that required you to stretch or take a risk—one that also allows you to show as many of the 10 values as you can.

Step 2: As you brainstorm and write, keep referring back to the original question. Notice how Swarthmore asks you to contemplate “what encourages you to keep exploring?” This might get overlooked if you focus all your energy on describing what you learned. Asking thought-provoking questions is an essential part of learning, so don’t feel like you have to have all the answers (in fact, asking complex questions can be more interesting and impressive). 

Step 3: Write it long first, then cut it. In our experience, this tends to be easier than writing a very short version, then trying to figure out what to add.

Step 4: Don’t forget to include specific impacts and reflection. That will allow you to connect your learning experience to a meaningful outcome. You should be able to say, “I did X, and that resulted in Y.” The Y is just as important as the X, because it shows your learning experience paid off and (maybe even) inspired some kind of change. Or, put another way, the “so what” is at least as important as, and generally more important than, the “what” in a prompt like this.

Here’s a great example for this  prompt.

When I was doing customer research for my chemistry practice website, I came across another, much larger issue with education: the lack of personalized learning. It stuck with me. I knew if I could create a solution, I would be helping many students, like my friends, reach their goals. Also, the idea of an engine that can recommend lessons based on your learning style just seemed super cool. As I dug deeper into the issue, I realized I didn’t have the skills to even scratch the surface. So I started developing what I needed to build a system that recommends lessons based on learning style. On my own time, I learned about machine learning algorithms, from linear regressions to k-nearest neighbor classifiers, and whenever I could I applied these skills on mini research projects—finding trends, then using data to create an algorithm that predicts other data. At school, I took a rigorous machine learning course where one of my final projects was using data from Portuguese schools to analyze what factors lead to good grades.  Looking ahead, I’m hoping to study computational neuroscience to properly know how the brain solidifies connections and recalls information. With the two together, I could create a model of how a person learns based on different stimuli, and recommend different lessons based on the stimuli. I still have quite a bit to learn, but if I manage it, it could have a powerful impact on the educations of students around the world. — — —

Tips + Analysis:

Geek out (a bit), but stay on track. Remember that Swarthmore is known for its nerdy and intellectual student body. This prompt is all about embracing that side of yourself. This student does a great job of balancing specific jargon like “linear regressions” and “k-nearest neighbor classifiers” with informal reflections like “the idea of an engine that can recommend lessons based on your learning style just seemed super cool.” This allows him to demonstrate his deep knowledge of the subject without confusing the reader or bogging us down in a bunch of details. You can do this too (just don’t do too much of it, as that can be off-putting). Offer some specific language that shows you know your stuff, but write in a way that’s still accessible to someone who doesn’t know a lot about your topic.

Connect your intellectual projects to your academic interests. This student does a great job of using his specific machine learning project as a segue into other relevant insights about himself. He talks about classes he’s taken and his general interest in computational neuroscience. He’s also able to sneak in some neat details about working for a chemistry practice website and helping friends out academically. Through this one topic, we get a more complete picture of who he is and the values that guide him. Remember, when you answer this prompt, treat the experience or moment you write about as a launching point into other connected parts of your life.

Consider looking to the future. Note how this writer ends his essay. He doesn’t just talk about his one machine-learning project or class and then end it there. Instead, he talks about what he hopes the future holds for him and how he might like to expand on what he’s already done. This is great because it shows he’s curious and has an appetite for learning. Swarthmore is looking for applicants who are willing to push past what they know and envision future questions, projects, discussions, etc. When you end your essay, consider leaving your reader with a sense that there’s more to come (if you have some idea of what that might look like). Learning and experimentation are lifelong pursuits that sometimes lead to more questions than answers. Embrace that.

Special thanks to Luci for contributing to this post.

Luci is an audiophile and storyteller with a love of all things radio and writing. In the wild, you might catch her struggling through a NY Times crossword puzzle, snuggling her abnormally fluffy dog Oreo, or saying her favorite expression “cool beans.” Crosswords, cute dogs, cool beans. What more could you ask for?

Top values: Interpersonal connections | humor | openness to new experience

Want advice on dozens of other supplemental essays? Click here

The End of Foreign-Language Education

Thanks to AI, people may no longer feel the need to learn a second language.

Listen to this article

Produced by ElevenLabs and News Over Audio (NOA) using AI narration.

A few days ago, I watched a video of myself talking in perfect Chinese. I’ve been studying the language on and off for only a few years, and I’m far from fluent. But there I was, pronouncing each character flawlessly in the correct tone, just as a native speaker would. Gone were my grammar mistakes and awkward pauses, replaced by a smooth and slightly alien-sounding voice. “My favorite food is sushi,” I said— wo zui xihuan de shiwu shi shousi —with no hint of excitement or joy.

I’d created the video using software from a Los Angeles–based artificial-intelligence start-up called HeyGen. It allows users to generate deepfake videos of real people “saying” almost anything based on a single picture of their face and a script, which is paired with a synthetic voice and can be translated into more than 40 languages. By merely uploading a selfie taken on my iPhone, I was able to glimpse a level of Mandarin fluency that may elude me for the rest of my life.

HeyGen’s visuals are flawed—the way it animates selfies almost reminded me of the animatronics in Disney’s It’s a Small World ride—but its language technology is good enough to make me question whether learning Mandarin is a wasted effort. Neural networks, the machine-learning systems that power generative-AI programs such as ChatGPT, have rapidly improved the quality of automatic translation over the past several years, making even older tools like Google Translate far more accurate.

At the same time, the number of students studying foreign languages in the U.S. and other countries is shrinking. Total enrollment in language courses other than English at American colleges decreased 29.3 percent from 2009 to 2021, according to the latest data from the Modern Language Association, better known as the MLA. In Australia, only 8.6 percent of high-school seniors were studying a foreign language in 2021—a historic low. In South Korea and New Zealand , universities are closing their French, German, and Italian departments. One recent study from the education company EF Education First found that English proficiency is decreasing among young people in some places.

Many factors could help explain the downward trend, including pandemic-related school disruptions, growing isolationism, and funding cuts to humanities programs. But whether the cause of the shift is political, cultural, or some mix of things, it’s clear that people are turning away from language learning just as automatic translation becomes ubiquitous across the internet.

Read: High-school English needed a makeover before ChatGPT

Within a few years, AI translation may become so commonplace and frictionless that billions of people take for granted the fact that the emails they receive, videos they watch, and albums they listen to were originally produced in a language other than their native one. Something enormous will be lost in exchange for that convenience. Studies have suggested that language shapes the way people interpret reality. Learning a different way to speak, read, and write helps people discover new ways to see the world—experts I spoke with likened it to discovering a new way to think. No machine can replace such a profoundly human experience. Yet tech companies are weaving automatic translation into more and more products. As the technology becomes normalized, we may find that we’ve allowed deep human connections to be replaced by communication that’s technically proficient but ultimately hollow.

AI language tools are now in social-media apps, messaging platforms, and streaming sites. Spotify is experimenting with using a voice-generation tool from the ChatGPT maker OpenAI to translate podcasts in the host’s own voice, while Samsung is touting that its new Galaxy S24 smartphone can translate phone calls as they’re occurring . Roblox, meanwhile, claimed last month that its AI translation tool is so fast and accurate , its English-speaking users might not realize that their conversation partner “is actually in Korea.” The technology—which works especially well for “ high-resource languages ” such as English and Chinese, and less so for languages such as Swahili and Urdu—is being used in much more high-stakes situations as well, such as translating the testimony of asylum seekers and firsthand accounts from conflict zones. Musicians are already using it to translate songs , and at least one couple credited it with helping them to fall in love.

One of the most telling use cases comes from a start-up called Jumpspeak, which makes a language-learning app similar to Duolingo and Babbel. Instead of hiring actual bilingual actors, Jumpspeak appears to have used AI-generated “people” reading AI-translated scripts in at least four ads on Instagram and Facebook. At least some of the personas shown in the ads appear to be default characters available on HeyGen’s platform. “I struggled to learn languages my whole life. Then I learned Spanish in six months, I got a job opportunity in France, and I learned French. I learned Mandarin before visiting China,” a synthetic avatar says in one of the ads, while switching between all three languages. Even a language-learning app is surrendering to the allure of AI, at least in its marketing.

Alexandru Voica, a communications professional who works for another video-generating AI service, told me he came across Jumpspeak’s ads while looking for a program to teach his children Romanian, the language spoken by their grandparents. He argued that the ads demonstrated how deepfakes and automated-translation software could be used to mislead or deceive people. “I'm worried that some in the industry are currently in a race to the bottom on AI safety,” he told me in an email. (The ads were taken down after I started reporting this story, but it’s not clear if Meta or Jumpspeak removed them; neither company returned requests for comment. HeyGen also did not immediately respond to a request for comment about its product being used in Jumpspeak’s marketing.)

The world is already seeing how all of this can go wrong. Earlier this month, a far-right conspiracy theorist shared several AI-generated clips on X of Adolf Hitler giving a 1939 speech in English instead of the original German. The videos, which were purportedly produced using software from a company called ElevenLabs, featured a re-creation of Hitler’s own voice. It was a strange experience, hearing Hitler speak in English, and some people left comments suggesting that they found him easy to empathize with: “It sounds like these people cared about their country above all else,” one X user reportedly wrote in response to the videos. ElevenLabs did not immediately respond to a request for comment. ( The Atlantic uses ElevenLabs’ AI voice generator to narrate some articles.)

Read: The last frontier of machine translation

Gabriel Nicholas, a research fellow at the nonprofit Center for Democracy and Technology, told me that part of the problem with machine-translation programs is that they’re often falsely perceived as being neutral, rather than “bringing their own perspective upon how to move text from one language to another.” The truth is that there is no single right or correct way to transpose a sentence from French to Russian or any other language—it’s an art rather than a science. “Students will ask, ‘How do you say this in Spanish?’ and I’ll say, ‘You just don’t say it the same way in Spanish; the way you would approach it is different,’” Deborah Cohn, a Spanish- and Portuguese-language professor at Indiana University Bloomington who has written about the importance of language learning for bolstering U.S. national security , told me.

I recently came across a beautiful and particularly illustrative example of this fact in an article written by a translator in China named Anne. “Building a ladder between widely different languages, such as Chinese and English, is sometimes as difficult as a doctor building a bridge in a patient's heart,” she wrote. The metaphor initially struck me as slightly odd, but thankfully I wasn’t relying on ChatGPT to translate Anne’s words from their original Mandarin. I was reading a human translation by a professor named Jeffrey Ding, who helpfully noted that Anne may have been referring to a type of heart surgery that has recently become common in China. It's a small detail, but understanding that context brought me much closer to the true meaning of what Anne was trying to say.

Read: The college essay is dead

But most students will likely never achieve anything close to the fluency required to tell whether a translation rings close enough to the original or not. If professors accept that automated technology will far outpace the technical skills of the average Russian or Arabic major, their focus would ideally shift from grammar drills to developing cultural competency , or understanding the beliefs and practices of people from different backgrounds. Instead of cutting language courses in response to AI, schools should “stress more than ever the intercultural components of language learning that tremendously benefit the students taking these classes,” Jen William, the head of the School of Languages and Cultures at Purdue University and a member of the executive committee of the Association of Language Departments, told me.

Paula Krebs, the executive director of the MLA, referenced a beloved 1991 episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation to make a similar point. In “Darmok,” the crew aboard the starship Enterprise struggles to communicate with aliens living on a planet called El-Adrel IV. They have access to a “universal translator” that allows them to understand the basic syntax and semantics of what the Tamarians are saying, but the greater meaning of their utterances remains a mystery.

It later becomes clear that their language revolves around allegories rooted in the Tamarians’ unique history and practices. Even though Captain Picard was translating all the words they were saying, he “couldn’t understand the metaphors of their culture,” Krebs told me. More than 30 years later, something like a universal translator is now being developed on Earth. But it similarly doesn’t have the power to bridge cultural divides the way that humans can.