write a comparative analysis of primary and secondary sources

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

Knowledge Base
Working with sources
Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Published on June 20, 2018 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on May 31, 2023.

When you do research, you have to gather information and evidence from a variety of sources.

Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. Primary research gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books . Thus, secondary research describes, interprets, or synthesizes primary sources.

Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but good research uses both primary and secondary sources.

What is a primary source, what is a secondary source, primary and secondary source examples, how to tell if a source is primary or secondary, primary vs secondary sources: which is better, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources.

A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or phenomena that you are researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your analysis.

If you are researching the past, you cannot directly access it yourself, so you need primary sources that were produced at the time by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters, photographs, newspapers ).

If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews , surveys , experiments ) or sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official documents or media texts).

Scribbr Citation Checker New

The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as:

Missing commas and periods
Incorrect usage of “et al.”
Ampersands (&) in narrative citations
Missing reference entries

write a comparative analysis of primary and secondary sources

A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyzes information from primary sources. Common examples include:

Books , articles and documentaries that synthesize information on a topic
Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
Encyclopedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyze it directly. Instead, you’ll probably test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

Examples of sources that can be primary or secondary

A secondary source can become a primary source depending on your research question . If the person, context, or technique that produced the source is the main focus of your research, it becomes a primary source.

Documentaries

If you are researching the causes of World War II, a recent documentary about the war is a secondary source . But if you are researching the filmmaking techniques used in historical documentaries, the documentary is a primary source .

Reviews and essays

If your paper is about the novels of Toni Morrison, a magazine review of one of her novels is a secondary source . But if your paper is about the critical reception of Toni Morrison’s work, the review is a primary source .

Newspaper articles

If your aim is to analyze the government’s economic policy, a newspaper article about a new policy is a secondary source . But if your aim is to analyze media coverage of economic issues, the newspaper article is a primary source .

To determine if something can be used as a primary or secondary source in your research, there are some simple questions you can ask yourself:

Does this source come from someone directly involved in the events I’m studying (primary) or from another researcher (secondary)?
Am I interested in evaluating the source itself (primary) or only using it for background information (secondary)?
Does the source provide original information (primary) or does it comment upon information from other sources (secondary)?

The only proofreading tool specialized in correcting academic writing - try for free!

The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts and by native English editors. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students.

Try for free

Most research uses both primary and secondary sources. They complement each other to help you build a convincing argument. Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but secondary sources show how your work relates to existing research. Tertiary sources are often used in the first, exploratory stage of research.

What do you use primary sources for?

Primary sources are the foundation of original research. They allow you to:

Make new discoveries
Provide credible evidence for your arguments
Give authoritative information about your topic

If you don’t use any primary sources, your research may be considered unoriginal or unreliable.

What do you use secondary sources for?

Secondary sources are good for gaining a full overview of your topic and understanding how other researchers have approached it. They often synthesize a large number of primary sources that would be difficult and time-consuming to gather by yourself. They allow you to:

Gain background information on the topic
Support or contrast your arguments with other researchers’ ideas
Gather information from primary sources that you can’t access directly (e.g. private letters or physical documents located elsewhere)

When you conduct a literature review or meta analysis, you can consult secondary sources to gain a thorough overview of your topic. If you want to mention a paper or study that you find cited in a secondary source, seek out the original source and cite it directly.

Remember that all primary and secondary sources must be cited to avoid plagiarism . You can use Scribbr’s free citation generator to do so!

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

ChatGPT vs human editor
ChatGPT citations
Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
Using ChatGPT for your studies
What is ChatGPT?
Chicago style
Paraphrasing

Plagiarism

Types of plagiarism
Self-plagiarism
Avoiding plagiarism
Academic integrity
Consequences of plagiarism
Common knowledge

Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of source are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analyzing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyze language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analyzing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Streefkerk, R. (2023, May 31). Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 6, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/primary-and-secondary-sources/

Is this article helpful?

Raimo Streefkerk

Other students also liked, how to avoid plagiarism | tips on citing sources, the basics of in-text citation | apa & mla examples, how to quote | citing quotes in apa, mla & chicago, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

Utility Menu

GA4 Tracking Code

Gen ed writes, writing across the disciplines at harvard college.

Comparative Analysis

What It Is and Why It's Useful

Comparative analysis asks writers to make an argument about the relationship between two or more texts. Beyond that, there's a lot of variation, but three overarching kinds of comparative analysis stand out:

Coordinate (A ↔ B): In this kind of analysis, two (or more) texts are being read against each other in terms of a shared element, e.g., a memoir and a novel, both by Jesmyn Ward; two sets of data for the same experiment; a few op-ed responses to the same event; two YA books written in Chicago in the 2000s; a film adaption of a play; etc.
Subordinate (A → B) or (B → A ): Using a theoretical text (as a "lens") to explain a case study or work of art (e.g., how Anthony Jack's The Privileged Poor can help explain divergent experiences among students at elite four-year private colleges who are coming from similar socio-economic backgrounds) or using a work of art or case study (i.e., as a "test" of) a theory's usefulness or limitations (e.g., using coverage of recent incidents of gun violence or legislation un the U.S. to confirm or question the currency of Carol Anderson's The Second ).
Hybrid [A → (B ↔ C)] or [(B ↔ C) → A] , i.e., using coordinate and subordinate analysis together. For example, using Jack to compare or contrast the experiences of students at elite four-year institutions with students at state universities and/or community colleges; or looking at gun culture in other countries and/or other timeframes to contextualize or generalize Anderson's main points about the role of the Second Amendment in U.S. history.

"In the wild," these three kinds of comparative analysis represent increasingly complex—and scholarly—modes of comparison. Students can of course compare two poems in terms of imagery or two data sets in terms of methods, but in each case the analysis will eventually be richer if the students have had a chance to encounter other people's ideas about how imagery or methods work. At that point, we're getting into a hybrid kind of reading (or even into research essays), especially if we start introducing different approaches to imagery or methods that are themselves being compared along with a couple (or few) poems or data sets.

Why It's Useful

In the context of a particular course, each kind of comparative analysis has its place and can be a useful step up from single-source analysis. Intellectually, comparative analysis helps overcome the "n of 1" problem that can face single-source analysis. That is, a writer drawing broad conclusions about the influence of the Iranian New Wave based on one film is relying entirely—and almost certainly too much—on that film to support those findings. In the context of even just one more film, though, the analysis is suddenly more likely to arrive at one of the best features of any comparative approach: both films will be more richly experienced than they would have been in isolation, and the themes or questions in terms of which they're being explored (here the general question of the influence of the Iranian New Wave) will arrive at conclusions that are less at-risk of oversimplification.

For scholars working in comparative fields or through comparative approaches, these features of comparative analysis animate their work. To borrow from a stock example in Western epistemology, our concept of "green" isn't based on a single encounter with something we intuit or are told is "green." Not at all. Our concept of "green" is derived from a complex set of experiences of what others say is green or what's labeled green or what seems to be something that's neither blue nor yellow but kind of both, etc. Comparative analysis essays offer us the chance to engage with that process—even if only enough to help us see where a more in-depth exploration with a higher and/or more diverse "n" might lead—and in that sense, from the standpoint of the subject matter students are exploring through writing as well the complexity of the genre of writing they're using to explore it—comparative analysis forms a bridge of sorts between single-source analysis and research essays.

Typical learning objectives for single-sources essays: formulate analytical questions and an arguable thesis, establish stakes of an argument, summarize sources accurately, choose evidence effectively, analyze evidence effectively, define key terms, organize argument logically, acknowledge and respond to counterargument, cite sources properly, and present ideas in clear prose.

Common types of comparative analysis essays and related types: two works in the same genre, two works from the same period (but in different places or in different cultures), a work adapted into a different genre or medium, two theories treating the same topic; a theory and a case study or other object, etc.

How to Teach It: Framing + Practice

Framing multi-source writing assignments (comparative analysis, research essays, multi-modal projects) is likely to overlap a great deal with "Why It's Useful" (see above), because the range of reasons why we might use these kinds of writing in academic or non-academic settings is itself the reason why they so often appear later in courses. In many courses, they're the best vehicles for exploring the complex questions that arise once we've been introduced to the course's main themes, core content, leading protagonists, and central debates.

For comparative analysis in particular, it's helpful to frame assignment's process and how it will help students successfully navigate the challenges and pitfalls presented by the genre. Ideally, this will mean students have time to identify what each text seems to be doing, take note of apparent points of connection between different texts, and start to imagine how those points of connection (or the absence thereof)

complicates or upends their own expectations or assumptions about the texts
complicates or refutes the expectations or assumptions about the texts presented by a scholar
confirms and/or nuances expectations and assumptions they themselves hold or scholars have presented
presents entirely unforeseen ways of understanding the texts

—and all with implications for the texts themselves or for the axes along which the comparative analysis took place. If students know that this is where their ideas will be heading, they'll be ready to develop those ideas and engage with the challenges that comparative analysis presents in terms of structure (See "Tips" and "Common Pitfalls" below for more on these elements of framing).

Like single-source analyses, comparative essays have several moving parts, and giving students practice here means adapting the sample sequence laid out at the " Formative Writing Assignments " page. Three areas that have already been mentioned above are worth noting:

Gathering evidence : Depending on what your assignment is asking students to compare (or in terms of what), students will benefit greatly from structured opportunities to create inventories or data sets of the motifs, examples, trajectories, etc., shared (or not shared) by the texts they'll be comparing. See the sample exercises below for a basic example of what this might look like.
Why it Matters: Moving beyond "x is like y but also different" or even "x is more like y than we might think at first" is what moves an essay from being "compare/contrast" to being a comparative analysis . It's also a move that can be hard to make and that will often evolve over the course of an assignment. A great way to get feedback from students about where they're at on this front? Ask them to start considering early on why their argument "matters" to different kinds of imagined audiences (while they're just gathering evidence) and again as they develop their thesis and again as they're drafting their essays. ( Cover letters , for example, are a great place to ask writers to imagine how a reader might be affected by reading an their argument.)
Structure: Having two texts on stage at the same time can suddenly feel a lot more complicated for any writer who's used to having just one at a time. Giving students a sense of what the most common patterns (AAA / BBB, ABABAB, etc.) are likely to be can help them imagine, even if provisionally, how their argument might unfold over a series of pages. See "Tips" and "Common Pitfalls" below for more information on this front.

Sample Exercises and Links to Other Resources

Common Pitfalls
Advice on Timing
Try to keep students from thinking of a proposed thesis as a commitment. Instead, help them see it as more of a hypothesis that has emerged out of readings and discussion and analytical questions and that they'll now test through an experiment, namely, writing their essay. When students see writing as part of the process of inquiry—rather than just the result—and when that process is committed to acknowledging and adapting itself to evidence, it makes writing assignments more scientific, more ethical, and more authentic.
Have students create an inventory of touch points between the two texts early in the process.
Ask students to make the case—early on and at points throughout the process—for the significance of the claim they're making about the relationship between the texts they're comparing.
For coordinate kinds of comparative analysis, a common pitfall is tied to thesis and evidence. Basically, it's a thesis that tells the reader that there are "similarities and differences" between two texts, without telling the reader why it matters that these two texts have or don't have these particular features in common. This kind of thesis is stuck at the level of description or positivism, and it's not uncommon when a writer is grappling with the complexity that can in fact accompany the "taking inventory" stage of comparative analysis. The solution is to make the "taking inventory" stage part of the process of the assignment. When this stage comes before students have formulated a thesis, that formulation is then able to emerge out of a comparative data set, rather than the data set emerging in terms of their thesis (which can lead to confirmation bias, or frequency illusion, or—just for the sake of streamlining the process of gathering evidence—cherry picking).
For subordinate kinds of comparative analysis , a common pitfall is tied to how much weight is given to each source. Having students apply a theory (in a "lens" essay) or weigh the pros and cons of a theory against case studies (in a "test a theory") essay can be a great way to help them explore the assumptions, implications, and real-world usefulness of theoretical approaches. The pitfall of these approaches is that they can quickly lead to the same biases we saw here above. Making sure that students know they should engage with counterevidence and counterargument, and that "lens" / "test a theory" approaches often balance each other out in any real-world application of theory is a good way to get out in front of this pitfall.
For any kind of comparative analysis, a common pitfall is structure. Every comparative analysis asks writers to move back and forth between texts, and that can pose a number of challenges, including: what pattern the back and forth should follow and how to use transitions and other signposting to make sure readers can follow the overarching argument as the back and forth is taking place. Here's some advice from an experienced writing instructor to students about how to think about these considerations:

a quick note on STRUCTURE

Most of us have encountered the question of whether to adopt what we might term the “A→A→A→B→B→B” structure or the “A→B→A→B→A→B” structure. Do we make all of our points about text A before moving on to text B? Or do we go back and forth between A and B as the essay proceeds? As always, the answers to our questions about structure depend on our goals in the essay as a whole. In a “similarities in spite of differences” essay, for instance, readers will need to encounter the differences between A and B before we offer them the similarities (A d →B d →A s →B s ). If, rather than subordinating differences to similarities you are subordinating text A to text B (using A as a point of comparison that reveals B’s originality, say), you may be well served by the “A→A→A→B→B→B” structure.

Ultimately, you need to ask yourself how many “A→B” moves you have in you. Is each one identical? If so, you may wish to make the transition from A to B only once (“A→A→A→B→B→B”), because if each “A→B” move is identical, the “A→B→A→B→A→B” structure will appear to involve nothing more than directionless oscillation and repetition. If each is increasingly complex, however—if each AB pair yields a new and progressively more complex idea about your subject—you may be well served by the “A→B→A→B→A→B” structure, because in this case it will be visible to readers as a progressively developing argument.

As we discussed in "Advice on Timing" at the page on single-source analysis, that timeline itself roughly follows the "Sample Sequence of Formative Assignments for a 'Typical' Essay" outlined under " Formative Writing Assignments, " and it spans about 5–6 steps or 2–4 weeks.

Comparative analysis assignments have a lot of the same DNA as single-source essays, but they potentially bring more reading into play and ask students to engage in more complicated acts of analysis and synthesis during the drafting stages. With that in mind, closer to 4 weeks is probably a good baseline for many single-source analysis assignments. For sections that meet once per week, the timeline will either probably need to expand—ideally—a little past the 4-week side of things, or some of the steps will need to be combined or done asynchronously.

What It Can Build Up To

Comparative analyses can build up to other kinds of writing in a number of ways. For example:

They can build toward other kinds of comparative analysis, e.g., student can be asked to choose an additional source to complicate their conclusions from a previous analysis, or they can be asked to revisit an analysis using a different axis of comparison, such as race instead of class. (These approaches are akin to moving from a coordinate or subordinate analysis to more of a hybrid approach.)
They can scaffold up to research essays, which in many instances are an extension of a "hybrid comparative analysis."
Like single-source analysis, in a course where students will take a "deep dive" into a source or topic for their capstone, they can allow students to "try on" a theoretical approach or genre or time period to see if it's indeed something they want to research more fully.
DIY Guides for Analytical Writing Assignments

For Teaching Fellows & Teaching Assistants

Types of Assignments
Unpacking the Elements of Writing Prompts
Formative Writing Assignments
Single-Source Analysis
Research Essays
Multi-Modal or Creative Projects
Giving Feedback to Students

Assignment Decoder

Reference management. Clean and simple.

Primary and secondary sources: what are they and why do I need them?

What are the main differences between primary and secondary sources?

Why do i need to use both primary and secondary sources in my research, examples of primary and secondary sources, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources, related articles.

Primary and secondary sources are the two main types of source materials that you will use for your research project. They are both important and needed for your project. Whether you are going to use more primary or more secondary sources depends on your academic level - undergrad, postgrad, or professional.

Both types of sources have importance and merits of their own, but they are also immensely different. This guide will help you understand the differences. If you want to learn even more about both source types separately, where and how you can access them, and when and how to use them, check out the links below:

➡️ What is a primary source?

➡️ What is a secondary source?

The main difference between primary and secondary sources is that primary sources are contemporary.

Primary sources are original and originated from the event they refer to. They are not reviews, analyses, or critiques of events that occurred in the past. They are first-hand information.

Secondary sources are summaries, critiques, opinions, and analyses. They are written by people who did not witness, or have any direct part to play in the event they are describing. The information they contain is based on primary sources and is the author’s interpretation of the event/subject they are covering.

Using both types of sources adds to the merit of your research. By including references to secondary sources , you are showing that you have truly engaged with your research topic. You are providing extra information and displaying a well-rounded approach to your topic. You are not relying solely on the work of one person, or one institution, for your analysis to be based upon. You are reading broadly and contextually.

Likewise, including primary source references in your research shows that you are also going back to the roots. You are looking at the event or object as it happened, without being able to teleport through time and space. A primary source is vital because it will enable you to make your own judgement on an event or object. Secondary sources are always biased, in one sense or another, so engaging with the primary source yourself allows you to view the topic objectively.

Primary and secondary sources complement each other - looking at both can give you a deeper understanding of each. A primary source can help you to evaluate a secondary source - you will notice aspects of it which the author dismisses, or washes over in their discussion. Likewise, a secondary source can tell you about current trends in research and analysis, while providing you with a broad overview or summary of an extended period of time, or the works of an artist.

We have put together a list of examples of primary and secondary sources by fields of study. It will help you identify the nature of your source.

Primary sources are original and originated from the event they refer to. They are not reviews, analyses, or critiques of events that occurred in the past. They are first-hand information. For a more detailed description of what a primary source is, where you can access them, and why you need to use them, see this article about primary sources .

Secondary sources are summaries, critiques, opinions, and analyses. They are written by people who did not witness, or have any direct part to play in the event they are describing. The information they contain is based on primary sources, and is the author’s interpretation of the event/subject they are covering. See this article about secondary sources for further information.

Some examples of primary sources are: Poems, diaries, letters, paintings, government records, maps, interviews (transcribed or recorded), photographs, newspaper articles, results of experiments, case studies, results of clinical trials, minutes of meetings, and proceedings of conferences

Some examples of secondary sources are: Biographies, histories, reviews, encyclopaedias, literary criticism, discussions of importance, analysis of clinical trials, and reviews of results.

The one main difference between primary and secondary sources is that primary sources are contemporary and secondary sources are not.

How to give a good scientific presentation

Have a thesis expert improve your writing

Check your thesis for plagiarism in 10 minutes, generate your apa citations for free.

Knowledge Base
Working with sources
Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Published on 4 September 2022 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on 15 May 2023.

When you do research, you have to gather information and evidence from a variety of sources.

Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. A primary source gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books . A secondary source describes, interprets, or synthesises primary sources.

Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but good research uses both primary and secondary sources.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Be assured that you'll submit flawless writing. Upload your document to correct all your mistakes.

What is a primary source, what is a secondary source, primary and secondary source examples, how to tell if a source is primary or secondary, primary vs secondary sources: which is better, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources.

A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or phenomena that you are researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your analysis.

If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews, surveys, experiments) or sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official documents or media texts).

The only proofreading tool specialized in correcting academic writing

The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts and by native English editors. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students.

Correct my document today

A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyses information from primary sources. Common examples include:

Books , articles and documentaries that synthesise information on a topic
Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
Encyclopaedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyse it directly. Instead, you’ll probably test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

Examples of sources that can be primary or secondary

To determine if something can be used as a primary or secondary source in your research, there are some simple questions you can ask yourself:

Does this source come from someone directly involved in the events I’m studying (primary) or from another researcher (secondary)?
Am I interested in analysing the source itself (primary) or only using it for background information (secondary)?
Does the source provide original information (primary) or does it comment upon information from other sources (secondary)?

What do you use primary sources for?

Primary sources are the foundation of original research. They allow you to:

Make new discoveries
Provide credible evidence for your arguments
Give authoritative information about your topic

If you don’t use any primary sources, your research may be considered unoriginal or unreliable.

What do you use secondary sources for?

Secondary sources are good for gaining a full overview of your topic and understanding how other researchers have approached it. They often synthesise a large number of primary sources that would be difficult and time-consuming to gather by yourself. They allow you to:

Gain background information on the topic
Support or contrast your arguments with other researchers’ ideas
Gather information from primary sources that you can’t access directly (e.g. private letters or physical documents located elsewhere)

When you conduct a literature review , you can consult secondary sources to gain a thorough overview of your topic. If you want to mention a paper or study that you find cited in a secondary source, seek out the original source and cite it directly.

Remember that all primary and secondary sources must be cited to avoid plagiarism . You can use Scribbr’s free citation generator to do so!

Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of sources are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analysing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyse language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analysing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Streefkerk, R. (2023, May 15). Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 2 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/working-sources/primary-vs-secondary-sources/

Is this article helpful?

Raimo Streefkerk

Other students also liked, tertiary sources explained | quick guide & examples, types of sources explained | examples & tips, how to find sources | scholarly articles, books, etc..

Evaluating Information

Introduction.

Primary Sources
Secondary Sources

Primary vs. Secondary Sources — Definition, Differences, and Examples

Primary and secondary sources

Primary and secondary sources include books, articles, websites, speeches, newspapers, etc. Primary source materials are firsthand accounts. Secondary sources summarize, describe, analyze, interpret, synthesize, or evaluate primary sources. Academic and original research projects often use both types of sources.

What is a primary source?

Primary sources are original materials that come directly from an individual who witnessed an event or period. Primary sources provide the most direct evidence and insight into what occurred because people created the original documents, images, or artifacts contemporaneously or soon after the historical event depicted.

Primary sources often take the form of letters, photographs, novels, and patents:

What is a secondary source?

Secondary sources summarize, analyze, or interpret primary sources and are typically written after the period identified in the primary source. Secondary sources often use primary sources to support a specific argument or persuade readers to hold a certain viewpoint.

Secondary sources often take the form of the following:

Encyclopedias

Political Analyses/Commentaries

Literature Reviews/Book Reviews

Biographies

Law Reviews

Scholarly Journal Articles/Scholarly Books

Dictionaries

Research Papers/Dissertations

How to identify a primary and secondary source

To determine whether something is a primary or secondary source, consider the following questions:

Primary and secondary source examples

The following chart identifies specific primary sources:

The following list identifies specific examples of secondary sources:

Encyclopedia: Encyclopedia Britannica

Social Sciences Textbook: World History: Voices and Perspectives

Literary Criticism: How to Read Literature Like a Professor

Biography: Steve Jobs: The Man Who Thought Different

Legal Commentary: A Practical Guide to Legal Research

University Library

Distinguish between primary and secondary sources.

Further Information

Introduction

1. Introduction

Whether conducting research in the social sciences, humanities (especially history), arts, or natural sciences, the ability to distinguish between primary and secondary source material is essential. Basically, this distinction illustrates the degree to which the author of a piece is removed from the actual event being described, informing the reader as to whether the author is reporting impressions first hand (or is first to record these immediately following an event), or conveying the experiences and opinions of others—that is, second hand .

2. Primary sources

These are contemporary accounts of an event, written by someone who experienced or witnessed the event in question. These original documents (i.e., they are not about another document or account) are often diaries, letters, memoirs, journals, speeches, manuscripts, interviews and other such unpublished works. They may also include published pieces such as newspaper or magazine articles (as long as they are written soon after the fact and not as historical accounts), photographs, audio or video recordings, research reports in the natural or social sciences, or original literary or theatrical works.

3. Secondary sources

The function of these is to interpret primary sources , and so can be described as at least one step removed from the event or phenomenon under review. Secondary source materials, then, interpret, assign value to, conjecture upon, and draw conclusions about the events reported in primary sources. These are usually in the form of published works such as journal articles or books, but may include radio or television documentaries, or conference proceedings.

4. Defining questions

When evaluating primary or secondary sources, the following questions might be asked to help ascertain the nature and value of material being considered:

How does the author know these details (names, dates, times)? Was the author present at the event or soon on the scene?
Where does this information come from—personal experience, eyewitness accounts, or reports written by others?
Are the author's conclusions based on a single piece of evidence, or have many sources been taken into account (e.g., diary entries, along with third-party eyewitness accounts, impressions of contemporaries, newspaper accounts)?

Ultimately, all source materials of whatever type must be assessed critically and even the most scrupulous and thorough work is viewed through the eyes of the writer/interpreter. This must be taken into account when one is attempting to arrive at the 'truth' of an event.

Ask a Librarian

In Person | Phone | Email | Chat

Related Guides

Distinguish between Popular and Scholarly Journals by Annette Marines Last Updated Mar 17, 2024 3166 views this year
Next: Further Information >>

Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License except where otherwise noted.

Land Acknowledgement

The land on which we gather is the unceded territory of the Awaswas-speaking Uypi Tribe. The Amah Mutsun Tribal Band, comprised of the descendants of indigenous people taken to missions Santa Cruz and San Juan Bautista during Spanish colonization of the Central Coast, is today working hard to restore traditional stewardship practices on these lands and heal from historical trauma.

The land acknowledgement used at UC Santa Cruz was developed in partnership with the Amah Mutsun Tribal Band Chairman and the Amah Mutsun Relearning Program at the UCSC Arboretum .

Finding Sources

Primary and secondary sources.

Knowing the difference between primary and secondary sources will help you determine what types of sources you may need to include in your research essay. In general, primary sources are original works (original historical documents, art works, interviews, etc.), while secondary sources contain others’ insights and writings about those primary works (scholar articles about historical documents, art works, interviews, etc.).

While many scholarly sources are secondary sources, you will sometimes be asked to find primary sources in your research. For this reason, you should understand the differences between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources.

Primary sources allow researchers to get as close as possible to original ideas, events, and empirical research as possible. Such sources may include creative works, first hand or contemporary accounts of events, and the publication of the results of empirical observations or research. These include diaries, interviews, speeches, photographs, etc.
Secondary sources analyze, review, or summarize information in primary resources or other secondary resources. Even sources presenting facts or descriptions about events are secondary unless they are based on direct participation or observation. These include biographies, journal articles, books, and dissertations.
Tertiary sources provide overviews of topics by synthesizing information gathered from other resources. Tertiary resources often provide data in a convenient form or provide information with context by which to interpret it. These are often grouped together with secondary sources. They include encyclopedias and dictionaries.

Analyze your topic/working thesis to determine the types of sources that can help with support. For example, if your topic deals with Van Gogh’s use of pale green and what it connotes in his later paintings, you will need to couple evidence from primary sources (images of the paintings themselves) with secondary sources (other scholars’ views, discussions, and logical arguments about the same topic). If your working thesis deals with the benefits of regular exercise for older adults in their 70s-90s, you may couple evidence from primary sources (uninterpreted data from research studies, interviews with older adults or experts in the field) with secondary sources (interpretations of research studies). In some cases, you may find that your research is mostly from secondary sources and that’s fine, depending on your topic and working thesis. Just make sure to consider, consciously, the types of sources that can best be used to support your own ideas.

The following video provides a clear overview of primary and secondary sources.

Primary and Secondary Sources. Revision and adaptation of the page What Are Scholarly Articles? at https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-englishcomposition1/chapter/text-intermediate-research-strategies/which is a revision and adaptation of the sources listed below. Authored by : Susan Oaks. Provided by : Empire State College, SUNY OER Services. Project : College Writing. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
What Are Scholarly Articles?. Provided by : Lumen Learning. Project : English Composition I. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
Primary, secondary, and tertiary sources. Provided by : Virginia Tech University Libraries. Located at : http://www.lib.vt.edu/help/research/primary-secondary-tertiary.html . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
Secondary Sources in their Natural Habitat. Authored by : Amy Guptill. Provided by : SUNY. Located at : http://pressbooks.opensuny.org/writing-in-college-from-competence-to-excellence/chapter/4/ . Project : Writing in College. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
Walk, Talk, Cook, Eat: A Guide to Using Sources. Authored by : Cynthia R. Haller. Provided by : Saylor. Located at : . Project : Writing Spaces: Readings on Writing Vol. 2. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
Scholarly Sources. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/the-research-process-2/understanding-the-academic-context-of-your-topic-261/understanding-the-academic-context-of-your-topic-34-1667 . Project : Boundless Writing. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
image of open book. Authored by : Hermann. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : https://pixabay.com/en/book-open-pages-library-books-408302 . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
video Understanding Primary & Secondary Sources. Provided by : Imagine Easy Solutions. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pmno-Yfetd8 . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License

How to Write a Literature Review: Primary and Secondary Sources

Writing a Literature Review in APA Format
Chicago/Turabian Citation Style
Primary and Secondary Sources
Basic Research Strategies
Evaluating Sources
Using the Library's Ebooks
Using the Library's Catalog
Copyright Information
Contact Information & Feedback

Primary versus Secondary Sources

Primary vs. secondary videos.

Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sources The content of research papers may come from different types of sources, such as:

Your own opinion and analysis
Primary sources
Secondary sources
Tertiary sources

It may not be necessary to include each of these types of sources in every paper you write, but your instructor may require you to include them. It is important to understand the characteristics of primary, secondary and tertiary sources–they each serve a different purpose throughout the research process, and can strengthen your assignment, too.

It can be difficult to figure out if a source is considered primary, secondary, or tertiary. We will explain the differences and provide examples of each in this tutorial. If you are still not sure if a source you would like to use is primary, secondary, or tertiary, ask a librarian or teacher.

What is a Primary Source? Primary sources are first-hand, authoritative accounts of an event, topic, or historical time period. They are typically produced at the time of the event by a person who experienced it, but can also be made later on in the form of personal memoirs or oral histories.

Anything that contains original information on a topic is considered a primary source. Usually, primary sources are the object discussed in your paper. For instance, if you are writing an analysis on Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle, the book would be a primary source. But, just because a source is old does not mean it is a primary source.

Some examples of original, first-hand, authoritative accounts include:

Letters, diaries or journals (Personal thoughts)
Original photographs
First-hand newspaper reports
Speeches, autobiographies
Creative works like plays, paintings and songs
Research data and surveys

What is a Secondary Source? Secondary sources interpret or critique primary sources. They often include an analysis of the event that was discussed or featured in the primary source. They are second-hand accounts that interpret or draw conclusions from one or more primary sources.

Some examples of works that interpret or critique primary sources include:

Textbooks (May also be considered tertiary)
Essays or reviews
Articles that analyze or discuss ideas and events
Criticisms or commentaries

What is a Tertiary Source? Tertiary sources generally provide an overview or summary of a topic, and may contain both primary and secondary sources. The information is displayed as entirely factual, and does not include analysis or critique. Tertiary sources can also be collections of primary and secondary sources, such as databases, bibliographies and directories.

Some examples of sources that provide a summary or collection of a topic include:

Textbooks (May also be considered secondary)
Bibliographies or abstracts
Wikipedia articles
Encyclopedias

Using Primary, secondary and Tertiary Sources in Research Let’s say you are writing a research paper on the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) of 1972, but you are unfamiliar with it. A good place to gather a general idea or understanding of the ERA would be a tertiary source, such as Wikipedia or the Encyclopedia Britannica. There, you can read a summary of events on its history, key people involved, and legislation.

To find more in-depth analysis on the Equal Rights Amendment, you consult a secondary source: the nonfiction book Why We Lost the ERA by Jane Mansbridge and a newspaper article from the 1970’s that discuss and review the legislation. These provide a more focused analysis of the Equal Rights Amendment that you can include as sources in your paper (make sure you cite them!). A primary source that could bolster your research would be a government document detailing the ERA legislation that initially passed in Congress, giving a first-hand account of the legislation that went through the House and Senate in 1972.

This video provides a great overview of primary and secondary sources: [ youtube http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= PgfQC4d3pKc &w=420&h=315]

Source: http://content.easybib.com/students/research-guide/primary-secondary-tertiary-sources/

<< Previous: Guide to Writing a Research Paper
Next: Basic Research Strategies >>
Last Updated: Sep 25, 2023 2:24 PM
URL: https://tuskegee.libguides.com/c.php?g=692585

Healey Library
Research Guides

Primary Sources: A Research Guide

Primary vs. Secondary
Historical Newspapers
Book Collections
Find Videos
Open Access
Local Archives and Archival Societies
University Archives and Special Collections at UMass Boston

Primary Sources

Texts of laws and other original documents.

Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did.

Speeches, diaries, letters and interviews - what the people involved said or wrote.

Original research.

Datasets, survey data, such as census or economic statistics.

Photographs, video, or audio that capture an event.

Secondary Sources

Secondary Sources are one step removed from primary sources, though they often quote or otherwise use primary sources. They can cover the same topic, but add a layer of interpretation and analysis. Secondary sources can include:

Most books about a topic.

Analysis or interpretation of data.

Scholarly or other articles about a topic, especially by people not directly involved.

Documentaries (though they often include photos or video portions that can be considered primary sources).

When is a Primary Source a Secondary Source?

Whether something is a primary or secondary source often depends upon the topic and its use.

A biology textbook would be considered a secondary source if in the field of biology, since it describes and interprets the science but makes no original contribution to it.

On the other hand, if the topic is science education and the history of textbooks, textbooks could be used a primary sources to look at how they have changed over time.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Adapted from Bowling Green State University, Library User Education, Primary vs. Secondary Sources .

<< Previous: Home
Next: Find Primary Sources >>
Last Updated: Mar 13, 2024 9:06 AM
URL: https://umb.libguides.com/PrimarySources

Evidence Based Practice

1. Ask: PICO(T) Question
2. Align: Levels of Evidence
3a. Acquire: Resource Types
3b. Acquire: Searching
4. Appraise

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Qualitative and Quantitative Sources
Managing References

Sources are considered primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the originality of the information presented and their proximity or how close they are to the source of information. This distinction can differ between subjects and disciplines.

In the sciences, research findings may be communicated informally between researchers through email, presented at conferences (primary source), and then, possibly, published as a journal article or technical report (primary source). Once published, the information may be commented on by other researchers (secondary sources), and/or professionally indexed in a database (secondary sources). Later the information may be summarized into an encyclopedic or reference book format (tertiary sources). Source

Primary Sources

A primary source in science is a document or record that reports on a study, experiment, trial or research project. Primary sources are usually written by the person(s) who did the research, conducted the study, or ran the experiment, and include hypothesis, methodology, and results.

Primary Sources include:

Pilot/prospective studies
Cohort studies
Survey research
Case studies
Lab notebooks
Clinical trials and randomized clinical trials/RCTs
Dissertations

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources list, summarize, compare, and evaluate primary information and studies so as to draw conclusions on or present current state of knowledge in a discipline or subject. Sources may include a bibliography which may direct you back to the primary research reported in the article.

Secondary Sources include:

reviews, systematic reviews, meta-analysis
newsletters and professional news sources
practice guidelines & standards
clinical care notes
patient education Information
government & legal Information
entries in nursing or medical encyclopedias Source

More on Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis

Systematic reviews – Systematic reviews are best for answering single questions (eg, the effectiveness of tight glucose control on microvascular complications of diabetes). They are more scientifically structured than traditional reviews, being explicit about how the authors attempted to find all relevant articles, judge the scientific quality of each study, and weigh evidence from multiple studies with conflicting results. These reviews pay particular attention to including all strong research, whether or not it has been published, to avoid publication bias (positive studies are preferentially published). Source

Meta-analysis -- Meta-analysis, which is commonly included in systematic reviews, is a statistical method that quantitatively combines the results from different studies. It can be used to provide an overall estimate of the net benefit or harm of an intervention, even when these effects may not have been apparent in the individual studies [ 9 ]. Meta-analysis can also provide an overall quantitative estimate of other parameters such as diagnostic accuracy, incidence, or prevalence. Source

<< Previous: 4. Appraise
Next: Qualitative and Quantitative Sources >>
Last Updated: Nov 9, 2023 12:14 PM
URL: https://libraryguides.nau.edu/evidencebasedpractice

History: Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Primary vs. Secondary Sources
Primary Source Databases
Web Resources
E-Books This link opens in a new window

Definitions (from Pennington School)

A primary source is an original material created during the time under study. Primary sources can be original documents, creative works, published materials of the times, institutional and government documents or relics and artifacts

Secondary sources put primary sources in context. They comment, summarize, interpret or analyze information found in primary sources. Secondary sources are usually written by individuals who did not experience firsthand the events about which they are writing.

Examples (from Penington School)

Selected sources.

Primary, Secondary or Tertiary Sources Tertiary sources: good for an overview; can help narrow a topic Secondary sources: sources created after the time of the event and not contemporaneous with the lifetime of the person Primary sources: original objects or documents created near the time being studied.

Analyzing Primary Sources

(3-D Pyramid) Five Steps to Analyze Primary Sources

Determining Primary vs. Secondary Sources (from Fresno State Univ.)

Primary vs. Secondary Sources: A Questionnaire

Answer the questions below about your source. If you answer, “yes” to any of the following questions, there is a good chance the source is PRIMARY.

Did the author personally witness or experience the subject in question? Does the author know about this subject because of personal experience rather than having just read about it? Is this source a diary, letter, memoir, autobiography, oral history, or interview of a person with first hand experience of the subject? Is this source an official document or record published at the time of the event by the government, courts, or another organization? Is this source a newspaper or magazine article written at the time of the event? Is this a creative work such as a novel, poem, art or music piece created by a firsthand witness of the subject in question? Is this an excerpt from a primary source, such as the constitution or a letter written by a Civil War soldier that has been imbedded in a secondary source, such as a textbook?Remember, secondary sources may include reprints of primary sources. Is this an artifact or relic such as jewelry, pottery, clothing, music, art, architecture, dance or weaponry that was used by witnesses of the subject in question? Is this a compilation of raw scientific data or statistics, such as census statistics published by the U.S. Census Bureau, that is being published without commentary or interpretation?

<< Previous: Home
Next: Books >>
Last Updated: Mar 20, 2024 10:13 AM
URL: https://libguides.lehman.edu/history

Link to facebook
Link to linkedin
Link to twitter
Link to youtube
Writing Tips

Primary and Secondary Sources—What’s The Difference?

3-minute read

25th February 2022

When you write an essay or research paper , you gather the information you need from various sources. Most of these can be classified as primary sources or secondary , and strong academic writing will draw relevant information from both.

In this post, we’ll explain the difference between a primary source and a secondary source and give some examples of each.

What’s a Primary Source?

A primary source gives first-hand facts about your research subject. It provides direct evidence without analysis or interpretation. Primary sources are created by people who are (or were) directly involved with the event being studied.

The primary sources you refer to depend on your field of study. Let’s look at some examples for different subject areas:

● Science: The main primary source used in the sciences is data . This could be data you’ve recorded from your own experiments , surveys, and interviews, or it may be from studies carried out by others.

● Art: Original paintings and sculptures.

● Literature: Novels, poems, and play scripts .

● History: Artifacts, letters, and photos .

● Law: Statutes and court records.

Working with primary sources gives you the opportunity to evaluate them and make your own analyses. It increases the validity of your research because it demonstrates that you haven’t relied solely on other people’s findings.

What’s a Secondary Source?

A secondary source refers to information from a primary source. It could simply describe the source, or it could offer some interpretation or analysis of it.

We’ll now take each of the above primary sources and give an example of a possible secondary source:

● Data: Journal article

● Painting: Biography of the artist

Find this useful?

Subscribe to our newsletter and get writing tips from our editors straight to your inbox.

● Sculpture: Description from an exhibition guide

● Novel: Book review

● Poem: Critique

● Artifact: Encyclopedia

● Letter: Textbook

● Photo: Documentary

● Statute: Legal dictionary

● Court records: Newspaper article

Secondary sources offer an alternative perspective on a primary source. They can help you gain a broad overview of a topic and often save you time by summarizing information from multiple sources. Moreover, secondary sources allow you to compare your findings with those of other researchers.

Summary: Primary and Secondary Sources

Primary sources provide first-hand accounts of a topic, while secondary sources provide some interpretation or analysis of a primary source. Both types are valuable in qualifying your research.

Whichever type you refer to in your academic writing, it’s important that you cite it correctly in the appropriate referencing style . If you’re referring to a study you read about in a secondary source, you should, if possible, locate the original primary source and cite it directly.

We hope you now know the difference between primary and secondary sources. If you want an expert to review your writing, including reference lists and bibliographies, our proofreaders are just a few clicks away. You can even send us 500 words to proofread for free .

Share this article:

Post A New Comment

Got content that needs a quick turnaround? Let us polish your work. Explore our editorial business services.

What is a content editor.

Are you interested in learning more about the role of a content editor and the...

4-minute read

The Benefits of Using an Online Proofreading Service

Proofreading is important to ensure your writing is clear and concise for your readers. Whether...

2-minute read

6 Online AI Presentation Maker Tools

Creating presentations can be time-consuming and frustrating. Trying to construct a visually appealing and informative...

What Is Market Research?

No matter your industry, conducting market research helps you keep up to date with shifting...

8 Press Release Distribution Services for Your Business

In a world where you need to stand out, press releases are key to being...

How to Get a Patent

In the United States, the US Patent and Trademarks Office issues patents. In the United...

Make sure your writing is the best it can be with our expert English proofreading and editing.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

24 Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Primary sources.

Ready to gather sources for your research paper or report? Great! Depending on the genre you’re writing in or your audience’s expectations, you may need to look at both primary and secondary sources. But, what are primary and secondary sources?

Primary sources are those sources we rely on for firsthand information. The information contained in primary sources is sometimes unedited, meaning it is in its original form and hasn’t been proofread or revised by another person yet. Any type of information that is original and uninterpreted is a primary source.

To be extra specific, primary sources are those that provide firsthand, original information. Some examples of primary sources might include:

Artifacts (e.g. coins, plant specimens, fossils, furniture, tools, clothing, all from the time under study)
Audio recordings (e.g. radio programs)
Diaries and letters
Internet communications on email, listservs
Interviews (e.g., oral histories, telephone, e-mail)
Journal articles published in peer-reviewed publications
Newspaper articles written at the time
Original Documents (i.e. birth certificate, will, marriage license, trial transcript)
Photographs
Proceedings of Meetings, conferences and symposia
Records of organizations, government agencies (e.g. annual report, treaty, constitution, government document)
Survey Research (e.g., market surveys, public opinion polls)
Video recordings (e.g. television programs)
Works of art, architecture, literature, and music (e.g., paintings, sculptures, musical scores, buildings, novels, poems).

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources differ from primary sources in that they are not original or firsthand accounts; they come to us secondhand. Secondary sources also use primary sources and build on primary sources through analysis, interpretation, commentary, and criticism. In fact, your research paper will ultimately be a secondary source. Examples of secondary sources might include:

Biographical works
Commentaries, criticisms
Dictionaries, Encyclopedias
Journal articles (depending on the disciple can be primary)
Magazine and newspaper articles (this distinction varies by discipline)
Monographs, other than fiction and autobiography
Website (could, at times, be considered primary)

You might also find this table comparing types of primary versus secondary sources helpful.

Attributions

Adapted from “Palni Information Literacy Modules: Module 5: Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources,” LibGuides, CC-BY, https://libguides.palni.edu/instruction_resources/ILModule5 .

Adapted from “Thinking about Primary Sources,” CC-BY, https://libguides.palni.edu/instruction_resources/ILModule5 .

“Journalism, Fake News, & Disinformation,“ Posetti, J. et. al., UNESCO, CC BY-SA, https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/journalism_fake_news_disinformation_print_friendly_0.pdf .

Adapted from “Research: A Step-by-Step Guide: Primary/Secondary Sources,” LibGuides, CC-BY-SA, https://libguides.centralia.edu/c.php?g=383652&p=2600069 .

Share This Book

Academic Writing and Referencing Style: Primary vs Secondary Sources

Think.Check.Submit
Referencing
Referencing Style Guides
Generating Ideas
Narrowing Your Topic
Introductions
Organization
Conclusions
Primary vs Secondary Sources
Make Your Sources Speak
Global vs. Local Revision
Suggestions for Revision
Why is Grammar Important?
Reference Managers - Mendeley and ...
Web Resources
Books in IYTE Library
Training Seminars & Presentations
Choosing Right Journals This link opens in a new window

What are Primary and Secondary Sources?

A primary source is a source that you are analyzing as the writer. In other words, there is no mediary between you and the text; you are the one doing the analysis.

Some examples of primary sources:

A secondary source , then, is a source that has also done analysis of the same (or a similar) topic. You will then use this source to discuss how it relates to your argument about the primary source. A secondary source is a mediary between you and the primary source. Secondary sources can also help your credibility as a writer; when you use them in your writing, it shows that you have done research on the topic, and can enter into the conversation on the topic with other writers.

Some examples of secondary sources:

<< Previous: Using Secondary Sources
Next: Summary >>
Last Updated: Jan 5, 2024 4:52 PM
URL: https://libguides.iyte.edu.tr/AcademicWriting

Primary vs. Secondary Data: A Comparative Analysis

Data is a valuable asset for any business or organization looking to make informed decisions. Yet, not all data is created equal.

Primary data refers to original data collected firsthand by researchers for a specific research purpose, while secondary data refers to pre-existing data that has been collected by someone else for a different purpose and is utilized by researchers for their own analysis.

Primary vs. Secondary Data

Talent vs. Skill
Job vs. Career
Learning vs. Education

What is primary data?

Primary data is data that is collected firsthand by the researcher. This data is usually collected through surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments.

Because primary data is collected directly by the researcher, it is usually more accurate and reliable than secondary data.

Additionally, primary data can be customized to fit the specific needs of the research project.

What is secondary data?

Secondary data is data that has already been collected by someone else and made publicly available. It can be found in sources such as surveys, government reports, and research papers.

Because it has already been collected, it is usually less expensive and time-consuming to obtain than primary data. However, it may be less reliable since it is not tailored to your specific research question.

Pros and cons of using primary and secondary data

Primary data is more accurate and up-to-date than secondary data. However, it can be more expensive and time-consuming to collect.
Secondary data is less accurate and may be out-of-date. However, it is usually cheaper and easier to obtain than primary data.
Both primary and secondary data have their advantages and disadvantages. It is important to carefully consider your needs before deciding which type of data to use.

How to collect primary data

One way is through surveys. You can use online tools, like Google Forms or Survey Monkey, to create a survey and send it out to your target audience. Another way to collect primary data is through interviews.

You can conduct phone interviews, video interviews, or in-person interviews. You can also use focus groups to collect primary data. This involves bringing a group of people together in person (or online) and facilitating a discussion about your topic of interest.

How to analyze and interpret primary and secondary data

Primary data is data that you collect yourself. This can be through surveys, interviews, or observation. Because you are collecting the data yourself, you have more control over it. You can also tailor your questions to get the specific information you need. However, primary data can be time-consuming and expensive to collect.
Secondary data is data that already exists. This could be from government sources, research papers, or online data sets. Secondary data is usually cheaper and faster to collect than primary data. However, it can be less reliable because you don’t know how the original collected the data and if they had any bias in their methods.
It depends on your research question and what type of information you need. If you need detailed or specific information, then primary data is likely your best bet. But if you just need general information or trends, secondary data will probably suffice.

Examples of different types of primary and secondary data

Primary data is data that is collected by the researcher themselves. This can be done through surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments.
Secondary data is data that has already been collected by someone else and is readily available to the researcher. This could come from sources like government reports, census data, or previously published journal articles.

Primary Data:

A survey you create and distribute to collect people’s opinions on a topic
Data you collect from conducting interviews with people
Information you gather by observing people or events
Results from an experiment you ran

Secondary Data:

Census data that has already been collected and published by the government
Data from a previous study that was published in a journal article
Sales figures that have been released by a company

Key differences between primary and secondary data

Definition: Primary data is original data collected firsthand for a specific research purpose, while secondary data is pre-existing data collected by someone else for a different purpose.
Collection: Primary data is collected directly by researchers through methods like surveys, interviews, or experiments, while secondary data is obtained from existing sources such as books, articles, or databases.
Originality: Primary data is unique and specific to the research study, providing original insights, while secondary data is pre-existing and has been collected for other purposes.
Control: Researchers have control over the collection process and design of primary data, while they have limited control over secondary data as it is collected by others.
Time and Cost: Primary data collection can be time-consuming and expensive, while secondary data is often more time and cost-efficient as it already exists.
Data Quality: Researchers can directly assess and ensure the quality of primary data, while the quality of secondary data depends on the original source’s collection methods and reliability.
Differences between Features and Benefits
Differences between Management and Administration
Differences between Morals and Ethics

Primary data collection allows researchers to gather original and specific information tailored to their research needs but requires time and resources. On the other hand, secondary data provides convenience and cost-effectiveness by utilizing pre-existing data, but its quality and relevance may vary. The choice between primary and secondary data depends on the research objectives, resources available, and the level of control needed.

Deshan Kumar is a talented contributing author with a passion for making mathematics and physics easy to understand. Deshan has a knack for breaking down complex concepts into easy-to-digest pieces, making them accessible to readers of all levels.

Are you a graduate student or an academic researcher who often finds themselves confused by the terms “thesis” and “dissertation”?…

Type I vs. Type II Errors: A Comparative Analysis

Mistakes happen, but when it comes to statistical analysis, they can be costly. Type I and Type II errors are…

Probability vs. Non-Probability Sampling: A Comparison

Sampling is a crucial aspect of any research study. It involves selecting a subset of individuals or units from a…

Primary vs. Secondary Research: Which One is More Reliable?

In the world of research, there are two main methods of gathering information: primary and secondary. Each method has its…

Odds vs. Probability: What’s the Real Difference?

University Library, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

History 202: American Environmental History

Introduction to the Library
Find Background Information

What are Primary Sources?

What are secondary sources.

Find Articles
Find Other Sources

Ask a Librarian

Primary sources are produced at the time of the event or phenomenon you are investigating, and they purport to document it. They reflect what someone observed or believed about an event at the time it occurred or soon afterwards. These sources provide raw material that you will analyze and interpret. Primary sources can be published or unpublished.

Learn more about primary sources:

Research Skills: Introduction to Primary Sources

For this course, your primary source "base" has already been identified. You will be working with the Committee on Allerton Park records in the University Archives .

The final three sections of this guide, "Find Books," "Find Articles", and "Find other sources" will help you find additional primary sources, as well as secondary sources.

In the field of history, secondary sources are the scholarly "conversation" taking place about the past. This "conversation" is sometimes referred to as "scholarly communication."

Published secondary sources can include scholarly books, articles, and essays (both analyses by contemporary scholars as well as older scholarly analyses), surveys, criticism, comparative studies, reference sources, and works on theory and methodology.

To find published secondary sources, you can use the Library Catalog to find books or use article indexes/databases to find journal articles; article databases may list books and book chapters as well. You can also consult bibliographies .

Other ways of finding relevant secondary sources include looking for review essays, in which a historian who specializes in the subject analyzes recent scholarship and looking for historiographical treatments of the topic published as chapters in collections, journal articles, or even monographs.

Learn more about scholarly communication (AKA secondary sources), including the role of less formal modes of communication such as social media:

Research Skills: Scholarly Communication
<< Previous: Find Background Information
Next: Find Books >>
Last Updated: Feb 7, 2024 5:39 PM
URL: https://guides.library.illinois.edu/environment

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Primary research involves collecting data about a given subject directly from the real world. This section includes information on what primary research is, how to get started, ethics involved with primary research and different types of research you can do. It includes details about interviews, surveys, observations, and analysis.

Analysis is a type of primary research that involves finding and interpreting patterns in data, classifying those patterns, and generalizing the results. It is useful when looking at actions, events, or occurrences in different texts, media, or publications. Analysis can usually be done without considering most of the ethical issues discussed in the overview, as you are not working with people but rather publicly accessible documents. Analysis can be done on new documents or performed on raw data that you yourself have collected.

Here are several examples of analysis:

Recording commercials on three major television networks and analyzing race and gender within the commercials to discover some conclusion.
Analyzing the historical trends in public laws by looking at the records at a local courthouse.
Analyzing topics of discussion in chat rooms for patterns based on gender and age.

Analysis research involves several steps:

Finding and collecting documents.
Specifying criteria or patterns that you are looking for.
Analyzing documents for patterns, noting number of occurrences or other factors.

COMMENTS

Primary vs. Secondary Sources
Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. Primary research gives you direct access to the subject of your research. Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews ...
Comparative Analysis
Comparative analyses can build up to other kinds of writing in a number of ways. For example: They can build toward other kinds of comparative analysis, e.g., student can be asked to choose an additional source to complicate their conclusions from a previous analysis, or they can be asked to revisit an analysis using a different axis of comparison, such as race instead of class.
Primary vs. secondary sources: how to distinguish them
Likewise, a secondary source can tell you about current trends in research and analysis, while providing you with a broad overview or summary of an extended period of time, or the works of an artist. Examples of primary and secondary sources. We have put together a list of examples of primary and secondary sources by fields of study.
Primary vs. Secondary Sources
A primary source gives you direct access to the subject of your research. Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books. A secondary source describes, interprets, or synthesises primary sources. Primary sources are more credible as evidence ...
Understanding Primary and Secondary Sources
Secondary sources are scholarly or other analyses of a primary source, created by a person not directly involved with the time period or event being studied. Use secondary sources to recreate, analyze, critique, and/or report on a particular topic based on review of a single or a collection of primary sources.
Primary vs. Secondary Sources
Primary and secondary sources. Primary and secondary sources include books, articles, websites, speeches, newspapers, etc. Primary source materials are firsthand accounts. Secondary sources summarize, describe, analyze, interpret, synthesize, or evaluate primary sources. Academic and original research projects often use both types of sources.
Distinguish Between Primary and Secondary Sources
1. Introduction. Whether conducting research in the social sciences, humanities (especially history), arts, or natural sciences, the ability to distinguish between primary and secondary source material is essential. Basically, this distinction illustrates the degree to which the author of a piece is removed from the actual event being described, informing the reader as to whether the author is ...
Primary and Secondary Sources
Knowing the difference between primary and secondary sources will help you determine what types of sources you may need to include in your research essay. In general, primary sources are original works (original historical documents, art works, interviews, etc.), while secondary sources contain others' insights and writings about those ...
Primary and Secondary Sources
Primary sources are first-hand, authoritative accounts of an event, topic, or historical time period. They are typically produced at the time of the event by a person who experienced it, but can also be made later on in the form of personal memoirs or oral histories. Anything that contains original information on a topic is considered a primary ...
Primary vs. Secondary
Secondary Sources are one step removed from primary sources, though they often quote or otherwise use primary sources. They can cover the same topic, but add a layer of interpretation and analysis. Secondary sources can include: Most books about a topic. Analysis or interpretation of data.
Primary vs Secondary Sources Writing Guide With Examples
Primary sources give us a direct glimpse into the past or provide evidence related to our research topic. Think of them as unfiltered snapshots of history. On the other hand, secondary sources offer interpretation and analysis of primary data. They help us make sense of the raw information. This guide aims to demystify these source categories.
Primary vs. Secondary Sources
Sources are considered primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the originality of the information presented and their proximity or how close they are to the source of information.This distinction can differ between subjects and disciplines. In the sciences, research findings may be communicated informally between researchers through email, presented at conferences (primary source), and ...
Primary vs. Secondary Sources
Secondary sources offer an analysis or a restatement of primary sources. They often attempt to describe or explain primary sources. Some secondary sources not only analyze primary sources, but also use them to argue a contention or persuade the reader to hold a certain opinion. Examples of secondary sources include dictionaries, encyclopedias ...
History: Primary vs. Secondary Sources
A primary source is an original material created during the time under study. Primary sources can be original documents, creative works, published materials of the times, institutional and government documents or relics and artifacts. Secondary sources put primary sources in context. They comment, summarize, interpret or analyze information ...
Primary and Secondary Sources—What's The Difference?
Summary: Primary and Secondary Sources. Primary sources provide first-hand accounts of a topic, while secondary sources provide some interpretation or analysis of a primary source. Both types are valuable in qualifying your research. Whichever type you refer to in your academic writing, it's important that you cite it correctly in the ...
PDF Comparing Types of Primary Sources Exercise
Definitions: Primary source ‐ a document or object that was created by an individual or group as part of their daily lives. Primary sources include birth certificates, photographs, diaries, letters, embroidered samplers, clothing, household implements, and newspapers. First person testimony ‐ the account of a person who actually ...
Primary vs. Secondary Sources
Secondary Sources. Secondary sources differ from primary sources in that they are not original or firsthand accounts; they come to us secondhand. Secondary sources also use primary sources and build on primary sources through analysis, interpretation, commentary, and criticism. In fact, your research paper will ultimately be a secondary source.
Primary vs Secondary Sources
A secondary source is a mediary between you and the primary source. Secondary sources can also help your credibility as a writer; when you use them in your writing, it shows that you have done research on the topic, and can enter into the conversation on the topic with other writers. Some examples of secondary sources:
Primary vs. Secondary Data: A Comparative Analysis
Pros and cons of using primary and secondary data. Primary data is more accurate and up-to-date than secondary data. However, it can be more expensive and time-consuming to collect. Secondary data is less accurate and may be out-of-date. However, it is usually cheaper and easier to obtain than primary data.
Primary vs Secondary Sources
Primary sources are produced at the time of the event or phenomenon you are investigating, and they purport to document it. ... Published secondary sources can include scholarly books, articles, and essays (both analyses by contemporary scholars as well as older scholarly analyses), surveys, criticism, comparative studies, reference sources ...
Analysis
Primary research involves collecting data about a given subject directly from the real world. This section includes information on what primary research is, how to get started, ethics involved with primary research and different types of research you can do. It includes details about interviews, surveys, observations, and analysis.
Worksheet on Comparative Analysis of Primary vs. Secondary Sources
Comparative Analysis of Tejeros Convention worksheet on comparative analysis of primary vs. secondary sources divine indico bsn 1c primary source: santiago ... a mess so sorry if copy because i am in a hurry because it's deadline already and i don't have much time to think and writing my work so im really sorry im hoping that you'll forgive me ...

Have a language expert improve your writing

Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Table of contents

Scribbr Citation Checker New

Examples of sources that can be primary or secondary

Documentaries

Reviews and essays

Newspaper articles

The only proofreading tool specialized in correcting academic writing - try for free!

What do you use primary sources for?

What do you use secondary sources for?

Cite this Scribbr article

Is this article helpful?

Raimo Streefkerk

GA4 Tracking Code

What It Is and Why It's Useful

How to Teach It: Framing + Practice

Sample Exercises and Links to Other Resources

What It Can Build Up To

Primary and secondary sources: what are they and why do I need them?

What are the main differences between primary and secondary sources?

Have a thesis expert improve your writing

Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Table of contents

The only proofreading tool specialized in correcting academic writing

Examples of sources that can be primary or secondary

What do you use primary sources for?

What do you use secondary sources for?

Cite this Scribbr article

Is this article helpful?

Raimo Streefkerk

Evaluating Information

Further Reading

Primary vs. Secondary Sources — Definition, Differences, and Examples

Primary and secondary sources

What is a primary source?

What is a secondary source?

How to identify a primary and secondary source

Primary and secondary source examples

University Library

Introduction

Ask a Librarian

Related Guides

Land Acknowledgement

Finding Sources

How to Write a Literature Review: Primary and Secondary Sources

Primary versus Secondary Sources

Primary Sources: A Research Guide

Primary Sources

Secondary Sources

When is a Primary Source a Secondary Source?

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Evidence Based Practice

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Primary Sources

Secondary Sources

More on Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis

History: Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Definitions (from Pennington School)

Examples (from Penington School)

Analyzing Primary Sources

Determining Primary vs. Secondary Sources (from Fresno State Univ.)

Primary and Secondary Sources—What’s The Difference?

What’s a Primary Source?

What’s a Secondary Source?

Find this useful?

Summary: Primary and Secondary Sources

Share this article:

Got content that needs a quick turnaround? Let us polish your work. Explore our editorial business services.

The Benefits of Using an Online Proofreading Service

6 Online AI Presentation Maker Tools

What Is Market Research?

8 Press Release Distribution Services for Your Business

How to Get a Patent

Make sure your writing is the best it can be with our expert English proofreading and editing.

24 Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Secondary Sources

Share This Book

Academic Writing and Referencing Style: Primary vs Secondary Sources