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The Evolution of Academic Writing: Traditional vs. Modern Approaches

• October 31, 2023
• Academic Help

Academic writing , the cornerstone of scholarly communication, has undergone a profound transformation over the centuries. From its traditional roots in long-established practices to its contemporary form shaped by technological advancements, academic writing has evolved significantly. This evolution has not only affected the way ideas are conveyed and arguments are presented but has also revolutionized the accessibility and dissemination of knowledge.

Traditional Approach: The Scholarly Tradition

In the early stages of academia, the dissemination of knowledge was largely confined to physical manuscripts, books, and journals. Academic writing followed a rigid structure, characterized by formal language, elaborate sentence structures, and an emphasis on authority and formality. Scholars were expected to demonstrate their expertise through an intricate web of citations and references, often relying on established authorities and established schools of thought.

Within this traditional approach, academic writing was typically hierarchical, with scholars and researchers operating within distinct disciplinary boundaries. Journals and academic publications served as the primary means of sharing research findings, limiting the scope of scholarly interaction and collaboration.

Transition Phase: The Emergence of Modernization

The latter half of the 20th century witnessed a significant shift in the landscape of academic writing . The rapid advancement of digital technology and the widespread accessibility of the internet led to the democratization of knowledge. This shift challenged the conventional norms of academic writing, fostering a more inclusive and accessible environment for scholarly discourse.

The transition phase marked a growing recognition of the need for interdisciplinary collaboration and the exploration of diverse perspectives. Scholars began to experiment with alternative forms of academic writing, incorporating elements of storytelling, personal reflection, and creative expression into their research endeavors. This departure from the rigidity of the traditional approach paved the way for a more nuanced and multifaceted understanding of complex academic concepts.

Modern Approach: The Democratization of Knowledge

With the advent of the digital age, academic writing has experienced a remarkable shift. The modern approach to academic writing emphasizes accessibility and inclusivity, allowing a broader audience to engage with scholarly discourse. Online publishing platforms, open-access journals, and digital libraries have revolutionized the accessibility of research, enabling researchers and students from diverse backgrounds to contribute to and access a wealth of information.

Moreover, the modern approach has embraced a more conversational and accessible tone, fostering engagement and interaction among scholars and readers. The incorporation of multimedia elements, such as infographics, videos, and interactive content, has enhanced the overall impact and understanding of complex research findings, making academic writing more engaging and dynamic.

Bridging the Gap: Embracing the Best of Both Worlds

As academic writing continues to evolve, there is a growing recognition of the importance of preserving the core principles of scholarship while embracing the opportunities presented by modern technological advancements. The integration of digital tools and platforms has streamlined the research process, enabling scholars to conduct comprehensive literature reviews, collaborate across geographical boundaries, and disseminate their findings to a global audience.

Simultaneously, maintaining a scholarly rigor and adherence to academic conventions remains crucial. While the modern approach encourages a more accessible and engaging writing style, it is essential to uphold the standards of critical analysis, evidence-based arguments, and ethical research practices.

The evolution of academic writing reflects the dynamic relationship between tradition and modernity. As we navigate this changing landscape, it is imperative to strike a balance between preserving the rich legacy of scholarly discourse and embracing the transformative potential of modern technology. By recognizing and respecting the strengths of both the traditional and modern approaches, we can foster a more inclusive, collaborative, and impactful academic community.

To stay updated on the latest trends in academic writing and to explore the interplay between tradition and innovation, continue to follow our blog for insightful articles and resources.

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The Evolution of Essay Writing: Traditional vs. Modern Approaches

by Uncustomary | Dec 12, 2023 | General | 0 comments

The landscape of essay writing has undergone a profound transformation over the years. The traditional approaches that once defined academic writing are now meeting the challenges posed by the digital age. Embark on a transformative exploration of the art of essay writing with the guidance of our professional Paper Writing Experts by PaperPerk . As purveyors of academic excellence, we invite you to delve into “The Evolution of Essay Writing: Traditional vs. Modern Approaches.” In this dynamic journey through time and methodology, our experts bring a unique blend of traditional wisdom and contemporary insight to the forefront. 

Traditional Approaches to Essay Writing

1: Emphasis on Formal Structure

• Traditional essays often followed a strict, formal structure with distinct sections such as introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion.
• Explore how adherence to this structure contributed to clarity but sometimes limited creativity.

2: Library Research and Citations

• Discuss the reliance on library resources and the meticulous process of citing references manually.
• Reflect on the benefits of in-depth, primary research but acknowledge the time-consuming nature of the process.

3: Handwritten Drafts and Revisions

• Consider the pre-digital era when essays were handwritten and revisions involved crossing out or rewriting entire sections.
• Highlight the tangible connection between the writer and the work but acknowledge the challenges of editing by hand.

Modern Approaches to Essay Writing

1: Digital Research and Online Resources

• Explore how the internet has transformed research, providing instant access to a vast array of information.
• Discuss the need for critical evaluation of online sources and the benefits of a broader knowledge base.

2: Flexible Essay Structures

• Discuss the shift towards more flexible essay structures, allowing for creativity and adaptation to different types of assignments.
• Highlight how modern essays may incorporate multimedia elements, fostering engagement.

3: Word Processing and Editing Software

• Explore the convenience of word processing software for drafting and revising essays.
• Discuss the advantages of digital editing tools while emphasizing the importance of thorough proofreading.

Finding the Balance

The Role of Traditional Elements in Modern Essays

• Advocate for the integration of valuable traditional elements, such as clarity, coherence, and formal language, into modern essays.
• Emphasize that while technology has changed the tools, the essence of effective communication remains constant.

Navigating the Digital Frontier: Challenges and Opportunities

1: The Impact of Digital Communication

• Explore how the rise of digital communication, including social media and blogging, has influenced the tone and style of modern essays.
• Discuss the challenges of maintaining academic rigor in an era where brevity and immediacy are often prioritized.

2: Audience Engagement in the Digital Age

• Consider the changing expectations of audiences in the digital age and how modern essays aim for engagement and interactivity.
• Discuss the role of multimedia elements, such as images, infographics, and hyperlinks, in enhancing the overall reading experience.

Adapting to Diverse Writing Platforms

1: Beyond Traditional Essays: Blogging and Online Platforms

• Explore the emergence of non-traditional platforms for essay-like content, such as blogs, online articles, and interactive media.
• Discuss the benefits and challenges of adapting traditional essay writing skills to diverse online formats.

2: The Rise of Collaborative Writing

• Examine how collaborative writing tools and platforms have changed the dynamics of essay creation.
• Discuss the advantages of real-time collaboration and peer review, fostering a more inclusive and iterative writing process.

Preparing Students for the Future

1: Digital Literacy and Academic Integrity

• Highlight the importance of digital literacy in the modern academic landscape, emphasizing ethical research practices and proper citation of digital sources.
• Discuss the role of educators in guiding students to navigate the complexities of digital information responsibly.

2: Critical Thinking in the Age of Information Overload

• Address the challenge of information overload in the digital age and emphasize the role of critical thinking in evaluating and synthesizing vast amounts of information.
• Discuss strategies for students to develop discernment in the face of abundant online resources.

As we navigate the evolution of essay writing from traditional to modern approaches, it becomes clear that the key lies in finding a harmonious balance. We encourage students to leverage the advantages of both worlds. Embrace the digital tools at your disposal while holding onto the timeless principles of effective communication. In this fusion of tradition and innovation, you’ll discover the power to craft essays that resonate in the dynamic landscape of academia and beyond.

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Beyond Five Paragraphs: Innovations in Teaching the Modern Essay

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Remember those days when the five-paragraph essay was the golden ticket to acing assignments? Yup, a neat introduction, three precise body paragraphs, and a conclusive ending—almost like a comfortable routine. But let's face it: while this structure has its merits, it’s a bit like that old, comfy sweater. Comfortable? Yes. The best choice for all occasions? Probably not.

As educators, writers, and lifelong learners, we've witnessed the literary world evolve. The modern classroom demands more than just the traditional. It seeks innovation, depth, and flexibility. So, why should essay writing stay in the past? It’s high time we peeked beyond the confines of five paragraphs and explored the dynamic realm of the modern essay. Ready for the ride?

Tracing the Roots: The Evolution of Essay Writing

Once upon a time, the five-paragraph essay reigned supreme. Born from the need for standardization in education, it served as the cornerstone for evaluating students' writing prowess. A clear, concise, and formulaic approach, it was the go-to method for teachers to introduce youngsters to the art of structured writing. With its simple formula of an introduction, three supporting arguments, and a conclusion, it was hailed as the perfect starting point for budding writers. This format not only simplified the grading process but also set a clear benchmark for what constituted 'good' writing in academic settings.

Hitting the Wall: The Constraints of the Five-Paragraph Approach

The five-paragraph essay, while a reliable tool, is not without its shackles. Picture this: a writer keen to explore vast landscapes but limited to a confined space. That's what this format often feels like. The first glaring limitation? Its predictability. When every essay reads like a rehearsed dance, there's little room for surprise or genuine insight.

Moreover, while the format provides a clear structure, it often curbs deeper exploration. Topics that demand nuance and layers are boxed into three main points, which can stifle comprehensive discussions. This rigidity can be especially stifling for topics that don't naturally fit into three distinct segments.

But here's the real kicker: the very essence of writing is expression, isn't it? The five-paragraph essay, in its quest for uniformity, sometimes suppresses the writer's unique voice. Young writers, eager to experiment, might find themselves restrained, their creativity dimmed by the strict borders of this format.

In a world that celebrates diversity and depth, it's worth questioning: does the five-paragraph essay truly cater to the modern writer's needs?

Introducing the Modern Essay

Let's step into the world of modern essay writing – a realm where the word 'boundary' almost seems archaic. Here, the narrative is fluid, the structure malleable, and the voice unmistakably authentic. Gone are the days of a one-size-fits-all approach; the modern essay is like an artist's canvas, awaiting diverse strokes and shades.

So, what truly sets the modern essay apart? For starters, it acknowledges that not all ideas are created equal. Some thoughts demand exploration, flowing freely without the confines of stringent paragraphs. Others might challenge the conventions of narrative itself, flirting with poetic forms or merging genres.

The modern essay thrives on relevance. It speaks to its readers, engaging them in dialogues about contemporary issues, personal experiences, or abstract philosophies. It's no longer just about presenting facts or arguments but about fostering connection and sparking reflection.

Perhaps the most invigorating aspect is the allowance for personal voice. The modern essay cherishes individuality. Writers are not just faceless scribes behind words; they're storytellers, thinkers, and even provocateurs. Their unique perspectives and tones breathe life into the text, making each essay a standalone masterpiece.

As we steer towards this new era of essay writing, we don't merely learn to write; we learn to express, to engage, and most importantly, to evolve.

Navigating New Horizons: Fresh Formats in Essay Writing

In the vast ocean of modern essay writing, several innovative structures have emerged, challenging the old and paving the way for the new. Let's embark on a journey through some of these captivating formats:

The Braided Essay

Picture multiple threads being woven together to form a beautiful tapestry. The braided essay interlaces different narratives or ideas, allowing the writer to jump between perspectives or time frames. It's perfect for those topics that need a multifaceted approach, and it delivers a rich, layered experience to the reader.

The Lyric Essay

Imagine the soulfulness of poetry and the clarity of prose coming together. That's the lyric essay for you. It defies the conventional boundaries of narrative, dancing between poetic expressions and factual explanations. This format is a gem for those looking to appeal to the readers' emotions and intellect simultaneously.

The Flash Essay

In an era of tweets and bite-sized content, the flash essay stands tall. It’s succinct, usually under a thousand words, but packed with punch. This format challenges writers to be concise yet powerful, making every word count.

Photo Essays

They say a picture is worth a thousand words. In photo essays, visuals take center stage, accompanied by minimal text. This structure speaks volumes without being verbose, weaving stories through compelling images. It's especially impactful for topics where visual representation can evoke stronger emotions than mere words.

Diving into these innovative structures is not just about breaking away from the norm; it's about embracing versatility. It's a testament to the fact that storytelling, in essence, is boundless. As writers and educators, experimenting with these formats invites a richness of experience, both in creation and consumption.

Methods to Incorporate Modern Essays into Classroom Teaching

If we're championing the modern essay, the classroom is our arena of transformation. So, how do educators breathe this fresh air into their teaching methodologies? Here's a roadmap to infusing contemporary essay structures into everyday lessons:

Diverse Reading Lists : Before writing, there's reading. Curate reading lists that feature an array of essay styles. Exposing students to the lyric, braided, or flash essay formats will not only broaden their horizons but inspire imitation and innovation.

Workshops and Hands-on Exercises : Organize workshops where students dissect different essay structures, understanding their nuances. Follow up with hands-on writing tasks, letting them dabble with each format, be it penning a flash essay or intertwining narratives in a braided piece.

Emphasize Voice and Authenticity : Encourage students to find and hone their unique voice. Writing prompts can be personal, urging them to draw from personal experiences or viewpoints. The modern essay thrives on authenticity, and there's no better place to start than one's own narrative.

Peer Reviews with a Twist : Yes, classic peer reviews are invaluable. But how about adding a twist? Let students swap essays and then rewrite them in a different format. This exercise fosters adaptability and deepens their understanding of various structures.

Technology as an Ally : Embrace digital platforms that allow multimedia integration. For formats like photo essays, tools that enable easy pairing of visuals and text can be game-changers.

The modern essay is a celebration of evolution and diversity. And with the right techniques, classrooms can be the crucibles where the next generation of dynamic essayists is forged.

Reaping the Rewards: The Upside of the Modern Essay in Classrooms

Teaching the modern essay isn't just about updating the curriculum; it's about harnessing a plethora of benefits that these versatile formats bring to the table. Here's why educators and students alike should embrace this evolution:

Fostering Creativity : Unlike the rigid five-paragraph structure, modern essays open a world of imaginative possibilities. By experimenting with varied styles, students learn to think outside the box, enhancing their creativity and innovation.

Cultivating Critical Thinking : Modern essays often blur boundaries, merge genres, and interweave narratives. To craft such essays, students must engage in deeper analysis and critical thinking, assessing how best to present their ideas and stories.

Empowering Personal Expression : With a strong emphasis on voice and authenticity, modern essays empower students to bring their unique perspectives to the forefront. This nurtures self-confidence and validates individual experiences and viewpoints.

Enhanced Engagement : Let's face it – reading and writing the same type of essay can become monotonous. Diverse essay formats, from the lyrical to the visual, make the learning process more engaging and enjoyable for students.

Preparing for Real-world Applications : The writing world outside academic walls is vast and varied. By mastering different essay structures, students are better prepared for real-world writing scenarios, be it in journalism, digital content creation, or personal blogs.

Encouraging Adaptability : The ability to switch between formats, to mold ideas into different structures, instills adaptability. This skill is invaluable in an ever-changing world, both within and outside the realm of writing.

In essence, introducing the modern essay into classrooms is like unlocking doors to myriad rooms of expression, exploration, and evolution. The journey through these rooms not only hones writing prowess but also enriches the holistic development of young minds.

A Tale of Transformation: Unfolding a Classroom's Modern Essay Success

Mrs. Parker's tenth-grade English class began much like any other - with students begrudgingly penning five-paragraph essays. But midway through the year, a shift occurred. Mrs. Parker introduced her students to the vast universe of modern essay writing.

The Challenge : Most of the students had never ventured beyond the standard essay structure. There was initial resistance, with concerns about grading criteria and the perceived complexities of new formats.

The Approach : Mrs. Parker began by sharing captivating examples of braided and lyric essays. The class dissected each piece, identifying the unique elements that set them apart. Then, they were given an assignment: choose a personal story and write it as a flash essay.

The Outcome : The transformation was palpable. One student, who previously struggled with the restrictive format of five-paragraph essays, penned a poignant lyric essay on grief and healing. Another student, a budding photographer, paired her photos with narrative snippets, crafting a compelling photo essay about her hometown.

But it wasn’t just about the essays. The class atmosphere evolved. Students were more engaged, discussions became lively, and there was a newfound enthusiasm for writing.

The Feedback : At the year's end, a survey revealed that over 85% of the students felt more confident in their writing abilities. They expressed gratitude for being introduced to varied essay formats, with many stating they had found 'their' style.

Mrs. Parker’s classroom experiment shone a light on the immense potential of modern essays. By breaking the mold, she didn't just create better writers; she fostered thinkers, storytellers, and confident young adults ready to voice their narratives.

In the ever-evolving landscape of education, clinging to old norms is not just limiting—it's doing a disservice to young, vibrant minds eager to express, connect, and innovate. The journey from the traditional five-paragraph essay to the expansive world of modern essay writing is more than just a shift in structure; it's a testament to the dynamic nature of communication in our age.

For those feeling overwhelmed by this transition or faced with tight deadlines and complex topics, leveraging an plagiarism-free essay writing service can be a game-changer, offering expert guidance in navigating these new waters.

So, as educators, writers, or even just lifelong learners, it's upon us to keep pushing boundaries. To challenge the status quo. To recognize that while the past offers valuable lessons, the future is a canvas of limitless possibilities. Here's to crafting essays, and indeed lessons, that resonate, inspire, and evolve with the times.

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Modern Approach to Management

Everything you need to know about the modern approach to management. The modern approach to management was developed around the year 1950.

This approach is an improvement upon both the classical and neo-classical approach to management.

Modern approach to management has three basic pillars: I. Quantitative Approach II. System Approach III. Contingency Approach.

Modern Approach to Management: Quantitative Approach, System Approach, Contingency Approach and Other Approaches

M odern approach to management – quantitative approach, system approach, contingency approach and other approaches.

The modern approach to management was developed around the year 1950. This approach is an improvement upon both the classical and neo-classical approach to management.

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This approach has three basic pillars:

I. Quantitative Approach,

II. System Approach, and

III. Contingency Approach

I. Quantitative Approach :

The quantitative approach was propounded by C. W Churchman and his colleagues around the year 1950. This approach is also known by the name of Operational Research or Operational Analysis.

The classical approach lays stress upon the physical resources while the neo-classical approach gives importance to human resources. Both these approaches are silent about some of the most serious problems usually faced by the managers.

The quantitative approach to management makes some suggestions to solve different problems facing the managers. It tells the managers to solve their problems with the help of the mathematical and statistical formulas. Some special formulas have been prepared to solve managerial problems.

For Example:

(i) Theory of Probability,

(ii) Sampling Analysis,

(iii) Correlation / Regression Analysis,

(iv) Time Series Analysis,

(v) Ratio Analysis,

(vi) Variance Analysis,

(vii) Statistical Quality Control,

(viii) Linear Programming,

(ix) Game Theory,

(x) Network Analysis,

(xi) Break-Even Analysis,

(xii) Waiting Line or Queuing Theory,

(xiii) Cash-Benefit Analysis, etc.

The main objective of the quantitative approach is to find out a solution for the complex problems facing the big companies. The help of a computer is usually taken in order to make use of the above mentioned techniques.

The chief advantage of the approach is to solve complex problems quickly. But the chief disadvantage is that this approach offers an alternative to decision and cannot take decision.

II. System Approach :

This is a newly developed approach which came existence in 1960. This approach was developed by Chester I. Bernard, Herbert A. Simon and their colleagues.

The system approach means a group of small inter-related units. A group of different units which means a complete unit is called a system, while the small units are themselves independent, but somehow or the other is connected with the sub-systems of the related system. All the sub-systems influence one another. For example- a scooter is a system which has many sub-systems in the form of engine, shaft, gear, wheels body, etc.

All these sub-systems are inter-related with one another and if one of them fails the whole system stops working. Therefore, the success of the system depends on the cooperation and efficiency of the sub-systems.

It can, therefore, be said that a system means different inter-related parts which work n cohesion simultaneously to achieve a particular purpose.

According to the system approach, the whole organization is a system and its various departments are its sub-systems. All the sub-systems work in unison. Then and only then the objective of the organization can be achieved. Therefore, when manager taken some decision regarding a particular sub-system, he should also take into consideration the defect of his decision on the other sub-systems.

Key Concepts of System Approach :

The following are the chief characteristics of the System Approach:

(1) Sub-Systems:

Every system happens to be a combination of many sub-systems. All the sub-systems are inter-related. It means that whenever we take some decision regarding a particular sub-system, we should always keep in mind the possible effect of the decision might have on the other sub-systems. In the context of a company, all its departments (e.g. purchase, sale, finance, production, personnel, research and development) happen to be its sub-systems.

All these are created by the major system which happens to be the company itself. Company itself is a sub-system of industry. Industry is a sub-system of a national economy. Similarly, the national economy itself happens to be a sub-system of the world system. Therefore, it is clear that various sub-systems constitute a major system.

(2) Holism:

A major characteristic of the System Approach is that it is looked upon as a whole. It clearly means that a decision taken with regard to a particular sub-system does influence or affect the other sub-systems. Therefore, every decision is taken keeping in view the entire organisation, meaning thereby, that all the sub-systems are kept in mind while taking a decision. If that is not done, the major system is certainly damaged and it cannot work properly.

For example- if the sales department is aiming at doubling its sales, it shall have to take care of the fact whether the purchase department would be in a position to purchase the requisite amount of raw material.

Again whether the personnel department will be able to provide the required man-power. Yet again whether the finance department will be able to provide the required financial support. It can, therefore, be said that no decision is possible in respect of any particular sub-system alone. That is why the system approach is called holistic.

(3) Synergy:

It means that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. This can be better understood with the help of an example. Suppose there are five persons in a group. Everybody has a capacity to carry a load of five quintal each. When they are told to lift a load of one quintal, everybody will be able to lift only one quintal of load. But if that are told to lift the weight collectively, they would certainly be able to lift a load in excess of five quintal.

It is thus, clear that if job is performed collectively rather than individual, it is certainly well-performed with better results. Here, the pointer happens to be towards coordination. When all the parts of a system work keeping in mind the interests of others, the performance turns out to be decidedly better results.

(4) Closed and Open System:

A system can be of two types:

(i) Closed system and

(ii) Open system

(i) Closed System:

This is a system that remains unaffected by the environmental factors. Traditional management experts consider an organisation as a closed system. They believed that an organisation worked without being influenced by the outside factors, e.g., a watch is not influenced by the outside factors and it works continuously without getting interrupted. This is a good example of the closed system.

(ii) Open System:

An open system means a system which remains constantly in touch with its environment and is influenced by it. Modern management experts consider an organisation as an open system. Environment is a combination of many factors.

The chief factors of the environment of an organisation happen to be raw material, power, finance, machine, man-power, technique, market, new products, government policies, etc. All these factors of environment enter an organisation as Input. Within the organisation, they are converted into products through the process of various activities.

Then they walk out of the organisation in the form of output and once again mingle with the environment. At this time, they happen to be in the form of goods, services and satisfaction. All the factors of input and output influence the organisation. That is why an organisation is called an open system.

(5) System Boundary:

This means a certain dividing line which separates a system from its environment. The dividing line in a closed system is rigid while in respect of open system, it is flexible. It is not easy to determine the dividing line in respect of physical and biological systems, e.g., a dividing line can easily be drawn between the two pieces of land.

It is, however, difficult to do so in respect of a social system and an organisation is a social system. System boundary makes it clear as to which factors are related to the system and which factors are related to the environment. Consequently, it makes control easier.

In conclusion, it can be said that there have been revolutionary changes in the process of decision-making because of concept of system approach. However, some critics feel that it is difficult to study the relations between sub-systems of a particular system. Therefore, this concept is not practical.

III. Contingency or Situational Approach :

Contingency approach to management is an important modem approach. This approach originated in around 1970. According to it, the managers should take decisions not according to principles but according to the situations. It means that there cannot be any single principle / formula / managerial activity which can be suitable in all the situations. Its chief reason is the constantly changing nature of environment. Here environment means the sum total of all the factors which influence the organization.

These factors are both internal and external. The internal factors include objectives, policies, organization structure, management information system, etc. The external factors include customers, suppliers, competitors, government policies, political set-up, legal system, etc. All these factors are subject to change that is why the environment of an organization is called dynamic.

The system approach has failed to establish a relationship between the organization and environment. The contingency approach has made an attempt to remove this weakness. It is, therefore, the basic duty of the managers to analyse the environment and they should take decision on the basis of their analysis. The managers should always keep in mind that no single method can be suitable for doing any work. Its suitability depends on the situations.

It is quite possible that a particular method of doing a thing may be futile and to hope that these principles would be suitable or successful in one situation, but the same may not be the case in some other situation. So far as the different principles of management are concerned, they simply guide the mangers, and in the present dynamic environment, it would be futile to hope that these principles would be suitable or helpful in all the situations.

For example- single style of leadership cannot be applied to all the situations. Similarly, there are many methods of motivation and control, but a single method cannot be applied to all the situations.

Features of Contingency Approach :

The following are the main features of the contingency approach:

1. The managerial action influences the environment.

2. The managerial action changes according to the situations.

3. There is essentially coordination between the organization and environment.

Limitations of Contingency Approach :

The following are the limitations of the contingency approach:

1. It is not sufficient to say that the managerial action depends on the situation. It is essential to say what action should be taken in a particular situation.

2. A situation can be influenced by many factors. It is difficult to analyse all these factors.

Conclusion :

In conclusion, it can be said that this approach advises the managers to be alert and suggests that the approach and system of work should be suitably changed in view of the situations confronting them.

IV. Other Approaches :

(1) Decision Approach :

Apart from some expert economists who developed the Decision Theory Approach, C.I. Barnard and Herbert Simon happen to be the chief exponents of this approach.

This approach can be better understood with the help of the following mathematical equation:

Management Minus Decision-Making is Zero

This equation makes it clear that if we take away decision out of management, nothing remains except zero. It means that, management is nothing but decision making. A manager has to take decisions at every step. Decision becomes absolutely necessary when there are many alternatives available to solve a particular problem.

After analysing the various alternatives, a rational decision has to be taken. The process of decision-making is a continuous process. The chief reason for it is that the managers have to face problems one after the other and they have to take decision to solve those problems.

The following are the chief characteristics of the decision theory approach:

(1) Decision is the soul of management.

(2) The study of various factors influencing decision is management.

(3) This approach lays stress on taking rational decisions.

(4) This approach considers decision-making as the centre of the study of management.

(5) Decision-making is a continuous process.

(6) The success of the organisation depends on the quality of the decisions.

(7) This approach recommends the use of quantitative methods in the process of decision-making.

(8) According to this approach, the system of communication has a vital role to play for the success of the process of decision-making.

(9) According to this approach, a manager is recognised as a person known for his problem solving capability.

(10) This approach lays stress on the study of the economic, political, social and practical aspects in case of decision making.

Criticisms :

The following are the major points of criticism of this approach:

(1) Narrow Concept:

This is a narrow approach of management. Decision-making can be an important function of management but not the whole of it.

(2) Rational Decision not Possible:

This approach takes about taking rational decisions, but it is not possible. Various types of information are needed to make rational decisions possible but this is not available or even if it becomes available, its purity is not ensured or granted.

(3) Use of Quantitative Methods not Possible:

There are many occasions when the use of Quantitative Methods is not possible. In such situations a manager makes use of his knowledge and experience rather than some formulae.

On the basis of the above details, it can be said that undoubtedly decision-making is the essence of management, but not the entire management.

(2) McKinsey’s 7-s Approach :

In 1970, Tom Peters and Robert Waterman advocated the theory of 7-S. They made this achievement while they were working as consultants with McKinsey & Co. They conveyed their 7-S approach to the managers through their published article “Structure is Not Organisation.”

The advocates of this approach decided to study the secret of the success of the well-reputed organisations and managers. On the basis of this study, they found out seven important factors on which the effectiveness of an organisation depended.

These factors are the following:

(1) Strategy

(2) Structure

(7) Shared value

According to this approach the, effectiveness of an organisation is influenced by these seven factors. The chief characteristic of these factors is that they are inter-related. Each factor influences the other factors and is influenced by others. Therefore, nothing can be decided about any particular factor separately. When managers take any decision regarding any one particular factor, they have to take into consideration the effect it will have on the other factors.

A brief description of these factors is as follows:

(1) Strategy:

Strategy is a sort of planning that establishes a favourable relationship between the environmental opportunities and threats and the organisational strengths and weaknesses. It makes it possible to achieve success chiefly through its medium in the face of competition.

(2) Structure:

Structure makes it possible to establish coordination among the people in the organisation. Structure signifies the organisation structure plus, the organisation manual. Under the organisation structure, the positions are determined. It is also decided as to who will report to whom. In the organisation manual rules and regulations necessary for the successful functioning of the organisation are laid down.

Organisation structures can be of various types:

(i) Line organisation

(ii) Line and staff organisation

(iii) Functional organisation

Organisation structure also determines the limits of delegation of authority, centralisation and decentralisation.

(3) Systems:

In order to run the daily activities of an organisation, unimpeded various systems are laid down.

The major business systems are the following:

(i) Business System

(ii) Management Information System

(iii) Performance Management System

(iv) Financial System

(v) Communication System

(vi) Reward System

(vii) Customer Satisfaction Monitoring System.

Style signifies the attitude or behaviour of a manager with the help of which he establishes his influence over his subordinates. In other words, style means the way which we present ourselves before others. For example- a manager treats his subordinates lovingly in order to leave his impact on them. On the other hand, some other manager treats his subordinates harshly to achieve the same purpose.

Thus, we can say that getting the work done in a mild manner or harsh manner are both the styles of the managers.

Staff signifies the man-power working in an organisation. Here, the attention is chiefly concentrated on the education, training, development and encouragement of the employees. Attention also remains focused on the career development of the employees and the plans that the company formulates for this purpose.

Skill means the ability of an individual which converts knowledge into the realms of practicality. Skill is not necessarily a born quality. It can be acquired with practice.

In order to perform his role effectively, a manager should have the following three types of skills:

(i) Conceptional Skill – It is related to ideas.

(ii) Human Skill – It is related to people.

(iii) Technical Skill – It is related to things.

(7) Shared Value:

Shared values are those assumptions, beliefs and mindsets which brings recognition to an organisation in the field of business. This factor is highly important and remains constant among the other six factors. It is very important to maintain high level of shared value. Shared value can also be called superordinate goal. Superordinate goal is the objective for the attainment of which all the employees put in their best efforts, e.g., maintaining the existence of the organisation is a superordinate goal.

All the employees would certainly desire to achieve it under all circumstances. If the existence of the organisation is threatened or obliterated their own existence will be blown away.

Modern Approach to Management – System Approach, Contingency Approach and Operation Research Approach

The modern approach to management represents the latest development in the field of management that took place after 1950.

The modern approach has three streams, namely:

(i) System approach

(ii) Contingency approach

(iii) Operation research approach.

(i) System Approach :

A system is a set of interacting subsystems (i.e., components) that constitute a united whole. Organization is composed of elements that are dependent on one another. These elements (or components) are viewed as subsystems of a larger system. These subsystems interact with each other by getting influenced and influenc­ing others.

Every business organization is a system of its environment. Again, the main parts of the ‘manage­ment system’ are organizational inputs, organizational transformation process, and organizational outputs. The cycle of inputs, transformation, and outputs is continuous. It is an open system that interacts with its environment. It is subject to changes from within and outside to meet the needs of an organization.

A whole system cannot be understood without the knowledge of the subsystems (or parts) that make up the whole. It is also essential to know the relations among different subsystems of the organization. The study in any area is based on the assumption that it is a part of the larger whole system.

For instance, the ‘solar system’ is a complete system of which ‘earth’ is a subsystem. Again, ‘earth’ is a whole system of which our country ‘India’ is a part. Again, ‘India’ is a complete system of which a particular State ‘West Bengal’ is a part and so on. Likewise, in every ‘business organization’ there are many subsystems known as ‘departments’. These departments are separate but interdependent on others. Major contributors in this field are L. V Bertalanffy, C. I. Bernard, H. A. Simon, R. A.Johnson, F. E. Kast, K. Boulding, and others.

(ii) Contingency (or Situational) Approach :

Management techniques that are effective in one situation may not be effective in another situation. In other words, effective management principles and practices vary with the situation in which the organization oper­ates. It is a systematic attempt to determine package of management techniques, approaches, and practices that are appropriate in a specific situation.

Manager should have flexibility and freedom for devising a course of actions that are effective and efficient for a particular situation. It may also be considered as common sense approach. The key to a manager’s success lies in his ability to perceive and analyse every situation and to apply management principles accordingly.

The application of this approach requires the managers to have thorough knowledge of the situation in terms of situational variables and external factors. It places more emphasis on appropriateness of man­agement tools and techniques for a specific situation. This approach is pragmatic in nature and encourages multivariable analysis. Managers must do what the situation demands.

In other words, managers’ actions must be contingent upon the organizational situation or environment. There is no ready-made solution to the problems of every situation. Managers should apply correct principles and/or techniques depend on the pre­vailing situation. Main contributors of this approach are J. Woodward, H. M. Carlisle, Lorsch, and Lawrence.

(iii) Operation Research (or Quantitative) Approach :

This approach is also known as ‘Management Science Approach’. It is based on the approach of scientific management. It offers a systematic and scientific analysis and solution to the problems faced by managers. It aims at achieving a high degree of precision, perfection, and objectivity in solving a managerial problem. It uses mathematical and statistical tools for solving complex problems.

This approach uses quantitative tools of decision-making known as ‘operation research’. Linear programming, game theory, queuing theory, sim­ulation, etc., are often used for making rational decisions. It uses computer aided technology for handling problems on production, finance, storage, transportation, etc.

The approach to solve, complex problems using management science consists of the following stages:

i. Formulating the problem and dividing the same into small simple components;

ii. Gathering required information on each component;

iii. Constructing a mathematical model to represent the system under study;

iv. Finding the solution to the problem at hand;

v. Establishing controls over the solution;

vi. Putting the solution to work implementation.

Major contributors in this field are H. Simon, C. Barnard, K. Arrow, Newmann, Leontieff, and others. This approach believes that the management’s main job is decision-making and organization is a decision-making unit. Organizational efficiency depends on the quality of managerial decisions. Management science tech­niques increase the effectiveness of managers’ rational decision-making.

Modern Approach to Management – With Evaluation

Management thought was developed due to the contributions of many intellectuals who have different background. These contributions have not been suitably and adequately integrated to give a unified theory of management. Hence, various approaches for management analysis have been developed over the passage of time. The management techniques were developed from the stage of human beings started living and working together in groups. The wonders of the world (Pyramids of Egypt, the Chinese wall etc.,) could not be possible without the application of management techniques.

There are many approaches in management thought. Each approach tries to explain the nature and content of management separately and has different beliefs and views. Some of the approaches are closely related with others and others have only little relationship among them.

No one can clearly count the number of approaches in management practices. The reason is that new approaches are developed due to changes in the business environment. In 1961, only six approaches was developed and followed in management thought.

In 1966, Stogdill had classified the approaches into eighteen. But Koonty O’Donnel and Weihrich have identified eleven approaches for studying management. They are empirical or case approach, operational theory approach, interpersonal behaviour approach, managerial role approach, group behaviour approach, contingency or situational approach, co-operative social systems approach, mathematical or management science approach, socio-technical systems approach, systems approach and decision theory approach. Thus, there is neither uniformity over the number of approaches nor clarity regarding the suggestion of a particular approach. Hence, Koontz describe this situation as – “Management theory jungle”.

Therefore, approaches are selected for brief discussion:

1. Systems Approach :

Systems approach was developed only after 1950’s and has attracted the attention of many management thinkers at present. This approach is based on the empirical data. Initially, Weiner had created a seed for the development of systems approach. Later, Ludwig Von Bertalanffy and Kenneth Boulding evolved the General System Theory (GST). Besides, Lawrence J.Henderson, A.K.Rice, W.G.Scott. E.L.Trist, Deniel Katz, D. S. Pough, Robert, L.Khan, W. Buckley and J.D.Thompson have made significant contributions to the development of the systems approach. They viewed an organisation (main system) as an organ which is composed of interacting and interdependent parts called subsystems.

Meaning of a System :

A system is a set of inter-connected and inter-related elements or components parts which are arranged in order and operate together to achieve certain goals.

One of the most important characteristic of a system is that it is composed of hierarchy of sub-systems. For example, the major system of national economy has various industries as sub-systems.

Definition of a System :

Richard A. Johnson defined, “a system is an organised or complex whole, an assemblage or combination of things or parts forming a complex unitary whole”.

Manmohan Prasad defined, “a system is an established arrangement of components which leads to the accomplishment of particular objectives as per plan”.

The systems approach is to identify the parts of the organisation and to discover how these parts operate interdependently.

Parts of a System:

A system has three parts. They are input, process, and output.

These parts are briefly explained below:

1. Input – A system is operated to achieve the specified objectives. The nature of input is based on the objectives to be achieved. Hence, the inputs may be raw materials or informations.

2. Process – A mechanical process is carried on to convert the shape or form of raw materials. An information is to be interpreted and analysed in a systematic way to get clear cut idea or conclusion.

3. Output – The input of raw materials is available as finished goods in output. The input of information is available as alternatives or conclusions in output.

Kinds of Systems:

There are four types of systems.

They are discussed below:

1. A Closed System:

A system is operated without any interaction from the outside environment. The closed system does not require any element from outside to operate. The closed systems approach was represented by principles such as unity of command, span of control and equal authority and responsibility and concentrated on internal relationship and consistency. The closed systems approach ignores the effect of the external environment

2. An Open System:

The operation of a system is dependent on the outside environment for survival. All organisational systems are depend upon the outside environment for feedback and resources and for disposal of the finished product. The management must analyse the external factors of resource availability, current technological trends, market trends and social changes.

3. General Systems:

The general systems approach to management has a relation with formal organisation and technical socio-psychological and philosophical concepts.

4. Specialised System:

The specialised system includes the areas of organisation structure, job design, computerised information and the like. The systems analysts are required not only by traditional organisations but also by modern organisations due to their actual occupational position.

The basic of system theory is that a manager cannot give more importance to any one aspect of the organisation and ignore other aspects of organisation.

Elements of Systems Approach:

The main elements of systems approach are as follows:

1. An organisation is a unified and purposeful system. An organisation as a system is consisting of several interconnected, interacting and interdependent parts.

2. The parts and sub-parts of a system have mutual relationship with each other. The nature of mutual relationship may be more, less, direct or indirect. Therefore a change in one part has an impact on other parts according to the nature of relationship.

3. An organisational system has a boundary that determines which parts are internal and which are external.

4. The parts and sub-parts of a system are arranged in an orderly manner. The reason is that systems approach is oriented towards the accomplishment of objectives.

5. A subsystem gets its strength by its association and interaction with other sub­systems. As a result, the contribution of whole organisation is greater than the aggregate of individual contribution of its sub-systems.

6. System transforms inputs into outputs. This transformation has three processes. They are – inputs, mediator and outputs. This process is essential for the survival of the system. The reason is that there is a restoring the in inputs in this process. Here, the restoring refers to earning profit.

7. The reaction of the outputs environment is known as feedback. Feedback is useful in evaluating and improving the functioning of the system.

The attention is paid towards the overall performance of the system rather than the performance of the sub-systems. The interdependence of the sub-systems is taken into account. According to Fred Luthana, “A system may provide the impetus to unify management theory and the systems approach may succeed where the process approach has failed to lead management out of the theory of jungle”. Chester I Barnard was the first person to utilise the systems approach in the field of management.

Features of Management as System:

Management is regarded as a system, under the systems approach, on account of the possession of the following features:

1. Social System:

Management is a social system since the management has all the characteristics of social system. To be a social system, the management has many divisions (many sub-systems) which are integrated to constitute an entity.

2. Open System:

Management has the interaction with the environment. Management takes various resources, allocates and combines these resources to produce desirable outputs which are exported to the environment. Therefore, it is understood that management has no freedom to decide the things on its own. But, at the same time, due weightage has to be given to the environmental factors affecting the management of an organisation.

3. Adaptive:

Adaptive means continuous adjustment to changing environment for survival. The management has made internal modification of organisational functioning to meet the needs of the changing world. The internal modification is made on the basis of feedback mechanism.

4. Multidisciplinary:

Management draws and integrates knowledge from various disciplines and schools of thought like economics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, mathematics, statistics and so on. It takes only the relevant aspects from these disciplines and the integration of relevant knowledge from these disciplines.

5. Dynamic:

Always, management moves towards growth and expansion. For which, there is a need of effectiveness of management. Both, internal processing process and interaction with external environment are determining the effectiveness of management.

6. Integrated Approach:

Happening of an event is due to many factors. Management tries to identify such factors and reasons. At the end, management tries to integrate the various factors to find out the reasons behind an event.

7. Probability:

Management has the character of probability. The reason is that the outcome of an action can be predicted accurately to some extent in management. For example, There is a pay cut for an unauthorised absent. If so, nobody absent without prior permission. Hence, the management can make forecast very clearly to a certain degree.

8. Multivariable:

There is no simple and single cause – effect phenomenon. Generally, an event may be the result of so many variables. These variables themselves are interrelated and interdependent.

9. Multidimensional:

Management has both macro and micro approach. At macro level, the whole business organisation is taken into consideration for approach. At micro level, part of a business organisation is taken into consideration for approach. Thus, both parts and whole are equally important in managing.

Evaluation of Systems Approach:

Systems approach helps in studying the functions of complex organisation and bring out the inter-relationship prevailing among the various functions like planning, organizing, directing and controlling. It highlights inter-dependence between different elements of an organisation as well as between an organisation and its environment. Under this approach, a problem is analysed in relation with other problems. Likewise, no problem is analysed in isolation. Systems approach provides clues to the complex behaviour of people in an organisation.

This approach cannot be easily applied to large and complex organisations. At the same time, there is no tools and techniques provided to the managers. It cannot directly and easily be applied to practical problems. Systems approach is not suitable for small organisations. Looking into these short comings of systems approach, researchers and management experts have tried to modify the systems approach. Hence, situational or contingency approach is emerged.

2. Contingency or Situational Approach:

Management is facing numerical problems everyday under different situations. Hence, there is a need of solving such problems on the basis of the situations prevailing. If a manager wants to change the behaviour of any part of the organisation, he must try to change the situation influencing it.

The basic theme of the contingency is that there is no single best solution to the problems arised in all situations. So, the situational approach is regarded as latest approach to the existing management executives. During the 1970’s contingency theory was developed by J.W. Lorsch and P.R. Lawrence. They say that “contingency approach is an approach where behaviour of one sub-unit is dependent on its environment and relationship to other units or sub-units that have some control over the sequences desired by the sub-unit”.

According to Tosi and Hammer, “when a sub-system in an organisation behaves in response to another system or subsystem, the response is contingent on environment”. Kast and Rosen Zweig say that the contingency, approach seeks to understand the inter-relationships within and among sub-systems as well as between the organisation and its environment and to define patterns of relationships or configurations of variables. Contingency views are ultimately directed toward suggesting organisation designs and managerial actions most appropriate for specific situations.

In one way, contingency approach is treated as the extention of systems approach. Contingency approach spell out the relationship between the organisation and its environment which is absent in systems approach. It is the responsibility of management to analyse the contingencies or conditions peculiar to each situation and then choose the right approach to deal with it.

Contingency approach requires common sense for application and requires the ability to analyse and diagnose a managerial situation correctly. Besides, the contingency approach requires knowledge and understanding of different principles, techniques and styles of management.

Torn Burns, G.W. Stalker, Joan Wood Ward, James Thampson, Paul Lawrence, Joy Lorsch and Jay Galbraith have made significant contributions to contingency approach.

Features of Contingency Approach:

In the light of the above discussion, the contingency approach has the following features:

1. There is no one best way of doing things. Hence, the managers should prepare strategies, policies and plans according to the situation prevailing.

2. Management action is situational to outside the system or sub – system as the case may be.

3. Managerial policies and practices to be effective, if they adjust to changes in environment.

4. No action can be universal because of specific relationship between organisation and environment. The action varies situation to situation.

5. Contingency approach improves diagnostic skills so as to anticipate and ready for environmental changes.

6. Human relations skill is necessary to managers for accommodate and stabilise change.

7. Contingency approach gives contingency model in designing organisation structure. The contingency model is developing effective information and communication system.

Evaluation of Contingency Approach:

The contingency approach discloses the role and performance of manager in an organisation, it exhorts managerial choices to be made in the light of environmental factors. Hence, it alert the managers according to changing situational needs and can stimulate managers to innovate new and better approaches for application.

Contingency approach recognises that managerial functions and principles are useful but should be used with discretion and care to suit the specific situation. This approach has no theoretical base. A manager is expected to know all the alternative course of action before taking an action.

Systems Approach vs Contingency Approach:

Systems Approach:

1. It treats all organizations as same and has no unique nature.

2. The contributors of systems approach are social psychologists.

3. Systems approach is the pioneer to the contingency approach.

4. Systems approach may specify situations under which a particular type of organization can function well.

5. It provides a global theoretical model for understanding organizations.

6. Systems approach is vague and unspecific.

7. The main concepts are input, output process, open system, system boundary, synergy, dynamic equilibrium, entropy and equifinality.

8. Systems approach emphasizes interactions and inter relationships among systems and subsystems.

9. It appears to be neutral and non-committal on the universality of classical principles.

10. Systems Approach suggest definite solutions of problems to a specified organization.

11. It focuses the internal environment of an organization.

Contingency Approach:

1. It treats each organization as unique.

2. The contributors of contingency approach are sociologists.

3. Contingency approach has been built ever systems approach.

4. Management action is situational and no situational is predicted accurately.

5. It provides operational tools and techniques for analyzing and solving problems.

6. Contingency approach is pragmatic, specific and action oriented.

7. There is no specific concept.

8. Contingency approach emphasizes interrelationships and interdepencies and their influence on organizational design and managerial style.

9. It rejects the universality of principles, no one best way of managing.

10. Contingency approach suggests probable and flexible approach to problems.

11. It focuses the external environment of an organization.

Contingency approach has emerged out of the systems approach. Contingency theorists have accepted the basic tenets of systems approach. Managers should not ignore the importance of taking actions according to the needs of the situations. Hence, the managers should use their highest skills for analysing the situations.

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• Classical Approach to Management
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• Difference between Personnel Management and Human Resource Management

• Book Review
• Open access
• Published: 18 March 2010

Thirteen Essays on Evolution and Creationism in Modern Debates

Stephen C. Barton and David Wilkinson (eds): Reading Genesis after Darwin. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. pp. xiv + 254. S/b $24.95

• Kim Paffenroth 1  

Evolution: Education and Outreach volume  3 ,  pages 297–299 ( 2010 ) Cite this article

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This anthology consists of 13 essays written by professors trained in biblical studies or theology, writing on the interpretation of Genesis (by which they almost exclusively mean the first chapter of Genesis) since Darwin’s Origin of Species (1859). After a brief Introduction by the editors, the book is then divided into three parts: “Engaging again with the Scriptures,” “Understanding the History,” and “Exploring the Contemporary Relevance.” It includes an index of modern authors and a subject index. References of works cited are included in the notes for each chapter, though a bibliography at the end would’ve been a welcome addition.

Section 1, “Engaging again with the Scriptures,” includes four essays. In “How Should One Read the Early Chapters of Genesis?” Walter Moberly discusses the implications of taking Genesis as “a literary phenomenon.” His conclusion is probably unremarkable to anyone trained in modern, liberal biblical criticism, and it will recur in similar terms in several of the other essays: Moberly challenges us to see in Genesis biblical ideas such as “wonder and delight of the world, creaturely contingency, creaturely responsibility, the gift of relationship between creature and Creator, and the difficulty that humans have in genuinely trusting God as a wise Creator and living accordingly”. I think he is quite correct that this view maintains the text’s meaning and relevance, without insisting on a literal reading of it.

Francis Watson takes the history of controversy much further back, in his essay, “Genesis before Darwin: Why Scripture Needed Liberating from Science.” He traces what he calls the “annexation” of the Bible by astronomy and geology in the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries: harmonization of the biblical account with scientific findings (e.g. the “days as eons” solution) was done to the detriment or obfuscation of both. Darwin put forth his theory with no reference to Genesis, and according to Watson, this shows a more fruitful and beneficial relationship between Genesis and science—separation or liberation from one another.

In “The Six Days of Creation according to the Greek Fathers,” Andrew Louth discusses the interpretation of Genesis by Theophilos of Antioch and Basil. Louth’s conclusions echo Moberly’s, in that he counsels some of the same attitudes toward creation, showing how ancient theologians regarded the created world with “wonder” and “humility” and were convinced of its “interconnectedness”.

In “The Hermeneutics of Reading Genesis after Darwin,” Richard S. Briggs examines the comparison of Genesis with other ancient Near Eastern texts (a method of biblical study that was coming into vogue contemporaneously with Darwin), concluding that the process and implications of such “triangulating” are similar, whether one is comparing Genesis to the Enuma Elish or to Darwin.

Section 2, “Understanding the History,” includes three essays. It starts with John Rogerson’s “What Difference Did Darwin Make?: The Interpretation of Genesis in the Nineteenth Century,” which examines some biblical commentaries published shortly before and shortly after Darwin’s work, to see what effect (if any) it had on their interpretation of the Genesis text. The examination does a good job of showing there was no unanimity among interpreters as to the meaning of Genesis, and a range of interpretations were advocated, both before and after Darwin. Perhaps even more interestingly, even within the group that rejected his theory, interpretations of Genesis often differed.

John Headley Brooke, in “Genesis and the Scientists: Dissonance among the Harmonizers,” returns to some of the scientific controversies already examined in Watson’s essay, concluding similarly that Darwin’s theory may be more amenable to Christianity than attempts at harmonizing Genesis with current scientific theories, since Darwin “purged it [Christianity] of a semi-deistic position”. This is an important distinction for those who would “defend” the Bible, who too often seem to be defending a deistic position that God created the universe and let it go on its own subsequently, rather than defending the idea of a God who wishes to be in communion with humans (the more narrowly biblical concept of God, in either Jewish or Christian interpretation). He also speaks in terms similar to Moberly and Louth, counseling a “nonliteral reading of the text”, and focusing on the text’s primary relevance to “our human existential condition”. David Brown concludes the section with a discussion of some paintings in his essay, “Science and Religion in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Landscape Art.” The most familiar of these to readers is probably Dali’s “The Sacrament of the Last Supper.”

Section 3, “Exploring the Contemporary Relevance,” includes six essays. David Wilkinson’s “Reading Genesis 1-3 in the Light of Modern Science” gives perhaps the fullest summary of the interpretive issues, compared to the other essays in this collection. He puts Darwin in the context of other, sometimes more fundamental and intractable controversies with the Bible; he briefly describes the creationist alternative (pp. 132-135); he traces the various attempts at harmonization, with their pros and cons; and he lays out possible points where Genesis may still speak to the human condition and understanding. Echoing previous essays in the volume, his conclusion is that a primarily literary approach is needed to understand or appreciate the text, and this will yield an interpretation that does not address cosmogonic or biological data, but rather our “unique conscious intimacy with God”.

In “All God’s Creatures: Reading Genesis on Human and Nonhuman Animals,” David Clough argues that in light of evolution (and other observations of animal consciousness and rationality), Christians should abandon anthropocentric readings of Genesis (what he calls “human-separatist” readings throughout). Jeff Astley argues in “Evolution and Evil: The Difference Darwinism Makes in Theology and Spirituality” that evolution exacerbates the problems of theodicy by making suffering (and large amounts of it) intrinsic to creation.

In “’Male and Female He Created Them’ (Genesis 1:27): Interpreting Gender after Darwin,” Stephen C. Barton examines constructions of gender in the classical world, in the Bible, and in subsequent biblical interpretation, contrasting these with modern and postmodern analyses. Ellen F. Davis looks at how organisms fit into their environment in her essay, “Propriety and Trespass: The Drama of Eating,” drawing some conclusions for our current environmental situation and its (un)sustainability. Finally, Mathew Guest’s essay, “The Plausibility of Creationism: A Sociological Comment,” examines the current popularity of creationism in the USA (and to a much lesser degree in the UK), suggesting some sociological forces that may contribute to its acceptance, despite its logical or factual shortcomings.

Although I was excited when I first began reading this volume, this wore off in the course of study. I would single out three essays for praise. Moberly’s is a very helpful look at how believers could still maintain the importance and sacredness of the biblical text, without interpreting it literally. Rogerson’s is a wonderful and suggestive illustration of how Christian belief and interpretation are never monolithic, and never a matter of “good guys” versus “bad guys.” Wilkinson’s is a thorough and accessible discussion of the issues at stake. But overall, I was struck by how little the book deals with Darwin: it could be entitled “Reading Genesis in the Modern World” with little loss of focus. Several of the essays make only the barest nod toward Darwin before moving on to some topic only tangential to his work. The suggestions for the future interpretation of Genesis (literary criticism, a reading that encourages a sense of wonder and humility, the acknowledgment of human incompleteness and contingency, etc.), while sober and encouraging, are repeated by several contributors without much expansion or specificity (Moberly, Louth, Brooke, Wilkinson); such heuristic suggestions are also commonplace in biblical studies, so I found little new here that couldn’t be found in many introductory classes or texts on Genesis.

Several essays were much more deficient, in my estimation. Briggs’s idea that comparing Genesis to other, contemporaneous myths, and comparing it to a scientific treatise written 2,500 years later, are somehow similar comparisons, and the two interpretive acts can shed light on one another, struck me as odd, if not misleading. It overlooks the more fundamental difference in genre: comparing Genesis to other myths (contemporary with it or not) is probably more helpful to understanding it, than comparing it to scientific writings (from whatever time period, though especially a work that eschews teleological questions, and therefore has a completely different outlook than Genesis). Brown’s essay has little to do with the topic of this collection and barely mentions Darwin or Genesis: its observations would make a fine beginning to a chat about “art and spirituality,” but it has no place here. Clough’s essay doesn’t deal with “stewardship,” which many interpreters today would see as the crucial way to understand the biblical teaching on how humans differ from, and yet are immersed in, the created order. Neither Clough’s nor Barton’s essay deals with the differences between Genesis 1 and 2, again a crucial interpretive issue for understanding the text’s ambiguities (and discrepancies) on anthropocentrism and gender.

I say all this from the perspective of a biblical scholar of a decidedly liberal Protestant bent, for whom these issues are well-worn. Perhaps if I try to step outside of this context (and many of the essays in this collection properly remind us of how much context determines meaning), I might better see where some of these essays could fit into a useful discussion. I’d say that for someone who thinks (as many of my atheist and agnostic friends do) that all Christians are creationists, that all Christians immediately opposed Darwin’s ideas and continue to do so today, or that there is only one way to interpret Genesis—for a reader with such impressions, the better written, more thorough of these essays would prove enlightening, and might promote a dialogue that goes beyond secularists versus Biblicists, those who would discard the text versus those who cling to a literal interpretation of it. Such a dialogue might even become a mutual search for truth, conducted with real exchange, understanding, and respect.

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Introduction

Leadership is one of the most complex and multidimensional phenomena. It has been studied extensively over the years and has taken on greater importance than ever before in today’s fast-paced and increasingly globalised world. Nonetheless, leadership continues to generate captivating and confusing debate due to the complexity of the subject. Bennis notes that ‘leadership is the most studied and least understood topic of any in the social sciences’ and ‘never have so many laboured so long to say so little’. 1

Effective leadership is recognised as key to the success of any organisation. In fact, there has been a shift towards acknowledging the importance of human capital and organisational management. 5 6 But what is the difference between leadership and management? Leaders are generally viewed as visionaries and strategist whereas managers monitor and control performance, maintaining order and stability in an organisation. 7 8 Some researchers argue that leaders and managers have distinct roles and responsibilities while others assert that leadership and management are complementary and it would be difficult to separate them in practice. 7

The present paper traces the historical evolution of the main leadership theories and reviews the progress that has been made over the years. It explores four main eras in leadership theory: trait, behavioural, situational and new leadership.

Trait era: Great Man theory (1840s) and trait theories (1930s–1940s)

In the 19th century, research on leadership was focused on the innate characteristics of a leader 9 10 and on identifying the personality traits and other qualities of effective leaders. 11

The core belief of the Great Man theory is that leaders are born, not made or trained. In other words only a few, very rare, individuals possess the unique characteristics to be effective leaders and attain greatness by divine design. Examples were often drawn from popular historical figures such as Julius Caesar, Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln and Napoleon Bonaparte. It was believed that these individuals were natural born leaders with innate characteristics of leadership, which enabled them to lead individuals while they shape the pages of history.

The Great Man theory then evolved into the trait theories. Trait theories argue that leaders can be born or made. 7 In other words, that the traits of successful leaders can be either inherited or acquired through training and practice. The aim was to identify the right combination of characteristics that make an effective leader and focus was on studying the mental, social and physical traits of leaders. However, a consistent set of traits was not produced and by 1950, it appeared that there was little advantage in continuing with this approach and hence it was abandoned. Today, psychometric tools are an example of trait theory principles in action and are often used in staff recruitment. These tools highlight key personality traits and are used for personal performance and team development.

Behavioural era: behavioural theory (1940s–1950s)

Behavioural theory evolved from trait theories and asserts that leaders are largely made, rather than born and that particular behaviours can be learnt to ensure effective leadership. 11 12 It puts emphasis on the actual behaviour of the leader and not on their traits or characteristics, but it largely ignores the situation and environment of the leader.

Research in this area resulted in different patterns of behaviour being grouped together and labelled as styles. 11 This became a prevalent approach within management training—perhaps the best known being Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid. 13 Today, this theory is exemplified in the numerous leadership-training programmes, which involve the development of leadership skills and behaviours, thus supporting the belief that leadership is largely learnt.

Situational era: contingent and situational theories (1960s)

It was later recognised that the environment plays a significant role in the leader-follower dynamic and this belief dominated the situational era. 14 As the name suggests, the situational era is focused on leadership in particular situations, rather than on the traits or behaviours of leaders. This implies that leaders must be able to assess the context in which they operate and then decide what style will ‘fit’ the situation best. Because the best style is dependent on the situation, this approach is known as the contingency theory of leadership.

Fred Fiedler developed one of the first contingency theories of leadership. 15 His theory focuses on the importance of context in effective leadership and supports the belief that there is no one best set of leadership traits or behaviours. However, Fiedler asserst that because a leader’s style is fixed, they should be put into situations that best match their style. In other words, effectiveness as a leader is determined by how well their leadership style matches a particular context.

New leadership era: transactional, transformational theories (1990s) and others (2000s)

For the first time, it was recognised that focusing on one aspect or dimension of leadership cannot address all the complexity of the phenomenon. 16 In a world that has become more complex and challenging, a need emerged for leadership theories that support circumstances of rapid change, disruptive technological innovation and increasing globalisation. This led to the new leadership era, moving away from the above-mentioned traditional theories of leadership, which define leadership as a unidirectional, top-down influencing process, drawing a distinct line between leaders and followers. Instead, the focus became on the complex interactions among the leader, the followers, the situation and the system as a whole, with particular attention dedicated to the latent leadership capacities of followers.

Transactional and transformational theories

The above-mentioned context encouraged the popularity and adoption of two leadership theories: transformational and transactional theories, 17 and also gave rise to approaches such as the Lean strategy 18 and agile methodology 19 to help deal with the fast pace of change and increasing complexity of the challenges faced. Transformational leadership is a theory in which leaders encourage, inspire and motivate followers. 20 This theory is used when an organisation needs to be revitalised, is undergoing significant change or requires a new direction. It is especially vital to today’s fast-paced technological industry where innovation and agility can make or break an organisation. Examples of transformational leaders include the likes of Jeff Bezos, Steve Jobs and Bill Gates.

Transactional leadership, on the other hand, relies on authority to motivate employees. 20 The leader exchanges reward for follower effort and punishes any follower who fails to meet their goals. In this context, the follower’s perception concerning fairness and equity of the exchange with the leader is vital. 21 Transactional leadership works best in mature organisations that already have clearly defined structure and goals, to keep them on track, and reinforce the status quo. Examples of transactional leaders include managers, who tend to focus on supervision, processes and follower performance.

The continued shift in leadership concepts led to the development of shared, collective and collaborative leadership practices. 22 23 According to these, success in an organisation is more dependent on coordinative leadership practices distributed throughout the organisation rather than the actions of a few individuals at the top. Servant leadership became popular once again, emphasising the importance of followers. Servant leaders seek to support their team members and are most concerned with serving people first. 24 More recently, inclusive leadership also emerged, focusing on a person-centred approach. 25 It is based on the dynamic processes that occur between leaders and followers and focuses on empowering followers to becoming leaders. Finally, contemporary leadership theory also includes complexity leadership, which emerged as a means to deal with the complexity of our modern world. This theory takes a whole-system view, considering contextual interactions that occur across an entire social system. 26

Leadership theory is a dynamic phenomenon and continues to change over time. It has been studied extensively over the years and several theories have emerged ( table 1 ). Traditional leadership theories include the Great Man theory, which maintains that leaders are born to lead thus possessing certain inherent characteristics that destines them to lead. Trait theory evolved from the Great Man theory and specifies that leaders are can be born or made and that the combination of certain characteristics is needed to be an effective leader. Behavioural theory then followed, asserting that leaders are largely made with a focus on the actions of the leader as opposed to their personality traits. There was then recognition that certain environmental factors are important and contingency and situational theories were added to the mix. The modern era followed and involved a shift from focusing on the leaders and their attributes to considering the complex and continuous interactions and interrelationships among the leader, the followers and the situation. The resulting theories include shared, collective and collaborative leadership as well as inclusive leadership. Finally, complexity leadership also emerged, focusing on the whole system of an organisation.

• View inline

Summary of the main leadership theories

Examining the historical development of leadership theories provides some necessary perspective as well as context within which to appreciate the complexity of the subject. Each theory has its merits and drawbacks and seems to provide part of the answer to the leadership puzzle. In today’s complex, dynamic and globalised world, organisations are consistently dealing with change and uncertainty and no one theory has been able to address all the concerns regarding leadership. Many consider the traditional hierarchical views of leadership as less and less relevant given the complexity of our modern world. This led to a shift in focus from the characteristics and behaviours of leaders to a more systemic perspective, focusing on leadership as a collective social process resulting from the interactions of multiple factors. New leadership theories were consequently formulated in an attempt to deal with the new reality of organisations and business, resulting in newer and more relevant definitions of leader, follower and situation.

Express checkout

The present paper explores the historical evolution of leadership theory, which includes four main eras: trait, behavioural, situational and new leadership. The focus was initially on natural born leaders and identifying the traits of the effective leader. Behavioural leadership then followed and focused on the actions of a leader. The situational and contingent theories in turn assert that the best leadership style is the one that best fits a given context. These traditional leadership theories offered part of the answer to the leadership puzzle but none had all the answer. These were then followed by the new leadership theories, which are inclusive of additional factors, generally adopt a more systemic approach to leadership and take into account the multifaceted and complex nature of our modern world and the importance of followership in effective leadership.

In practice

Hospital trusts in the UK are large, complex, and mature organisations within the National Health Service (NHS) with established structures and processes. Traditional leadership theory tells us that transactional leadership is ideal in this situation for keeping an established organisation on track, maintaining the status quo and ensuring the execution of plans. Transactional leadership is also known to be effective in guiding efficiency decisions, which are aimed at cutting costs and improving productivity. However, because the NHS is not only a mature organisation but also undergoing tremendous change, leaders may switch styles and adopt a transformational leadership approach to engage followers in implementing change and encouraging innovation.

Healthcare organisations may also benefit from the application of other more contemporary leadership theories such as collaborative, inclusive and shared leadership, which blur the distinction between leader and follower and adopt a person-centred approach that focuses on the empowerment and development of followers. Compassionate leadership is also relevant in the context of patient care. And complexity leadership theory can also help the NHS understand how to thrive in today’s uncertain and turbulent times using a process-orientated, contextual and interactive approach to infiltrate leadership at all levels. The challenge is for healthcare professionals to be able to recognise which leadership theory is most relevant to their clinical practice and know how to effectively apply these theories in the workplace.

• Stogdill RM
• Froiland JM
• Bhattacharyya SS
• Buchanan DA ,
• Huczynski A
• Denison DR ,
• Hooijberg R ,
• Fiedler F ,
• Van Seters DA ,
• Codington-Lacerte C
• Hollander EP ,
• Offermann LR
• Kukenberger MR ,
• D'Innocenzo L
• Lee-Davies L
• Thompson H ,
• Rosenhead J ,
• Franco LA ,
• Grint K , et al

Contributors SB conceived the idea for the article. SB and MA contributed to the design and wrote the article. SB submitted the article. Both SB and MA contributed to revising the article following reviewer feedback.

Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests None declared.

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THEORIES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: AN ANTHOLOGY OF ESSAYS

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This paper provides an omnibus of theories of public administration. It analyses the series of metamorphosis experienced by the field of public administration as well as its theoretical dispositions. It compartmentalizes these theories into three (3) approaches: classical, modern and postmodern theories, and evaluates the theoretical implication and challenges of these approaches at each stage of its development. It highlights the creativeness of classical school on successful management process and its focus on organization dynamics. The argument of modern school that identifies human factors as the basis for the optimal performance of an organization has been critically put in perspectives. The arrival of postmodernism as a new approach seeks to bridge the useful parts of classical and neoclassical recommendations in view of contemporary organizational challenges. Literatures were drawn from secondary sources of data collection, such as: Books, Journals, and other internet materials. This paper reveals the contribution of these theories on important areas of public administration, such as: public policy, public-private partnership, as well as new emerging goals in the field, especially postmodernism. This paper therefore concludes that more concerted efforts should be geared towards theorizing old, contemporary and new terms in public administration so as to gain an in-depth understanding of the causes and consequences of any given subject matter in the field, as well as building new field of enquiries, and helps clarifying and directing inquiry into policy making, governance, ethics among other primary subject matters within the purview of public administration.

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Essay on Modern Education

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Four essays on economic evolution: an introduction

• Regular Article
• Published: 10 May 2013
• Volume 24 , pages 1–10, ( 2014 )

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• Denise E. Dollimore 1 &
• Geoffrey M. Hodgson 1  

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This essay is in two parts. The first considers the evolution of evolutionary economics from 1982 to 2012. While enormous advances are acknowledged, it is argued that the field is in danger of fragmentation and that there has been relatively little development in its over-arching theoretical framework since Nelson and Winter ( 1982 ). This sets the scene for a 2011 workshop and four of the papers presented at the event. In the second part, each paper is outlined in turn, both in terms of its specific contribution and any light it may shine on the problems raised in the first part.

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Evolutionary Economics: A Specific Form of Evolution?

The past and future of evolutionary economics: some reflections based on new bibliometric evidence.

Geoffrey M. Hodgson & Juha-Antti Lamberg

Evolutionary Economics

The authors warmly thank Howard Aldrich, Thorbjørn Knudsen and anonymous referees for very helpful comments on earlier drafts.

The existence of detailed differences between the evolutionary mechanisms in the two domains is a reason why the search for an over-arching metaphor does not necessarily amount to the application of more specific analogies. Analogies require a closer correspondence than metaphor. It also has to be noted that there are huge differences in the mechanisms of variety-creation, replication and selection even within the biological domain.

For evidence on why it is largely mythological, see Bannister ( 1988 ) and Hodgson ( 2004 ).

The modern wave of ‘evolutionary’ thinking has had a major impact on business-related research. The widening of the focus of research to additional disciplines (such as politics and history) would have limited the ability to study the structure of the field effectively. Increased heterogeneity would have made the identification of different research streams trickier. Also the employed software restricted the number of articles and the number of cited pieces of work. The 350,000 potential citation objects brought the study close to the current performance limits of the software.

Draft papers were also presented by Eric Beinhocker, David Sloan Wilson and Ulrich Witt. But because of the pressure of other commitments they were unable to submit a finished and original paper for this journal symposium.

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Dollimore, D.E., Hodgson, G.M. Four essays on economic evolution: an introduction. J Evol Econ 24 , 1–10 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00191-013-0315-7

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Modernism in architecture: from the Industrial Revolution to the Postmodern era

The architecture reflects the societal and cultural contexts in which it emerges. Architectural styles and patterns have evolved and transformed throughout history based on needs, aspirations, and advancements. A powerful movement in the late 19th century, known as modernism in architecture, continued to spread its influence within the entire field completely into the 20th century. This article will explore the evolution of modernism in architecture and find its roots from the Industrial Revolution to the postmodern era.

The Industrial Revolution and the Birth of Modernism

The rise of the Industrial Revolution, or the First Industrial Revolution, was started in the late 18th century, and completely revolutionized society, technology , and the built environment. Technology and mass production the revolution brought serious transformations in architectural design and construction techniques. New approaches using some traditional patterns, including neoclassicism and Gothic Revival, led to the embrace of innovation, efficiency, and functionality.

Early Modernist Pioneers

During the 20th century, architects and designers formed a group and rose as the leaders of modernism who challenged the usual architectural norms of the period. Architects like Louis Sullivan, Adolf Loos, and Frank Lloyd Wright started to focus on simplicity, rationality, and the application of new materials, particularly steel, glass, and reinforced concrete.

Louis Sullivan, also considered the father of modernist architecture , coined the famous idea “form follows function,” or simply functionalism focusing on the purpose and function of a building over its design elements, and this concept became the fundamental principle of modern architecture.

The International Style and the Bauhaus Movement

In the 1920s and 1930s, International Style and the Bauhaus movement gained popularity as major architectural styles and added further to the list of modernism. The advocates, including Walter Gropius , Le Corbusier, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe in the field of the International Style, fostered the idea of functionalism, abstraction, and the rejection of ornament. During that period, buildings were designed in a style that often featured clean lines, open floor plans, and a focus on integrating form and function.

The Bauhaus movement, initiated by Walter Gropius in 1919, focused on incorporating art, craft, and technology in an integrated design approach. It prioritised the value of interdisciplinary collaboration and the integration of art with industrial production. The Bauhaus school revolutionized teaching techniques and embraced an experimental approach, nurturing a generation of influential architects and designers who played a pivotal role in shaping the landscape of modernist architecture.

Postwar Modernism and Brutalism

In the wake of World War II, there was a notable shift toward reconstruction efforts and a pressing demand for accessible and efficient housing solutions. This era marked the rise of postwar modernism, characterized by the widespread adoption of prefabrication, mass production, and modular construction methods. Architects such as Le Corbusier, renowned for his “Unité d’Habitation” housing project, and Mies van der Rohe, notable for his “Farnsworth House,” epitomised the minimalist and functionalist principles that defined this period.

Brutalism emerged as a prominent architectural style in the 1950s and 1960s, bringing common admiration worldwide. Notable examples of Brutalist structures, like the Barbican Estate in London and the National Theatre in Paris, boasted striking geometric shapes and unadorned concrete surfaces. This style aimed to authentically utilise materials while reflecting its era’s social and cultural aspirations.

Critiques and the Rise of Postmodernism

On the way to the end of the 1960s, modernism came under a search for its shortcomings, including a perceived absence of human scale, disregard for historical context, and a tendency towards homogeneity. As a result, a new architectural movement called postmodernism was introduced, signing a shift in design principles. Postmodernism aimed to differ from the rigid functionalism of modernism by reintroducing historical references, ornamental elements, and many design languages.

The contributions of architects such as Robert Venturi, Michael Graves, and Frank Gehry were prominent in shaping the evolution of postmodern architecture. Postmodern buildings exhibited a distinct character, characterized by their whimsical and diverse designs that seamlessly merged different architectural elements, materials, and historical allusions. An exemplary illustration of postmodern architecture is Frank Gehry’s renowned Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, which showcases organic shapes and employs titanium in its construction, exemplifying the essence of the movement.

Contemporary Modernism and Sustainable Design

In the 21st century, modernist principles retain their influence on architectural design, yet now, with a revitalized emphasis on sustainability and environmental awareness. Contemporary modernism unites the past’s functionalist ideals with ground-breaking sustainable technologies and materials. Architects like Norman Foster, Renzo Piano, and Bjarke Ingels have gained recognition for their environmentally conscious designs that prioritize energy efficiency, harness natural light, and seamlessly integrate buildings with their surrounding environments.

The influence of modernism in architecture has left a lasting impression on the constructed world, moulding cities and dictating design principles for more than a century.

Concluding modernism in architecture, its origin started with the Industrial Revolution and grew through the postmodern era; modernist architecture has adapted to shifting societal, cultural, and technological contexts. Despite facing criticism and giving rise to postmodernism, the tenets of modernism persist as a source of inspiration for present-day architects, propelling the quest for functional, sustainable, and visually captivating designs.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_architecture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_architecture

Chandni is a full-time digital marketeer and content developer with over 5 years of experience majorly in the architectural hardware and glass manufacturing industries. Her expertise lies in leveraging her digital strategies to enhance brand visibility and drive traffic by creating impressive and persuasive content. She is well-versed in crafting engaging, unique, SEO-friendly, and copyright-free content for brands.

The development of sustainable and eco-friendly architecture

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The History & Evolution of Quality Management Quality

• What Is Quality Management?
• History of Quality Management Evolution
• Quality Management Key Principles

Quality Management Thinkers

• Quality Management Concepts
• Measuring the Quality

Measuring Quality of a Service

• Quality Management in the US and Japan
• Quality Practices in UAE

Works Cited

Quality Management was a natural offshoot of industrialization. Quality management became necessary to help reduce the quantity of defective products arising from production processes. Companies that managed to increase the quality of their products and to reduce defects in their finished products remained profitable. This report looks at the evolution of quality management as a field. It also explores the current methods and applications of quality management.

Definition of Quality

The definition of quality is evolutionary. This comes from the changes in industry affecting quality management approaches and quality management standards. One definition of quality is “freedom from defects” (Stephens 71). This definition applies to the level of workmanship. In this case, the aim of quality management is to eliminate defects through good workmanship. Another definition of quality is “product features” (Stephens 71). In this case, the quality of a product refers to the number of features the product possesses in relation to other products in its range. Taken together, the two definitions show that the current view of quality supersedes excellent workmanship to include the variety of product features.

Another definition of quality is “fitness for purpose” (Lal 1). This definition seeks to make quality a factor of product performance in the context of use. It advances the idea that a perfect product in the wrong context cannot meet the performance demands of that context. Therefore, despite freedom from defects and possession of superior features, a product may have a low quality rating for the specified application. These definitions show that the meaning of quality depends on usage. It is important to define the context before using any of the definitions of quality.

The History and Development of Quality Management

The history of quality management goes back to ancient Babylon. The Hammurabi building code imposed a death sentence on any mason who built a house that later collapsed and killed the occupants (Thomas 201). While the Hammurabi code did not have elaborate rules comparable to those in many cities today, it dealt with the fitness for purpose of any house. Later on, the Egyptians developed a process control system to handle the quarrying of stones for pyramid construction (Thomas 205). The stability of the pyramids depended on the uniformity of the stones used in their construction. This meant that process control was necessary to ensure each stone met its performance requirements.

During the middle ages, quality control became an important facet of shipbuilding because of the risks associated with sailing in poorly designed vessels. Ports with long ship building traditions used quality management to ensure that each ship was fit for its purpose. Quality management became more important during the industrial revolution because of the proliferation of industries. Manufacturers found it necessary to develop quality standards for various reasons. First, the profitability of the industries depended on the efficient utilization of raw materials (Mukherjee 48).

Industries needed raw materials in unprecedented quantities. The only way to make a profit was to use the raw materials efficiently. Secondly, quality controls made it possible for industries to predict the market value of their products (Mukherjee 52). Mass production led to the need for standardized prices. The only way to ensure that customers would purchase goods at the same price was if the manufacturers could produce the same quality of goods. Thirdly, quality became a source of competitive advantage (Dalic 26). Companies that built strong reputations as producers of high quality products gained a market advantage.

In the early years of the twentieth century, Fredrick Winslow Taylor wrote a book entitled, “Principles of Scientific Management” (Lal 22). This book, among other things, identified the need for quality inspections in manufacturing facilities. Taylor saw the need to employ a specialized quality inspector in each industry to ensure that all products released to the market met certain quality standards (Lal 22). His pioneering work led to the development of quality control systems in many industries. As mass production gained credence, quality control became critical for profitability. Each part produced on a production line needed to meet certain quality requirements before the assembly of the final product.

After the Second World War, quality philosophers such as Edward Deming, Joseph Muran, and Philip Krosby developed philosophical insights into quality control. Their insights took advantage of the statistical methods of quality measurement developed in the twenties for quality control. Kaoru Ishikawa synthesized their thoughts in the late sixties and based on his ideas, Japanese industries developed their quality management systems (Stephens 37). These systems gave Japan leadership in product quality management for many decades. Companies such as Toyota developed the Toyota System as its quality control adaptation (Stephens 76). Many Japanese companies practice lean manufacturing and have several other approaches to Total Quality Management (TQM).

Today, quality management uses computerized processes for speed and accuracy. Many manufacturers are aiming to establish non-defective production processes because of the high cost of handling defective products. The main area of contemporary research in quality management is product design. System design is more challenging than component design. Many manufacturers have attained very high quality levels in component design. The challenge is the overall product design. In the automotive sector, the strict quality requirements have been behind the massive recalls of automobiles because of defective system designs. This area requires the input of researchers and process engineers.

The Key Principles of Quality Management

Authors have no consensus regarding the number of fundamental concepts that comprise TQM. However, they all seem to capture the same concepts expressed in different ways. This report adopts the format of TQM principles in the ISO 9000 series. ISO 9000 series identifies eight principles of TQM.

The first principle of TQM according to the ISO 9000 series is customer focus (ISO 3). This principle encourages every organization to make its customers a central part of its operations. This comes from the understanding that the organization depends on its customers for survival. In this sense, the organization must strive to meet the current and future needs of its customers. This calls for the organization to conduct market research continually in order to uncover and meet customer needs and expectations. In addition, the business objectives of the organization should come from customer expectations. This ensures that everyone in the organization works towards meeting the needs of the customers.

The second principle of TQM is leadership (ISO 4). This principle encourages every organization to streamline its leadership function. The principle arose from the positive correlation between focused leadership and superior business performance. One of the goals of streamlining the leadership function is to eliminate miscommunication between different leadership levels in an organization. This principle also encourages leaders to motivate workers towards superior performance. Leaders are also supposed to set challenging goals for the organization. Challenging goals tend to motivate employees to strive towards excellence. Finally, this principle also requires leaders to avail all the resources that employees need to perform their tasks well.

Thirdly, ISO identifies the involvement of people as a principle of TQM (5). The fundamental focus of this principle is the appreciation of all people in the organization as valuable contributors to the objectives of the organization. This principle advocates for Theory Y leadership. It means that the leaders should ensure that everyone understands his or her role in the organization. It encourages leaders to help all employees to know what they contribute towards the organization and the importance of their contribution. This principle also encourages openness in information sharing. In addition, it encourages collective problem solving approaches. In summary, this principle encourages organizations to value and utilize their human resource.

The fourth TQM principle is the use of the process approach (ISO 5). This principle underscores the fact that when an organization uses the process approach to manage its activities, it achieves its goals more efficiently. The use of the process approach ensures that the organization posts predictable results. Once the organization establishes a process for handling a certain issue, it focuses on streamlining the process in order to improve its overall performance. An organization needs to analyze how various processes interact in order to find avenues for improving performance. In addition, the organization must analyze the impact of each process on its stakeholders such as customers, shareholders and its employees.

The fifth TQM principle according to the ISO 9000 series is the use of a system approach to management (ISO 6). The goal of this principle is to break down management silos in the organization. Each organization that does not use a system approach in its management creates an environment that can lead to the emergence of fiefdoms. This can create artificial blockages in the operations of the organization that can reduce overall organizational efficiency. This model also makes it easy for the organization to measure its performance.

The ISO 9000 series identifies continual improvement as a TQM principle (ISO 8). Unlike static improvement processes, continual improvement as espoused by TQM makes finding and eliminating bottlenecks an on-going process in an organization. The ability to implement this principle is what separates regular organizations from dynamic ones. The main advantage of this principle is that it gives the organization the ability to take advantage of emerging opportunities effectively. It makes change a normal process of organizational life. This principle encourages the organization to make continuous improvements in its products, processes, and systems (ISO 8). The effective implementation of this principle is what leads to organizational growth.

The seventh principle of TQM according to the ISO 9000 series is the use of facts in decision-making (ISO 9). This principle encourages every organization to institutionalize the use of logical decision-making processes. The advantage of a fact-based approach to decision making is that each person in the organization can appreciate and anticipate the decisions that the organization will take in any situation. This makes it easy for people to step in for others whenever the need arises. To implement this principle, each organization needs to ensure that every person has access to the information he or she needs to make good decisions. In addition, the organization must always ensure that the information is accurate.

Finally, the ISO 9000 series identified mutually beneficial supplier relationships as the eighth TQM principle. The basic assumption behind this principle is that each organization and its suppliers are mutually dependent. This means that each of them should identify mutually beneficial arrangements. Good supplier relationships give organizations the ability to take advantage of emergent opportunities. Organizations that seek to implement this principle should plan joint improvement programs with their suppliers, alongside other cooperative ventures. In the same breath, each organization should identify its key suppliers and work towards deepening their relations.

The emergence of quality management as an academic discipline as well as its adoption in industry relied on the work of the champions of TQM. These champions were scholars and philosophers in the field of quality management. The notable champions of TQM were Edward Deming, Joseph M. Juran, A. V. Feigenbaum, Kaoru Ishikawa, and Philip Crosby.

Edward Deming was a statistician who came up with fourteen key principles for quality improvement. Deming was philosophically opposed to the use of management by objectives. He helped to bring to the fore the need to add quality management to the essential role of supervisors. He encouraged organizations to bring down management silos and other organizational barriers in order to turn the workforce into a cooperative team.

Apart from the fourteen principles, Deming also identified barriers to the effective deployment of quality management. The list he made included lack of purpose, and emphasis on short-term profits (Lal 33). A comparison of Deming’s fourteen principles and those espoused by ISO shows that Deming had captured the essence of TQM, but had too many specifics in his list of principles. Each of them can comfortably fit within the eight TQM principles of the ISO 9000 series.

The second champion of TQM was Joseph M. Juran. Juran first came to the limelight when he proposed the application of the Pareto principle to the quality management. This approach defined his philosophy and forms part of his quality management legacy. Juran also developed the quality trilogy, which comprised quality planning, quality control, and quality improvement (Stephens 14). Part of Juran’s discomfort with the quality management approaches of his time was that they focused on the quality of the finished product instead of focusing on the entire planning process. By the time quality checks came into play, it was already too late. At best, quality control processes could only identify defective products, rather than stop the production of defective products from the onset.

The third champion of quality control was Armand Vallin Feigenbaum. Feigenbaum was the one who developed the concept of Total Quality Control, which later evolved into TQM. He contributed to quality control in several ways. First, he developed Total Quality Control, which was the precursor to TQM, and is the foundation of the present day practice of quality management. Secondly, Feigenbaum developed the concept of the hidden plant. The hidden plant refers to all the activities that an organization undertakes to revise poor quality work (Bender and Krasnick 14).

When Feigenbaum looked at all the hidden efforts, he concluded that these activities were significant enough to form a hidden plant within the factory. Thirdly, Feigenbaum developed the concept of quality accountability (Bender and Krasnick 15). Essentially, he tried to find ways of making people accountable for quality in the organization. This approach can help an organization to eliminate quality lapses in processes where no one is accountable. Feigenbaum also developed the concept of quality costs by showing that the production of poor quality goods and services costs the organization time and money (Thomas 28).

The fourth champion of quality control was Kaoru Ishikawa. Ishikawa developed the philosophies of Juran and Deming by finding ways of applying them to Japanese companies. Ishikawa conceptualized quality circles and then trained organizations on how to use quality circles (Bender and Krasnick 66). The essential quality principles propagated by Ishikawa were as follows. First Ishikawa believed in continuous improvement of processes, products, and systems (Lal 14). He encouraged organizations to implement continuous improvement mechanisms in their production processes. Secondly, Ishikawa believed that organizations needed to worry about quality at every stage of production. This was in response to the prevailing practice where quality inspections took place at the end of the production process.

Finally, the fifth champion of quality management was Philip Crosby. Crosby developed four main precepts. Crosby defined quality as conformance to requirements (Mukherjee 34). In this case, the requirements meant product and customer requirements. Secondly, Crosby believed that prevention was the only way of attaining high quality production standards (Mukherjee 38). This meant that it was important to do something in the right way during the first attempt. This eliminates the costs associated with revisions. Thirdly, Crosby popularized the notion that the standard all quality management processes should aim for is to have no defects (Bender and Krasnick 72). This is an absolute standard. Finally, Crosby postulated that the price of quality was the cost of quality failure (Bender and Krasnick 72).

Quality Management Approaches

The measurement of the quality of services is different from the measurement of the quality of manufactured goods. This difference arises from the nature of goods and services. Customers can assess the quality of a product after picking it off a shelf, and can predict with reasonable accuracy how any other copy of the same product will perform. When it comes to services, it is impossible for a customer to predict whether the quality of services received from a company will be satisfactory at a different time. The reason for this is that customers access services on demand, while they access manufactured products in advance. In this regard, the measurement of the quality of manufactured products differs from the measurement of the quality of services.

Measuring the Quality of a Manufactured Product

Based on the definitions of quality discussed in the previous section, it is possible to deduce the essential factors to consider when measuring the quality of manufactured products. The first approach of measuring the quality of manufactured products is by examining how the finished product compares to the design specifications. This measure is useful when using the no-defects approach to quality management. In this case, the basis for product testing is the ideal performance standards set during the design phase. The second approach to the testing of the quality of manufactured products is checking whether the product is fit for purpose. The idea in this case is to determine whether the product meets the functional requirements and customer expectations (Martin 19).

This measure is ideal for testing products that are new in the market. Such products require performance testing to ensure that they meet market needs. Another approach for measuring the quality of manufactured goods is by using statistical techniques (Mukherjee 65). The methods used in statistical measurement of quality include checking the degree of conformity of a batch of products to design standards against the number of defective products in the same batch. This means that an organization uses measures that indicate the percentage of defective products in relation to non-defective products. This approach is useful for measuring changes in production quality in numerical terms. However, knowing the number of defective products as a statistical expression is only the first step in instituting quality control measures.

Measuring the quality of a service is not as easy as measuring the quality of a product. The reason for this is that services expire at the point of consumption and are not available for review later. However, each organization can use customer feedback as a means of measuring the quality of services offered by the organization. A company can also measure the quality of the services offered statistically by reviewing the feedback it gets from its customers.

A company needs to collect reviews from its customers. Usually, organizations have places where customers can give their feedback in the form of complaints, or compliments. By counting the number of complaints received per unit number of customers, a company can establish whether the services it renders meet the desired criteria. This approach requires care because not every customer provides feedback to the organization. In fact, a large number of unhappy customers do not give feedback (BSI 1). A company may not even realize that it has lost business to its competitors.

A second way of measuring the quality of services is by examining the number of customers who use the company’s services. This means that it is important to keep track of the number of customers who seek services from a company, and the number of repeat customers. If the company realizes that it is serving an increasing number of customers per given time, then it can tell whether its services have the appropriate quality dimensions. A reduction in the number of clients can mean that there are quality lapses in the provision of services. It is important to note that number alone cannot be a good indicator of the quality of services offered. The company may have other competitive advantages that lead to high customer numbers, such as a convenient business location.

Quality Management in the US and Japanese Firms from the Fifties

Quality management in Japan took off earlier than in the US. After the Second World War, Japan decided to focus on industrial growth as its national priority. Initially, Japanese products were not competitive in the global market because of low quality workmanship. The work of thinkers like Kaoru Ishikawa made Japan change its attitude towards quality management. Ishikawa, among other quality management promoters influenced the Japanese industry by introducing quality management thinking and practices in the country. During the same period, the US was a world leader in manufacturing. The country had well developed industries and stable industrial models. However, quality management was not a priority for many companies in the US. Manufacturers were happy with their production processes and were not keen to improve the prevailing methods. This went on until the seventies.

The energy crisis of the late seventies made the world aware of quality improvements in Japan. The country had made the production of fuel-efficient cars a central priority in its automobile industry. The result was that when people started looking for efficient cars, Japanese cars proved their worth. In addition to automobiles, Japanese machinery started making their way to shops in the US. Companies such as Fuji and Sony became household names in the US because of their ability to produce goods that rivaled the quality of products made in the US.

The eighties saw the reemergence of the US as a production powerhouse. The US proved to be innovative in its product design processes. In addition, management consultants, working with quality management specialists started training companies in the US on quality control. Companies in the US that took quality control seriously soon became competitive against Japanese companies. In some cases, Japanese companies opened branches in the US to handle the local market. Companies based in the US did the same in Japan to benefit from the Japanese quality culture. The result was a general increase in quality standards in the two countries.

Today, TQM is a standardized process found in both the US and Japan. Different companies have different adaptations for use in their context. The rising power in the world right now is China. China is becoming a strong partner to many countries because of its huge manufacturing capabilities. China is suffering from quality control problems partly because of its history. China is competitive because of the low labor costs in the country. Based on Japan’s history, China can catch up with the US and Japan in the coming years if it adopts quality control as a central tenet of industrial growth.

Examples of Quality Practices in UAE Organizations

Many organizations in the UAE use TQM principles to run their affairs. Two of these organizations are Mashreq and the Dubai Customs. Mashreq is an ISO certified banking institution. Mashreq obtained an ISO 9000 certification in regards to its service quality. Mashreq identified four main customer needs in its efforts towards achieving ISO 9000 certification. First, the company realized that it is vital for it to achieve a superior level of reliability, efficiency, and effectiveness in its services (BSI 1).

The UAE is an important financial hub for the Middle East. Competition in the financial services sector is very stiff. A lackadaisical performance is a recipe for disaster for any financial services provider. In this regard, Mashreq set for itself challenging goals in regards to the quality of services that its clients can expect. Secondly, Mashreq made a commitment to ensure that it would improve its processes, systems, and services continually, while at the same time ensuring that staff morale remained high (BSI 2). This goal was consistent with the principles of TQM. The third commitment that Mashreq made towards quality improvement was to demonstrate an ongoing commitment towards its customers.

This commitment was very similar to one of the principles of TQM that encourages organizations to focus on their customers. The fourth commitment Mashreq made was to benchmark its services with international players (BSI 2). This commitment showed that Mashreq realized that the UAE is becoming an international financial hub. The organization also hoped that setting high goals would motivate its staff members to engage in their work with greater focus. The main issue in Mashreq’s ISO 9000 certification was that the organization demonstrated its commitment to TQM, and continual process improvement. The organization has put systems in place to aid it to improve its processes, systems, and products.

The second organization that is practicing TQM is Dubai Customs. Dubai Customs is a very busy organization by virtue of Dubai’s role as a transport hub of the UAE, the Arab countries, and beyond. The emirate is also becoming a critical connection point for international flights. The management of Dubai Customs acted on the need to reduce and eventually eliminate all quality concerns in regards to the services offered by the organization. The managers were alive to the fact that dissatisfied customers tend to go away without talking to anyone. On the other hand, it is possible to win back customers who voice their complaints.

The managers of Dubai Customs chose to invite quality assessors from LRQA to conduct a quality assessment. This decision shows that the organization was ready to risk its reputation for the benefit of its customers. It also demonstrates that the organization was confident about its systems.

The certification process took five months. This period was shorter than normal because of the commitment of the organization to TQM. The certification project had several aspects, which included gap analysis, internal audits, external audits, and the eventual certification (Lloyds Register 2). The certification project aimed at ensuring that Dubai Customs achieved the ISO 10002 certification for the handling of complaints. Handling of complaints is a very critical aspect of service quality.

The objective was to ensure that Dubai Customs would handle at least three quarters of all complaints within a week. By the end of the certification project period, the time had reduced to two and a half days. The project also included an audit of the actual complaint management system. The auditors assessed the effectiveness of the actions generated from complaint resolution processes, against the needs of the clients of the organization. This helped the organization to find a way of measuring the quality of the solutions it gave to its customers.

Bender, Douglas A and Carla Krasnick. A Total Quality Management Process Improvement Model. New York: Diane Publishing, 1993. Print.

BSI. Using BSI ISO 9001 to Demonstrate Mashreq’s Commitment Towards its Customers. Dubai: BSI Group, 2013. Print.

Dalic, Tomislaw. Globalisation of Marketing Strategies in Light of Segmentation and Cultural Diversity. Norderstedt: GRIN Verlag, 2007. Print.

ISO. Quality Management Principles. Geneva: ISO Central Secretariat, 2012. Print.

Lal, H. Total Quality Management: A Practical Approach. New Delhi: New Age International, 2004. Print.

Lloyds Register. LRQA Business Assurance Approach Helps Dubai Customs Improve Customer Satisfaction. Dubai: Lloyds Register, 2013. Print.

Martin, Roger L. The Design of Business: Why Design Thinking Is the Next Competitive Advantage. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press, 2009. Print.

Mukherjee, P N. Total Quality Management. New Delhi: PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, 2006. Print.

Stephens, Kenneth S. Juran, Quality, and a Century of Improvement. Milwaulee, WI: ASQ Quality Press, 2005. Print.

Thomas, Anne. Strategies for Branding Success. New York: eBooklt.com, 2011. Print.

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Film your elevator pitch., what specific problem are you solving.

In this article, we're exploring how essay writing services have changed to fit the way education is now. Back then, students mostly learned in classrooms with books and papers. But now, with the rise of technology, learning happens online too. This shift means that essay writing services have had to adapt to help students in new ways. They now offer support tailored to different learning styles, and use digital tools to make the writing process easier for students.

One big change is that essay writing services now use technology to reach students wherever they are. They offer online help and tools that students can access anytime, anywhere. This makes it easier for students to get the assistance they need, even if they're not on campus. Another change is that these services now provide more personalized support. They understand that every student is different, so they offer guidance and feedback that matches each student's needs and goals.

Overall, essay writing services have evolved to keep up with the modern ways of learning. They've embraced technology to provide flexible support to students, no matter where they are. And by offering personalized help, they're making sure that each student gets the assistance they need to succeed in their studies.

What is your solution?

In today's world, learning is changing fast, and CollegeEssay.org is keeping up. It's a website where you can get help with your essays, especially tailored to how we learn now. They understand that learning isn't just about sitting in a classroom anymore; it's also about using computers and the internet. That's why CollegeEssay.org uses technology to make essay writing easier for students. They have a team of people who are really good at writing and can give you advice and support with your essays.

CollegeEssay.org - Your Premier Essay Writing Solution

CollegeEssay.org stands out as an affordable and professional essay writing service that caters to the needs of students. As a cheap essay writing service, they offer high-quality assistance at a reasonable price, making it accessible to students from all walks of life. Their commitment to affordability doesn't compromise the quality of their service.

Personalized Support: Enhance Your Writing Skills with CollegeEssay.org

CollegeEssay.org is like having a smart friend who's great at writing and always available to help you out. They know that everyone learns differently, so they'll work with you to make sure you understand and improve your writing. Whether you're struggling to start an essay or need help polishing your final draft, CollegeEssay.org is there for you.

And the best part is, you can access it anytime you need, so you can get help with your essays whenever it's convenient for you. With CollegeEssay.org, you can feel more confident about your writing and do better in school.

Searching for trustworthy companies to write research papers for? Examine CollegeEssay.org now to improve your academic achievement.

Modern Solutions for Academic Success: MyPerfectWords.com's Innovative Approach

In today's changing world of education, MyPerfectWords.com is adapting to help students with their essays. It's a website where you can get assistance tailored to how we learn now. They understand that learning involves using computers and the internet, so they use technology to make essay writing easier for students. MyPerfectWords.com has a team of people who are experts in writing and can give you advice and support with your essays, making it a top-notch online essay writing service.

MyPerfectWords.com is not only a professional essay writing service but also a trusted online essay writing service that caters to students' needs. As a cheap essay writing service, they provide affordable assistance without compromising on quality.

 Their team of experts ensures that every essay is tailored to meet the individual needs of students, making it a top choice for those seeking a custom essay writing service. Additionally, MyPerfectWords.com has earned a reputation as one of the best essay writing services, as evidenced by positive essay writing service reviews from satisfied customers. With MyPerfectWords.com, students can rely on expert support to excel in their academic pursuits.

  Do you require professional help writing your research paper? Find out about the exceptional quality and individualized assistance offered by MyPerfectWords.com , your reliable source for excellent research paper writing services.

Who does your solution serve, and in what ways will the solution impact their lives?

This solution is for students who need help with their essays. It's like having a helpful friend who knows a lot about writing and is always ready to assist. By offering personalized support and useful advice, this solution makes it easier for students to write their essays well. It takes away the worry and confusion that can come with essay assignments, helping students feel more confident about their writing skills. Overall, it makes a big difference in students' lives by helping them do better in school.

With this solution, students can access support whenever they need it. Whether they're struggling to start an essay or want feedback on a draft, help is just a click away. This convenience means students don't have to stress about essay deadlines or struggle alone with their assignments. Instead, they can rely on this solution to provide the guidance and assistance they need to succeed in their studies. It's like having a reliable safety net that ensures students can confidently navigate their academic journey and achieve their goals.

How are you and your team well-positioned to deliver this solution?

We have lots of experience in guiding students through their essay writing journey. We understand the challenges students face when it comes to writing essays, and we know how to help them overcome these challenges. Our team is made up of friendly and supportive people who are dedicated to making sure students succeed.

We're also really good at using technology to make essay writing easier. We've created tools and resources that students can use to improve their writing skills. Our website is easy to use, so students can quickly find the help they need. Plus, we're always updating and improving our services to stay ahead of the curve. With our expertise and commitment to innovation, we're well-positioned to deliver a solution that meets the needs of today's students.

Which dimension of the Challenge does your solution most closely address?

Which of the un sustainable development goals does your solution address.

• 4. Quality Education

What is your solution’s stage of development?

Please share details about why you selected the stage above..

I chose the growth stage because it shows how education keeps changing to meet new needs. In this stage, people see that learning to write well for school is really important. As schools change with new technology and teaching methods, being good at writing becomes more and more crucial for students to do well. So, looking at growth helps us understand how essay writing services are changing to help students learn to write better in today's world.

Why are you applying to Solve?

CollegeEssay.org is your go-to destination for all your academic writing needs. With a dedicated team of over 280 skilled writers, we guarantee exceptional quality and timely delivery of original papers. Our commitment to excellence is reflected in our impressive SiteJabber rating of 4.8 and ResellerRatings of 4.9, showcasing our unwavering dedication to surpassing customer satisfaction.

I am applying to Solve because I believe in its mission to address some of the world's most pressing challenges through innovation and collaboration. I am passionate about leveraging technology and creativity to find solutions that can make a positive impact on society. Solve provides a unique platform to connect with a diverse community of innovators, experts, and organizations dedicated to driving social change. I am excited about the opportunity to contribute my skills and ideas to Solve's efforts in tackling global challenges and making a difference in the world.

In which of the following areas do you most need partners or support?

• Public Relations (e.g. branding/marketing strategy, social and global media)
• Technology (e.g. software or hardware, web development/design)

Who is the Team Lead for your solution?

Solution team.

The Solve team will review your report and remove any inappropriate content.

Why is this item inappropriate?

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