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Essay on Sustainable Development: Samples in 250, 300 and 500 Words

• Updated on  
• Nov 18, 2023

On 3rd August 2023, the Indian Government released its Net zero emissions target policy to reduce its carbon footprints. To achieve the sustainable development goals (SDG) , as specified by the UN, India is determined for its long-term low-carbon development strategy. Selfishly pursuing modernization, humans have frequently compromised with the requirements of a more sustainable environment.

As a result, the increased environmental depletion is evident with the prevalence of deforestation, pollution, greenhouse gases, climate change etc. To combat these challenges, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change launched the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) in 2019. The objective was to improve air quality in 131 cities in 24 States/UTs by engaging multiple stakeholders.

‘Development is not real until and unless it is sustainable development.’ – Ban Ki-Moon

The concept of Sustainable Development in India has even greater relevance due to the controversy surrounding the big dams and mega projects and related long-term growth. Since it is quite a frequently asked topic in school tests as well as competitive exams , we are here to help you understand what this concept means as well as the mantras to drafting a well-written essay on Sustainable Development with format and examples.

This Blog Includes:

What is sustainable development, 250-300 words essay on sustainable development, 300 words essay on sustainable development, 500 words essay on sustainable development, introduction, conclusion of sustainable development essay, importance of sustainable development, examples of sustainable development.

As the term simply explains, Sustainable Development aims to bring a balance between meeting the requirements of what the present demands while not overlooking the needs of future generations. It acknowledges nature’s requirements along with the human’s aim to work towards the development of different aspects of the world. It aims to efficiently utilise resources while also meticulously planning the accomplishment of immediate as well as long-term goals for human beings, the planet as well and future generations. In the present time, the need for Sustainable Development is not only for the survival of mankind but also for its future protection. 

Looking for ideas to incorporate in your Essay on Sustainable Development? Read our blog on Energy Management – Find Your Sustainable Career Path and find out!

To give you an idea of the way to deliver a well-written essay, we have curated a sample on sustainable development below, with 250-300 words:

To give you an idea of the way to deliver a well-written essay, we have curated a sample on sustainable development below, with 300 + words:

Must Read: Article Writing

To give you an idea of the way to deliver a well-written essay, we have curated a sample on sustainable development below, with 500 + words:

Essay Format

Before drafting an essay on Sustainable Development, students need to get familiarised with the format of essay writing, to know how to structure the essay on a given topic. Take a look at the following pointers which elaborate upon the format of a 300-350 word essay.

Introduction (50-60 words) In the introduction, students must introduce or provide an overview of the given topic, i.e. highlighting and adding recent instances and questions related to sustainable development. Body of Content (100-150 words) The area of the content after the introduction can be explained in detail about why sustainable development is important, its objectives and highlighting the efforts made by the government and various institutions towards it.  Conclusion (30-40 words) In the essay on Sustainable Development, you must add a conclusion wrapping up the content in about 2-3 lines, either with an optimistic touch to it or just summarizing what has been talked about above.

How to write the introduction of a sustainable development essay? To begin with your essay on sustainable development, you must mention the following points:

• What is sustainable development?
• What does sustainable development focus on?
• Why is it useful for the environment?

How to write the conclusion of a sustainable development essay? To conclude your essay on sustainable development, mention why it has become the need of the hour. Wrap up all the key points you have mentioned in your essay and provide some important suggestions to implement sustainable development.

The importance of sustainable development is that it meets the needs of the present generations without compromising on the needs of the coming future generations. Sustainable development teaches us to use our resources in the correct manner. Listed below are some points which tell us the importance of sustainable development.

• Focuses on Sustainable Agricultural Methods – Sustainable development is important because it takes care of the needs of future generations and makes sure that the increasing population does not put a burden on Mother Earth. It promotes agricultural techniques such as crop rotation and effective seeding techniques.
• Manages Stabilizing the Climate – We are facing the problem of climate change due to the excessive use of fossil fuels and the killing of the natural habitat of animals. Sustainable development plays a major role in preventing climate change by developing practices that are sustainable. It promotes reducing the use of fossil fuels which release greenhouse gases that destroy the atmosphere.
• Provides Important Human Needs – Sustainable development promotes the idea of saving for future generations and making sure that resources are allocated to everybody. It is based on the principle of developing an infrastructure that is can be sustained for a long period of time.
• Sustain Biodiversity – If the process of sustainable development is followed, the home and habitat of all other living animals will not be depleted. As sustainable development focuses on preserving the ecosystem it automatically helps in sustaining and preserving biodiversity.
• Financial Stability – As sustainable development promises steady development the economies of countries can become stronger by using renewable sources of energy as compared to using fossil fuels, of which there is only a particular amount on our planet.

Mentioned below are some important examples of sustainable development. Have a look:

• Wind Energy – Wind energy is an easily available resource. It is also a free resource. It is a renewable source of energy and the energy which can be produced by harnessing the power of wind will be beneficial for everyone. Windmills can produce energy which can be used to our benefit. It can be a helpful source of reducing the cost of grid power and is a fine example of sustainable development. 
• Solar Energy – Solar energy is also a source of energy which is readily available and there is no limit to it. Solar energy is being used to replace and do many things which were first being done by using non-renewable sources of energy. Solar water heaters are a good example. It is cost-effective and sustainable at the same time.
• Crop Rotation – To increase the potential of growth of gardening land, crop rotation is an ideal and sustainable way. It is rid of any chemicals and reduces the chances of disease in the soil. This form of sustainable development is beneficial to both commercial farmers and home gardeners.
• Efficient Water Fixtures – The installation of hand and head showers in our toilets which are efficient and do not waste or leak water is a method of conserving water. Water is essential for us and conserving every drop is important. Spending less time under the shower is also a way of sustainable development and conserving water.
• Sustainable Forestry – This is an amazing way of sustainable development where the timber trees that are cut by factories are replaced by another tree. A new tree is planted in place of the one which was cut down. This way, soil erosion is prevented and we have hope of having a better, greener future.

Related Articles

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 global goals established by the United Nations in 2015. These include: No Poverty Zero Hunger Good Health and Well-being Quality Education Gender Equality Clean Water and Sanitation Affordable and Clean Energy Decent Work and Economic Growth Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure Reduced Inequality Sustainable Cities and Communities Responsible Consumption and Production Climate Action Life Below Water Life on Land Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions Partnerships for the Goals

The SDGs are designed to address a wide range of global challenges, such as eradicating extreme poverty globally, achieving food security, focusing on promoting good health and well-being, inclusive and equitable quality education, etc.

India is ranked #111 in the Sustainable Development Goal Index 2023 with a score of 63.45.

Hence, we hope that this blog helped you understand the key features of an essay on sustainable development. If you are interested in Environmental studies and planning to pursue sustainable tourism courses , take the assistance of Leverage Edu ’s AI-based tool to browse through a plethora of programs available in this specialised field across the globe and find the best course and university combination that fits your interests, preferences and aspirations. Call us immediately at 1800 57 2000 for a free 30-minute counselling session

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India behind on progress toward UN Sustainable Development Goals

March 2, 2023—India is not on target to reach more than half of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)—a broad set of global goals set in 2015 by UN member states—by the organization’s 2030 deadline, according to a study led by Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.

The study was published in The Lancet Regional Health–Southeast Asia on February 20, 2023. First author was S.V. Subramanian , professor of population health and geography at Harvard Chan School and principal investigator at Harvard University’s Geographic Insights Lab ; other co-authors affiliated with the lab included Rockli Kim , co-principal investigator, and Akhil Kumar, research intern.

The researchers used data from India’s 2016 and 2021 National Family Health Survey to assess progress toward nine out of 17 SDGs by looking at 33 indicators related to health and social determinants of health. Assessing how the indicators changed from 2016 to 2021, the researchers classified 707 districts across India—as well as the nation as a whole—as either achieved, on target, or off target to meeting the SDGs by 2030.

Nationally, India is off target for 19 of the 33 SDG indicators, the study found. And for critical indicators—including access to basic services, wasting and overweight children , anemia, child marriage, partner violence , tobacco use, and modern contraceptive use— more than 75% of districts were off target. There’s been no progress made on anemia, for example, and progress toward other goals is slow. The researchers estimated that India is only a year away from meeting the target for improved water access but that other targets, such as those regarding access to basic services and partner violence, could take until 2062 to reach.

Based on the findings, the study authors recommended that a strategic roadmap be developed toward four particular SDGs: No Poverty, Zero Hunger, Good Health and Wellbeing, and Gender Equality.

“Meeting [the SDGs] would require prioritizing and targeting specific areas within India,” the researchers wrote. “India’s emergence and sustenance as a leading economic power depends on meeting some of the more basic health and social determinants of health-related SDGs in an immediate and equitable manner.”

Read an article in The Hindu: India likely to miss deadline for 50% of SDG indicators: Lancet study

Read the study: Progress on Sustainable Development Goal indicators in 707 districts of India: a quantitative mid-line assessment using the National Family Health Surveys, 2016 and 2021

• Open access
• Published: 21 November 2022

India's achievement towards sustainable Development Goal 6 (Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all) in the 2030 Agenda

• Sourav Biswas   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2715-2704 1 ,
• Biswajit Dandapat 2 ,
• Asraful Alam 3 &
• Lakshminarayan Satpati 4  

BMC Public Health volume  22 , Article number:  2142 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Clean water and sanitation are global public health issues. Safe drinking water and sanitation are essential, especially for children, to prevent acute and chronic illness death and sustain a healthy life. The UN General Assembly announced the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets for the 2030 Agenda on 25 September 2015. SDG 6 is very important because it affects other SDG (1, 2,3,5,11,14 and 15). The present study deals with the national and state-wise analysis of the current status and to access deficiency of India's achievement towards SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation for all) for the 2030 agenda based on targets 6.1, 6.2,6.4,6.6 from 2012 to 2020.

Materials and methods

Data of different indicators of SDG 6 are collected from different secondary sources—NSS 69th (2012) and 76th (2018) round; CGWB annual report 2016–2017 and 2018-2019; NARSS (2019–2020); SBM-Grameen (2020). To understand overall achievement towards SDG 6 in the 2030 agenda, the goal score (arithmetic mean of normalised value) has been calculated.

Major findings

According to NSS data, 88.7% of Indian households had enough drinking water from primary drinking water sources throughout the year, while 79.8% of households had access to toilet facilities in 2018. As per the 2019–2021 goal score for States and UTs in rural India based on SDG 6 indicator, SDG 6 achiever States and UTs (100%) are Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Drinking water and sanitation for all ensure a healthy life. It is a matter of concern for the government, policymakers, and people to improve the condition where the goal score and indicator value of SDG 6 are low.

Peer Review reports

Clean Water and sanitation are global public health issues. "Water collected from sources like—piped water into dwelling, piped water into yard/plot, household connection, public standpipes/tap, boreholes/tube well, protected dug wells, protected springs and rainwater collection and bottled water are considered as improved sources of drinking water. Drinking water collected from improved sources located on-premises, available when needed and free from faecal and contamination is known as safely managed drinking water" [ 1 ]. "Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases” [ 2 ]. Water, sanitation and hygiene are known as WASH. WASH includes the use of safe drinking water; safe disposal and management of human faecal matter, human waste (solid and liquid). Open defecation is much more common in rural India than in urban India. About 70% of the Indian population lives in rural areas. In fact, 89% of households without toilets were in rural areas, according to the 2011 census. Although the Indian government has spent decades building latrines and the country has had consistent economic progress, rural open defecation statistics have remained stubbornly high [ 3 ].Control of vector-borne diseases, handwashing practices. Open Defecation Free (ODF) is the termination of faecal-oral transmission in an open space or ending open defecation using a toilet. India has progressed in access to safe drinking water (tap/hand-pump/tube well) in the household from 38% in 1981 to 85.5% in 2011. Water, sanitation, and hygiene-related diseases are Infectious Diarrhoea, Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, Acute hepatitis A, Acute hepatitis E and future F, Fluorosis, Arsenosis, Legionellosis, Methamoglobinamia, Schistosomiasis, Trachomaa, Ascariasis, Trichuriasis, Hookworm, Dracunculiasis, Scabies, Dengue, Filariasis, Malaria, Japanese encephalitis, Leishmaniasis, Onchocerciasisa, Yellow fever, Impetigo and Drowning [ 4 ]. The United Nations General Assembly declared 2008 the International Year of Sanitation to recognise the critical need for increased political awareness and action on sanitation. The purpose is to promote awareness and speed up progress toward the Millennium Development Goal of decreasing the proportion of people without access to basic sanitation by 2015. Due to poor sanitation, people suffer from bad health, lost income, inconvenience, and indignity. Despite this, billions of people worldwide do not have access to basic sanitation [ 4 , 5 ]. According to WHO (2015), 2.4 billion people lack sanitation facilities, and 663 million people still lack access to safe and clean drinking water facilities [ 6 ]. WHO (2019) state that 3.3% of global death and 4.6% of DALYs is attributed to inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene condition. "Unsafe sanitation is responsible for 775,000 deaths per year, 5% death in low-income countries due to unsafe sanitation, 15% of the world still practising open defecation [ 7 ]. "Age-standardized death rate attributable to unsafe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH) (per 100,000 population) 268.587 in 1990, 239.719 in 1995, 210.642 in 2000, 180.757 in 2005, 143.453 in 2010 and 104.202 in 2016″ [ 7 ]. So safe drinking water and sanitation are essential, especially for children, to prevent acute and chronic illness death and sustain a healthy life. After the Millennium Development goal, on 25 September 2015, in UN general assembly 17th sustainable development goal (SDG) and 169 targets set up for 2030 agenda [ 8 , 9 ]. "SDG 6 is essential because it affects other SDG (1 – poverty eradication, 2 – ending hunger, 3 – healthy life and well–being, 4 – quality education, 5 – gender equality, 11 – inclusive cities, 14 – life below water and 15 – terrestrial ecosystem)" [ 10 ]. The present study deals with the national and state-wise analysis of current status and to access deficiency of India's Achievement towards SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation for all) for the 2030 agenda based on targets 6.1, 6.2, 6.4, 6.6 from 2012 to 2020. In this study, special focus is given to rural India.

Census of India continuously collecting data about drinking water and sanitation from all households in house listing and housing. “The National Statistical Office (NSO) Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation” (MOSPI), Government of India has been collecting data on housing condition, drinking water, sanitation and hygiene; those were collected by NSO from NSS 7th round (October 1953—March 1954) to NSS 23rd round (July 1968—June 1969), 28th round (October 1973—June 1974), 44th round (July 1988—June 1989), 49th round (January—June 1993), 54th round (January—June 1998) 58th round (July—December 2002), 65th round (July 2008—June 2009), 69th round (July—December 2012), and latest NSS 76th round. The Indian government has undertaken attempts to enhance drinking water and sanitation.

1949: The Environment Hygiene Committee advises that a clean water supply be provided to 90% of India's population within a 40-year timeframe.

1969: The National Rural Drinking Water Supply Program was initiated with UNICEF's technical assistance, and Rs.254.90 crore is spent on 1.2 million bore wells and 17,000 piped water supply systems during this phase.

In 1972–73, the Government of India launched the Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) to assist states and union territories in expanding drinking water supply coverage.

1986: The National Drinking Water Mission (NDWM) was established. The National Drinking Water Mission was renamed the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission in 1991 (RGNDWM). The 73rd Constitutional Amendment mandates the provision of drinking water by Panchayati Raj institutions (PRIs).

In 1986, the Central Rural Sanitation Programme (CRSP) was established to provide safe sanitation in rural regions. The Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) was launched in 1999 to promote local sanitary marts and various technical choices to develop supply-led sanitation.

1999: The Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) was launched in 1999 as part of the reform principles to provide sanitation facilities in rural regions to eliminate open defecation. Swajal Dhara, a national scale-up of sector reform, was launched in 2002. All drinking water programmers were placed under the RGNDWM's umbrella in 2004.

2005: The Indian government begins the Bharat Nirman Programme, aiming to improve housing, roads, power, telephone, irrigation, and drinking water infrastructure in rural regions [ 11 ].

In 2009, the ARWSP was renamed the National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP). One of the goals was to allow all households, to the extent practicable, to have access to and utilise safe and adequate drinking water inside the premises.

In 2012, The Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan was reformed and renamed (rural sanitation).

The Swachh Bharat Mission was launched across the country on 2 October 2014 to achieve the objective of a clean India by 2 October 2019. (PM India).

The current National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP) was reformed and incorporated under Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) on 15 August 2019 to provide Functional Household Tap Connection (FHTC) to every rural household, i.e. Har Ghar Nal Se Jal (HGNSJ) by 2024. Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) is a non-profit organisation.

The goals of SBM(Gmain) are to enhance the general quality of life in rural areas by fostering cleanliness, hygiene, and the elimination of open defecation. The Individual Household Latrines (IHHL) unit cost was increased from Rs. 10,000 to Rs. 12,000 rupees to accommodate for water availability. To meet the Swachh Bharat aim, improve rural sanitation coverage by 2 October 2019. Raising awareness and providing health education encourages communities and Panchayati Raj institutions to adopt sustainable sanitation practices and infrastructure. Encourage the use of cost-effective and suitable sanitation methods that are environmentally safe and long-lasting. Develop community-managed sanitation systems in rural regions, concentrating on scientific Solid and Liquid Waste Management systems for overall cleanliness [ 11 , 12 ].

In New York in 2000, 189 nations approved the Millennium Declaration for 2015, promising to work together to create a safer, more prosperous, and equal world. There are eight objectives, seven of which deal with sanitation and hygiene (target 7. C – Reduce the share of the population without sustainable access to clean drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015). (Millennium Development Goal of the United Nations) Following the millennium development goal (SDG), the United Nations General Assembly approved 17 sustainable development goals and 169 targets for the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development on 25 September 2015. Out of 17 SDGs, SDG 6 ensures availability and sustainable water and sanitation management. SDG 6 has different target for the year 2030—6.1: Achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all; 6.2: Achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying particular attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations; 6.3: Improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally; 6.4: By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity; 6.5: Implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; 6.6: Protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes; 6.a: Expand international cooperation and capacitybuilding support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies; 6.b: Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management [ 8 ].

As the nodal institution for SDGs, NITI Aayog, the Government of India has striven to provide the necessary encouragement and support to forge collaborative momentum among them. Since 2018, the SDG India Index & Dashboard has worked as a powerful tool to bring SDGs clearly and firmly into the policy arena in our States and UTs [ 13 ]. Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), Government of India developed a National Indicator Framework (NIF), which is the backbone for facilitating monitoring of SDGs at the national level and provides appropriate direction to the policymakers and the implementing agencies of various schemes and programmes [ 14 ].

The main objective of this study is to find out the status of SDG target 6.1, 6.2, 6.4 and 6. towards the achievement of SDG 6 in the 2030 agenda in India (National and State level) and to assess deficiency towards the Achievement of clean Water and sanitation for all in 2030 agenda India (National and State level).

The present study is based on seven indicators of SDG 6;

a: those are % population having improved source of drinking water- SDG 6.1,

b: % of individual household toilets constructed against target (SBM(G))- SDG 6.2,

c: % of districts verified to be ODF (SBM(G))- SDG 6.2,

d: % of school has a separate toilet for boys and girls- SDG 6.2,

e: % of households having safe disposal of liquid waste- SDG 6.a,

f: % of blocks/ mandals / taluka having safe groundwater extraction—SDG 6.4, and.

g: % of blocks/ mandals / taluka over-exploited- SDG 6.4. Data of those indicators are collected from the following secondary sources:

The present study is based on percentage distribution, normalization and arithmetic mean methods. The percentage of groundwater extraction from extractable groundwater resource annually is calculated by the formula: \(\left(\frac{\mathrm{total}\;\mathrm{annual}\;\mathrm{groundwater}\;\mathrm{extraction}}{\mathrm{annual}\;\mathrm{extractable}\;\mathrm{groundwater}\;\mathrm{resource}}\times100\right)\%\) . And goal score for SDG 6 indicators is calculated by target setting, followed by normalizing the raw data of indicator arithmetic mean of the normalizing value of indicators. The methodology of goal score calculation was developed by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) in 2019. The target of those indicators was set by United Nations at the global level. The national target value for indicator a:100%, b:100%, c:100%, d:100%, e:100%, f:100% and g:0%. The next step is normalizing the raw data. It is important to maintain a standard indicator value between 0 and 100. An indicator higher value = lower performance, following formula, was used – the normalized value of an indicator \(({N}_{V})=\left(1-\frac{\mathrm{Actual }\;\mathrm{value}\;\mathrm{of}\;\mathrm{an}\;\mathrm{indicator}\;\left(\mathrm i\right)-\mathrm{target}\;\mathrm{value}\;\mathrm{of}\;\mathrm{the}\;\mathrm{indicator}\;(\mathrm i)}{\mathrm{maximum}\;\mathrm{value}\;\mathrm{of}\;\mathrm{the}\;\mathrm{indicator}(i)-\mathrm{Target}\;\mathrm{value}\;\mathrm{of}\;\mathrm{the}\;\mathrm{indicator}\;\left(\mathrm i\right)}\right) \times100\) . Normalization does not require for indicators a, b, c, d, e & f because values of that indicator are already in percentage and g have been done using the above formula. The goal score for all indicators of SDG 6 for each state and UTs have been done by the arithmetic mean of normalized value, using the following formula- Goal score of indicator(GSI) = ( \({\sum }_{i=1}^{Ni}Nv\) and \(Av\) × \(\frac{1}{\mathrm{Ni}}\) ). Whereas Ni means = the number of non-null indicators and \(Nv\) means the normalized value of the indicator and Av means the actual value of the indicator.

Result and Discussion

Result of households having access to Drinking Water (SDG 6.1) in India (National level and state level) as per National Sample Survey (NSS) data. Figure  1 depicts the sources of safe drinking from households accessing the drinking water throughout the year.

Percentage of households with access to principle sources of safe drinking water in India with resident type, 2018. Source: NSS 76th round (July—December 2018), graph prepared by the author. Notes: 0.0% indicate the least or negligible Percentage of household

In India 2018, most of household collect safe drinking water from hand pump (30.5%) followed by piped water into dwelling (21.4%), piped water to yard / plot (12.3%), tube well (10.7%), public tap / standpipe (9.2%), bottled water (6.8%), protected well (2.5%), piped water from neighbour (1.0%), private tanker truck (0.4%), public tanker truck (0.3%), protected spring (0.2%) and rainwater collection (0.2%). In urban areas, a higher percentage of households use piped water into the dwelling (40.9%), piped water into yard/plot (16.0%), bottled water (12.2%), public tanker truck (0.8%), private tanker track (0.5%) than a rural area. In rural area higher percentage of household using hand pump (42.9%), tube well (10.9%), public tap / standpipe (10.3%), protected well (2.9%), protected spring (0.3%) and rainwater collection (0.2%) [ 14 ].

"Bottled water, piped water into dwelling, piped water to yard/plot, public tap/standpipe, tube well/borehole, protected well, protected spring and rainwater collection are considered as improved sources of drinking water" [ 15 ]. As of 2018, 88.7% of households have access to drinking water from principal drinking water sources throughout the year, but 95.5% of household’s access improved drinking water sources in India. In contrast, the urban area has a higher percentage of access to principle (90.9%) and improved (97.4%) drinking water sources throughout the year than the rural area 87.6% and 94.5%, respectively. In India, 1.7% of principle sources and 4.9% improved drinking water sources increased from 2012 to 2018. As of 2018, 11.3% of households have a deficit in case of access principle sources of drinking water, and 4.5% of households have an obligation in case of access to improved sources of drinking water throughout the year for achieving safe and affordable drinking water for all (SDG 6.1) in 2030 agenda. Table 1 showing the percentage of households with access and deficit to drinking water with resident type in India.

From Fig.  2 , we can say the performance of states and UTs in India towards the Achievement of SDG 6 of target SDG 6.1 by using the percentage of households having access to improved sources of drinking water indicator. As per 2018, SDG 6.1 target achiever ( 100%) states and UTs are Chandigarh, Daman and Diu, Sikkim; Front Runner (65%– 99%) States and UTs are Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Delhi, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Puducherry, Group of UTs, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Telangana, Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Andaman and Nicober Islands, Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Mizoram, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Odisha, Jammu and Kashmir, Meghalaya, Jharkhand, Group of NE States, Tripura, Nagaland, Lakshadweep and Manipur; performer state (50%—64%) in Kerala. Kerala has lower access to improved safe drinking water sources. Deficit of performance to achieve SDG 6.1 target based on the above indicator for states and UTs in India are Bihar 0.1%, Haryana 0.1%, Punjab 0.1%, Delhi 0.2%, Goa 0.2%, Tamil Nadu 0.2%, Dadra and Nagar Haveli 0.4%, Puducherry 0.6%, Group of UTs 0.7%, Uttar Pradesh 0.8%, Gujarat 0.9%, Telangana 0.9%, Arunachal Pradesh 1.2%, West Bengal 1.8%, Andaman and Nicober Islands 1.9%, Himachal Pradesh 1.9%, Andhra Pradesh 2.6%, Uttarakhand 2.8%, Mizoram 3.7%, Maharashtra 3.8%, Karnataka 4.6%, Chhattisgarh 4.8%, Rajasthan 7.4%, Madhya Pradesh 8.5%, Assam 8.6%, Odisha 8.8%, Jammu and Kashmir 9.1%, Meghalaya 9.1%, Jharkhand 12%, Tripura 12.2%, Nagaland 15.5%, Lakshadweep 24.1%, Manipur 25.1% and Kerala 43.3%. Although Kerala has a higher socio-economic development performance, Kerala faces a water crisis. "Urbanisation, modernisation, increasing material prosperity, the disintegration of traditional joint family structure, pressure on land, replacing open dug well with bore well, overexploitation of groundwater contribution to the water crisis in Kerala" [ 16 ]. "Kerala received 80% less rainfall than normal after a flood. So more dry spells and drops in groundwater levels are one of the reasons for the water crisis." (V P Dineshan). In terms of households having toilet facilities, all northeastern states exceed the national average. However, except with Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim, all northeastern states are below the national average regarding access to improved drinking water sources.

Percentage of households having access to improved sources of drinking water in states & UTs in India, 2018. Source: NSS 76th round (July—December 2018), graph prepared by the author

Similarly, the percentage of villages in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur and Meghalaya where the “Village Health and Sanitation Committee” exist is less than the national figure. Efforts should be made to form a "Village Health and Sanitation Committee" in an increasing number of villages. Financial assistance should promote family toilets and provide safe drinking water [ 17 ].

Result of households having access to latrine facility (SDG 6.2) in India (National level and state level) as per National Sample Survey (NSS) data.

As per 2018, in India, 79.8% of households have access to latrine facilities, whereas urban area has a higher percentage of household having access to latrine facility (96.2%), than rural areas (40.6%) given in the Fig.  3 . From 2012 to 2018, India had a 23.2% improvement in accessing latrine facilities, where the urban area has 5%, and the rural area has 30.7% improvement. As of 2018, in India, 20.2% of households have a deficit in accessing latrine facilities towards achieving SDG 6.2 in 2030, whereas in an urban area, it is a low deficit (3.8%) and in rural areas, it is a higher deficit  (28.7%).

Percentage of households having access to latrine facility with resident type, 2012 & 2018. Sources: NSS 76th round (July—December 2018) & 69th round (July—December 2012), graph prepared by the author

As per NSS 76th round, it is seen that in 2018 in India, 2.8% of the population never used a toilet. Although households have latrine facilities, it is higher in rural areas at 3.5% and lowers in an urban area at 1.7%. The various reasons behind not using the toilet are that 2.8% there is no superstructure, 8.2% impure unclear and insufficient water, 3% malfunctioning of the latrine, 0.5% deficiency of latrines, 1.3% lack of safety, 6.3% personal preference, 0.6% cannot bear the charge of the paid latrine, and another reason is 76.9%. It is also observed that the female population uses toilets more than the male population. 74.1% of households washed their hands with water and soap/detergent, and 13.4% washed their hands with water only after defecation [ 14 ]. Infrastructure is inadequate in the rural sanitation sector that must be addressed through immediate legislative reforms and government subsidies to develop appropriate and adequate facilities [ 18 ].

Figure  4 showing the Percentage of households having access to latrine facilities. A higher percentage of households having access to latrine facilities is found in Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Lakshadweep, etc. A lower percentage of households below the national level are found in Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Inadequacies in rural infrastructure are undoubtedly a significant source of the 'failure.' It has multiple causes, which can be baffling at times. Government-subsidized latrines in rural areas are often inappropriate, especially for women, due to a lack of roofs, doors, walls, buried pits, and adequate spatial dimensions, each of which depends on the convenience of latrine usage and, more crucially, privacy [ 18 ]. Performance of states and UTs in India towards the Achievement of SDG 6 of target SDG 6.2 by using the percentage of households having access to latrine facility indicator.

Percentage of households having access to latrine facilities in states & UTs in India, 2018. Source:NSS 76th round (July—December 2018), graph prepared by the author

As per 2018, SDG 6.2 target achiever (100%) states and UTs are Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Chandigarh and Lakshadweep; front runner ( 65%– 99%) states and UTs are Daman and Diu, Kerala, Delhi, Tripura, Meghalaya, Uttarakhand, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Andaman and Nicober Islands, Punjab, Goa, Chhattisgarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Jammu and Kashmir, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Puducherry, Telangana, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar and Jharkhand; performer (50% to 64%) states are Uttar Pradesh and Odisha. As per 2018, deficit of performance towards achievement of SDG 6.2 target in 2030 agenda in States and UTs in India are Daman and Diu 0.1%, Kerala 0.2%, Delhi 0.5%, Tripura 0.6%, Meghalaya 1.5%, Uttarakhand 2.1%, Assam 2.2%, Himachal Pradesh 2.6%, Haryana 2.7%, Andaman and Nicober Islands 3.4%, Punjab 3.9%, Goa 7%, Chhattisgarh 7.4%, Dadra and Nagar Haveli 7.7%, Jammu and Kashmir 11.7%, West Bengal 11.9%, Arunachal Pradesh 12%, Puducherry 12.5%, Telangana 12.7%, Maharashtra 12.8%, Gujarat 14.2%, Andhra Pradesh 16%, Karnataka 18.5%, Tamil Nadu 21.5%, Madhya Pradesh 22.5%, Rajasthan 26.3%, Bihar 32.8%, Jharkhand 33.6%, Uttar Pradesh 37.7% and Odisha 45.1%. The result of the Percentage of blocks/mandals/talisie safe extraction of groundwater (SDG 6.4 and 6.6) in India (National level and state level) as per NSS 76 th round data. Infections and illnesses tend to be exacerbated by a lack of latrine facilities. Women and girls are usually disadvantaged due to several socio-cultural and economic factors that deny them equal rights with males. They have distinct physical needs from males, but they also have a greater need for privacy and safety regarding personal cleanliness. Actions such as going long distances in search of a good defecation site and carrying water are a sign of added load, which may be physically unpleasant and hard for women, particularly pregnant women [ 19 ].

Figure  5 showing the Percentage of blocks/mandals/talisie safe extraction of groundwater. As per 2017, the performance of States and UTs in India towards the Achievement of SDG 6.4 and 6.6 in 2030 agenda based on indicator percentage of blocks/mandals/taluka are safe extraction of groundwater (groundwater extraction does not exceed the total annual groundwater recharge, which is below 70% extraction) shows achiever (100%) States and UTs are Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, Dadra and Nagar Haveli; Front Runner (65%-99%) are Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Odisha, Jharkhand, Total UT's, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Lakshadweep, Uttar Pradesh; performer (50%-64%) are India, Karnataka, Daman and Diu, Puducherry; aspirant (0%-49%) are Telangana, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Delhi and Chandigarh. InIndia 63% blocks/mandals/taluka are safe extraction of groundwater.

Percentage of blocks/mandals/taluka are safe extraction of groundwater in States & UTs in India,2017. Source: CGWB annual report 2019–2020, graph prepared by the author

Result of the percentage of groundwater extraction (SDG 6.4) in India (National level and state level) as per 2017:

As per the "National Compilation on Dynamic Ground Water Resources of India (2017)" report by the CGWB, groundwater extraction below 70 per cent is considered a Safe extraction. Over extraction of groundwater annually (groundwater extraction exceed extractable groundwater annually) is found in Punjab (165.80%), Rajasthan (139.87%), Haryana (136.91%) and Delhi (120.00%); safe groundwater extraction is found in Karnataka, Telangana, Gujarat, India, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala, Daman and Diu, Lakshadweep, Bihar, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Jharkhand, Assam, Tripura, Mizoram, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim. In India, 63.33% of groundwater is extracted annually as per 2017. The States and UTs with safe groundwater extraction achieve the SDG 6.4 target based on the indicator – the annual percentage of groundwater extraction from extractable groundwater resources. Figure  6 showing the Percentage of groundwater extraction from extractable groundwater resource annually in States and UTs.

Percentage of groundwater extraction from extractable groundwater resource annually in States & UTs in India,2017. Source: CGWB annual report 2019–2020, graph prepared by the author

"In India as per 2017 Total Annual Groundwater Recharge is 431.86 billion cubic meters (bcm) out of which Annual Extractable Ground Water Resource is 392.7 bcm and Current Annual Ground Water Extraction is 248. 7 bcm" (CGWB annual report 2019–2020).

Result of the overall performance of SDG 6 in India (National level and state level) 2019 – 2021.

Table 2 shows the achievements towards SDG 6 of all States and UTs. Overall goal score of the indicator—Percentage of the rural population having improved source of drinking water (SDG 6.1), percentage of individual household toilets constructed against target (SBM(G)) (SDG 6.2), percentage of districts verified to be ODF (SBM(G)) (SDG 6.2), the school has a separate toilet for boys and girl (%) ( SDG 6.2), percentage of Household Safe Disposal of Liquid waste (SDG 6.a), percentage of blocks/ mandals/ taluka having safe groundwater extraction (SDG 6.4) and percentage of blocks/ mandals/ taluka over-exploited (6.4) reveal that states and UTs belonging in achiever stage are Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Ladakh, Lakshadweep, Sikkim and Goa. The states and UTs belonging to front runner stage (66–99%) are Mizoram, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Jharkhand, Odisha, Kerala, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Jammu & Kashmir, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand, Assam, West Bengal, Nagaland, Tripura, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Daman and Diu, Puducherry, Telangana, Karnataka, Manipur, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan and Punjab. Delhi is the only Union Territory belonging to the aspirant stage.

As per January 2021, the performance of States and UTs in Rural towards Achievement of SDG 6.1 based on indicator Percentage of the rural population having improved source of drinking water shows achiever States and UTs are; Ladakh, Sikkim, Goa, Mizoram, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Gujarat, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Telangana, Karnataka, Manipur and Himachal Pradesh; front runner are Jammu & Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Odisha, Bihar, Puducherry, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Tripura and Assam.

From Fig.  7 , we can see that most of the states and union territories belong to the green colour shade. That means all these states and union territories are in the Front Runner (65–99%) stage as per the Goal Score Indicator (GSI). Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Ladakh, Lakshadweep, Sikkim and Goa are all states and Union Territories observing blue colour shade, indicating that all these states and union territories have reached the achiever stage as per the Goal Score Indicator (GSI). Delhi is the only union territory where orange colour is observed, indicating that the union territory is still at the performer (50–64%) stage.

Overall performance of different indicators of SDG 6 (Goal score of the indicator). Sources: Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Ministry of Jal Shakti, January 2021; Swachh Bharat Mission Gramin Dashboard,2020; NARSS round 3, 2019–2020; map prepared by the author

Figure  8 shows the spatial distribution of households having access to improved sources of drinking water and Fig.  9 shows the spatial distribution of households having access to latrine facilities in States and UTs in India.

Spatial distribution of households having access to improved sources of drinking water (%) in states & UTs in India, 2018. Source: NSS 76th round (July—December 2018), map prepared by the author

Spatial distribution of households having access to latrine facility (%) in states & UTs in India, 2018. Source: NSS 76th round (July—December 2018), map prepared by the author

From Fig.  8 , light green indicates states and union territories with 95–99% coverage of improved drinking water sources. Moreover, deep green indicates those states and union territories with more than 99% coverage of improved drinking water sources. The red colour indicates below 90% coverage of improved drinking water sources. Furthermore, orange indicates those states and union territories with 90–95% coverage of improved drinking water sources. All South Indian states except Kerala fall into more than 95% coverage of improved drinking water sources. Almost all States and Union Territories above and near the Tropic of Cancer have < 95% coverage of Improved Sources of Drinking Water except Chhattisgarh and Gujarat. Almost all states of North India except Jammu and Kashmir have more than 95% coverage of improved drinking water sources.

From Fig.  9 , light green indicates states and union territories with 80–90% coverage of access to latrine facilities. Moreover, deep green indicates those states and union territories with 90–100% coverage of access to latrine facilities. The red indicates below 50–60% coverage of access to latrine facilities. Furthermore, pink indicates those states and union territories with 60–70% coverage of access to latrine facilities. Whitish Grey indicates states and union territories with 70–80% coverage of access to latrine facilities. Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Odisha fall into less than 70% coverage of access to latrine facilities. Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are found to have 70–80% coverage of access to latrine facilities. The rest of the states and union territories have found more than 80% coverage of access to latrine facilities.As per NSS data in 2018, 30.5% of households collect safe drinking water from the hand pump; in the case of urban areas 40.9% of households use piped water into the dwelling; and in rural areas 42.9% of households use the hand pump. 88.7% of households have access to a principle source of drinking water, and 95.5% use improved drinking water sources throughout the year. 100% of households having access to improved sources of drinking water (SDG 6.1 target achiever) in Chandigarh, Daman and Diu, Sikkim and Kerala has the lowest percentage 56.7%. In India, 79.8% of households have access to latrine facilities, whereas urban area has a higher percentage of household having access to latrine facility 96.2%, than rural areas (40.6%). The female population are more using toilets than the male population. 100% of households have access to latrine facilities (SDG 6.2 target achiever) in Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Chandigarh, Lakshadweep; and the lowest found in Odisha 54.9%. Safe groundwater extraction from extractable groundwater resources annually (SDG 6.4 target achiever) in States and UTs in India, 2017 are found in Karnataka, Telangana, Gujarat, India, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala, Daman and Diu, Lakshadweep, Bihar, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Goa, Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Jharkhand, Assam, Tripura, Mizoram, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim. In India, 63.33% of groundwater is extracted annually as per 2017. As of 2020, all the States and UTs in Rural India 100% individual household toilets constructed against target (SBM(G)) and 100% districts verified to be ODF (SBM(G)) (SDG 6.2 target achiever). As per January 2021, 100% rural population has improved source of drinking water (SDG 6.1 target achiever) in Ladakh, Sikkim, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Mizoram, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Telangana, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Manipur. As per 2019–2020, 100% school having a separate toilet for boys and girl (SDG 6.2 target achiever) in Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Puducherry. Goa achieves 100% safe disposal of liquid waste. Overall goal score expresses all the states belong to front runner stage (65% to 99%). Based on SDG 6.1 and SDG 6.2, it is observed that in Rural India achiever (100%) state is Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands in 2019–2021.Since the population is increasing, the number of sustainable water resources is not. Future population expansion will likely result in further reduced renewable water available per capita. Most changes in India's overall and rural regions, moderate changes in the world's overall and rural areas, and very little change in both India's and the world's urban areas have been seen in terms of access to essential drinking water services [ 20 ]. The top eight states are Gujarat, Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Telangana; the bottom eight are Delhi, Uttarakhand, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Kerala, and West Bengal. Due to their location in the Ganges basin, most of the eight lowest performing states have abundant water resources, in contrast to the higher performing states, which are comparatively water scarce. Severe droughts have recently affected Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Telangana. From an endowment standpoint, this focuses the attention of water concerns in India toward improved management and control of water resources. The top five states in terms of performance are Goa, Delhi, Kerala, Gujarat, and Telangana, whereas the worst five are Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Jharkhand. In Jharkhand, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh, childhood malnutrition and stunting have increased due to poor sanitation services. Individually, these indices point to significant disparities in access to sanitary facilities and clean water throughout the states. Few states have been able to implement comprehensive planning to meet the key objectives [ 21 , 22 ].

The WHO/UNICEF, joint monitoring program estimated in 2012 that 60% of the world's open defecation occurs in India. While this trend is declining rapidly in other countries, it continues stubbornly in India. According to the 2011 Census of India data, about 90% of rural people in India defecate in the open. Social context always plays a vital role in countries like India, where households with higher income and better education are more likely to use latrines and toilets. Previous research has shown that Muslims are 25% less likely to defecate in the open than Hindus. Although Hindus have 6% more per capita consumption than non-Hindus, Hindus are less likely to use latrines [ 23 ].

Open defecation at the individual level is a more accurate reflection of the disease environment than latrine ownership at the household level. It is particularly true in rural India, where earlier research has shown that many residents of homes with latrines do not use their latrines. The literature indicates that the Indian government's policy of subsidizing pit latrines has not achieved large-scale behaviour change and may still represent a misguided focus. This policy has continued mainly under the current Swachh Bharat Mission (2014–present). Despite the evidence, understanding latrine demand is critical to understanding latrine uptake [ 24 , 25 ]. Sanitation practices and social norms receive minimal consideration in sanitation programmes. Sanitation policy would probably be more effective if it addressed the underlying social environment in which judgments about where to defecate and what kind of latrine is socially acceptable since even the well-educated and wealthiest households adopt latrines at such a slow pace [ 26 ].

After lunch of Swachh Bharat Mission and other programmes related to sanitation and drinking water, sanitation coverage and accessibility of drinking water rise which has reinforcement substantially in accelerating the Achievement of Sustainable Development goal 6. States and UTs having the lower status of sanitation, drinking water, groundwater and hygiene need to improve those condition by increasing availability, accessibility and affordability of the WASH facility. Localisation or bottom-up approach by giving responsibility to rural and urban local body enforced Achievement of SDG 6. Total water withdrawal per capita was 576.96 m 3 in 1975, which was 602.3 m 3 in 2010. Total water withdrawal has increased by about 3.07% in these few decades. From 1962 to 2014, 64.29% per capita of total internal renewable water resources decreased. From 1979 to 2011, 18.4% increase in water stress. To fulfil essential human needs and attain sustainable development aims, central and local governments must collaborate. These initiatives and actions for recyclable and reusable, sufficient, and treated water, as well as enhancing sanitation and hygiene infrastructure, are linked to creating opportunities that improve economic sustainability. Additionally, establishing sanitation, hygiene and drinking water infrastructure in households grants social dignity, which can assist in social sustainability.

Those States and Union Territories that have not achieved the goal of 100% overall SDG-6 should fulfil the goals through a specific regional development approach. If successful locally, it will help the country's overall progress on a large scale. India and other underdeveloped and developing countries need to fulfil the goals of SDG-6. If successful in achieving the target, it will accelerate overall health improvement and help reduce regional disparities. Developed countries need to help developing and underdeveloped countries. Finally, the various organizations of the United Nations should try to solve the problems at the local level through each country-specific regional approach that will accelerate the overall achievement.

To prevent and reduce acute and chronic illness death and sustain a healthy life, we need to increase awareness and facilities to access safe and adequate drinking water, sanitation and hygiene. For raising awareness, different days are celebrated on 22 March as World Water Day for Water, 19 November as World Toilet Day for sanitation and 15 October as Global Handwashing Day for hygiene. Still, we need to maintain safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene all day. 

Availability of data and materials

The study is based on secondary data analysis. No data was collected for this study. The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are available in the NSS (Download Reports | Ministry of Statistics and Program Implementation | Government Of India), Central ground water control board (Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation, GOI (jalshakti-ddws.gov.in)), NARSS (Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation, GOI (jalshakti-ddws.gov.in)) NITI Aayog (Reports on SDG | NITI Aayog) repository.

Abbreviations

National Sample Survey

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The authors are grateful to NSS and NARSS for making the data available for this study.

We did not receive any grants from any funding agency in public, commercial, or non-profit sectors for conducting this study.

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Asraful Alam

Professor of Geography & Director, UGC-HRDC, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, 700019, India

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Biswas, S., Dandapat, B., Alam, A. et al. India's achievement towards sustainable Development Goal 6 (Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all) in the 2030 Agenda. BMC Public Health 22 , 2142 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14316-0

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NITI Aayog Releases SDG India Index and Dashboard 2020–21

The third edition of the SDG India Index and Dashboard 2020–21 was released by NITI Aayog today. Since its inaugural launch in 2018, the indexhas been comprehensively documenting and rankingthe progress made by States and Union Territories towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Now in its third year, the index has become the primary tool for monitoring progress on the SDGs in the country and has simultaneously fostered competition among the States and Union Territories.

NITI Aayog ViceChairperson Dr Rajiv Kumar launched the report titled, SDG India Index and Dashboard 2020–21: Partnerships in the Decade of Action , in the presence of Dr Vinod Paul, Member (Health), NITI Aayog, Shri Amitabh Kant, CEO, NITI Aayog, and Ms.Sanyukta Samaddar,Adviser (SDGs), NITI Aayog. Designed and developed by NITI Aayog, the preparation of the index followed extensive consultations with the primary stakeholders—the States and Union Territories; the UN agencies led by United Nations in India;Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), and the key Union Ministries.

“Our effort of monitoring SDGs through the SDG India Index & Dashboard continues to be widely noticed and applauded around the world. It remains a rare data-driven initiative to rank our States and Union Territories by computing a composite index on the SDGs. We are confident that it will remain a matter of aspiration and emulation and help propel monitoring efforts at the international level,”Dr. Rajiv Kumar, Vice Chairman, NITI Aayog said during the launch.

With one-third of the journey towards achieving the 2030 Agenda behind us, this edition of the index report focuses on the significance of partnerships as its theme. Shri Amitabh Kant, CEO, NITI Aayog said, “The report reflects on the partnerships we have built and strengthened during our SDG efforts. The narrative throws light on how collaborative initiatives can result in better outcomes and greater impacts.”

On thetheme of partnerships which is central to Goal 17, Dr. Vinod Paul, Member (Health), NITI Aayog, said,“It is clear that by working togetherwe can build a more resilient and sustainable future, where no one is left behind.”

“From covering 13 Goals with 62 indicators in its first edition in 2018, the third edition covers 16 Goals on 115 quantitative indicators, with a qualitative assessment on Goal 17, thereby reflecting our continuous efforts towards refining this important tool,” said Ms. Sanyukta Samaddar, Adviser (SDGs), NITI Aayog.

NITI Aayog has the twin mandate to oversee the adoption and monitoring of the SDGs in the country, and also promote competitive and cooperative federalism among States and UTs. The index represents the articulation of the comprehensive nature of the Global Goals under the 2030 Agenda while being attuned to the national priorities. The modular nature of the index has become a policy tool and a ready reckoner for gauging progress of States and UTs on the expansive nature of the Goals, including health, education, gender, economic growth, institutions, climate change and environment.

From right to left: Dr Vinod Paul, Member (Health);Dr Rajiv Kumar,Vice Chairperson; Shri Amitabh Kant, CEO; and Ms. Sanyukta Samaddar, Adviser (SDGs), NITI Aayog

SDG India Index andDashboard 2020–21: An Introduction to the Third Edition

The SDG India Index 2020–21, developed in collaboration with the United Nations in India, tracks progress of all States and UTs on 115 indicators that are aligned to MoSPI’s National Indicator Framework (NIF). The initiative to refine and improve this important tool with each edition has been steered by the need to continuously benchmark performance and measure progress, and to account for the availability of latest SDG-related data on States and UTs. The process of selecting these 115 indicators included multipleconsultations with Union Ministries. Feedback was sought from all States and UTs and as the essential stakeholder and audience of this localisation tool, they played a crucial role in shaping the index by enriching the feedback process with localised insights and experience from the ground.

The SDG India Index 2020–21 is more robust than the previous editions on account of wider coverage of targets and indicators with greater alignment with the NIF.The 115 indicators incorporate16 out of 17 SDGs, with a qualitative assessment on Goal 17,andcover 70 SDG targets. This is an improvement over the 2018–19 and 2019–20 editions of the index, which had utilised 62 indicators across 39 targets and 13 Goals, and 100 indicators across 54 targets and 16 Goals, respectively.

The SDG India Index computes goal-wise scores onthe 16 SDGs for each State and Union Territory. Overall State and UT scores are generated from goal-wise scores to measure aggregate performance of the sub-national unit based on its performance across the 16 SDGs. These scores range between 0–100, and if a State/UT achieves a score of 100, it signifies it has achieved the 2030 targets. The higher the score of a State/UT, the greater the distance to target achieved.

States and Union Territories are classified as below based on their SDG India Index score:

• Aspirant: 0–49
• Performer: 50–64
• Front-Runner: 65–99
• Achiever: 100

Overall Results and Findings

The country’s overall SDG score improved by 6 points—from 60 in 2019 to 66 in 2020–21. This positive stride towards achieving the targets is largely driven by exemplary country-wide performance in Goal 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and Goal 7(Affordable and Clean Energy), where the composite Goal scoresare 83 and 92, respectively.

Goal-wise India results, 2019–20 and 2020–21:

The top-fiveand bottom-fiveStates in SDG India Index 2020–21:

Performance and Ranking of States and UTs on SDGs 2020–21, including change in score from last year:

Mizoram, Haryana, and Uttarakhand are the top gainers in 2020–21in terms of improvement in score from 2019, with an increase of 12, 10 and 8 points, respectively.

Top Fast-Moving States (Score-Wise):

While in 2019, ten States/UTs belonged to the category of Front-Runners (score in the range 65–99, including both) twelve more States/UTs find themselves in this category in 2020–21. Uttarakhand, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Mizoram, Punjab, Haryana, Tripura, Delhi, Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh graduated to the category of Front-Runners (scores between 65 and 99, including both).

Asection of the SDG India Index report is dedicated to all the 36 Statesand UTs of the country. These State and UT profiles will be very useful for policymakers, scholars and the general public, to analyse the performance on the 115 indicators across all Goals.

Sample of a State/UT profile from the report:

It is followed by a unique section on the progress on SDG localisation in States and Union Territories. It provides an update on the institutional structures, SDG vision documents, State and District Indicator Frameworks and other initiatives taken by the State and UT governments.

The SDG India Index2020–21 is also live on an online dashboard, which has cross-sectoral relevance across policy, civil society, business, and academia. The index is designed to function as a tool for focused policy dialogue, formulation and implementation through development actions,which are pegged to the globally recognisable metric of the SDG framework.The index and dashboardwill also facilitate in identifying crucial gaps related to tracking the SDGs and the need for India to develop its statistical systems at the State/UT levels.As another milestone in the SDG localisation journey of the country, the Index is presently being adapted and developed by NITI Aayogatthe granular level of districts for the upcoming North Eastern Region District SDG Index.

A snapshot of the SDG India Index 2020–21 dashboard:

NITI Aayog has the mandate for coordinating the adoption and monitoring of SDGs at the national and sub-national levels. The SDG India Index and Dashboard represents NITI Aayog’s efforts inencouraging evidence-based policymaking by supporting States and UTs to benchmark their progress, identify the priority areas and share good practices.

The full SDG India Index report can be accessed here: https://wgz.short.gy/SDGIndiaIndex

The interactive dashboard can be accessed here: http://sdgindiaindex.niti.gov.in /

Sustainable Development Goals

The Sustainable Development Goals lay out a uniquely ambitious and comprehensive agenda for global development by 2030. NITI Aayog is the nodal institution for achieving SDGs in the country, leading the 2030 Agenda with the spirit of cooperative and competitive federalism.

It monitors the national and sub-national levels progress through various mechanisms like the SDG India Index and Dashboard, Multidimensional Poverty Index: Progress review 2023, North Eastern Region Index and Dashboard and the likes. Localization of the SDGs is the key to reach furthest behind first, and therefore a crucial mandate of the vertical. These efforts have strengthened the statistical systems and developed a monitoring framework covering all the 17 Goals and more than 100 indicators across the country. With this refined and comprehensive edition, we aim to cement India’s place as a trailblazer in SDG achievement.

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EDITORIAL ANALYSIS : India, its SDG pledge goal, and the strategy to apply       

Source: The Hindu

• Prelims: Current events of international importance, SDG, covid-19, G20, G7, etc.
• Mains GS Paper II: Bilateral, regional and global grouping and agreements involving India or affecting India’s interests, Significance of G20 countries etc

ARTICLE HIGHLIGHTS

• He expressed concern that “progress on Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) seems to be slowing down”.

INSIGHTS ON THE ISSUE

Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs):

• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) , also known as the Global Goals, were adopted by the United Nations in 2015 .
• A universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that by 2030 all people enjoy peace and prosperity.
• It is a set of 17 SDGs which recognize that action in one area will affect outcomes in others and that development must balance social, economic, and environmental sustainability.
• Countries have committed to prioritizing progress for those who are furthest behind.
• The SDGs are designed to end poverty, hunger, AIDS, and discrimination against women.
• The SDGs framework sets targets for 231 unique indicators across 17 SDG goals related to economic development, social welfare and environmental sustainability, to be met by 2030.

India’s progress(On 33 welfare indicators , covering nine SDGs):

• neonatal and under-five mortality
• full vaccination
• improved sanitation
• electricity access
• They have substantially improved in the last five years.
• Neonatal and under-five mortality are currently both ‘On-Target’ for the country, 286 and 208 districts (out of 707 districts), respectively, are not.
• Significant progress on access to improved sanitation excludes 129 district s that are not on course to meet this SDG indicator.
• Indicators such as eliminating adolescent pregnancy, reducing multidimensional poverty, and women having bank accounts have improved across a vast majority of the districts between the years 2016 and 2021.
• Despite a national policy push for clean fuel for cooking, more than two-thirds (479) of districts remain ‘Off-Target’.
• Some 415 and 278 districts are ‘Off-Target’ for improved water and handwashing facilities,

Major concerns regarding women:

• At the current pace, more than three-fourths (539) of districts will not be able to reduce the prevalence of girl child marriage to the SDG target of 5(zero point five)% by 2030.
• Critical and related indicators such as teenage pregnancy (15-19 years) and partner violence (physical and sexual) continues.
• Despite the overall expansion of mobile phone access in India (93% of households) , only 56% women report owning a mobile phone, with 567 districts remaining ‘Off-Target’

Lessons from the COVID-19 approach:

• Designing and implementing a policy response t o a pressing issue is best viewed as an “optimisation problem” relying on political will, responsive administration, adequate resources, and sound data.
• India adopted an “optimisation” approach to the COVID-19 pandemic and thus, it was given the focus and resources necessary to succeed.
• It was critical to the success of both India’s COVID-19 vaccination programme and its efficient rollout of a comprehensive relief package.
• The political-administrative synergy was willing to learn and undertake course corrections in real-time.
• Following these examples, India must put in place a coordinated, public data platform for population health management
• By consolidating its many siloed platforms into an integrated digital resource for district administrators, as well as State and national policy makers.
• It was a mix of spending to provide direct in-kind and economic support
• Measures aimed at revitalizing the economy, small businesses, and agriculture.
• This was critical in blunting the adverse effects of COVID-19, especially for vulnerable and the socio-economically disadvantaged groups.
• It measurably demonstrated the value of a proactive, government-supported programme specifically aimed at improving people’s well-being.

Way Forward

• There is considerable confidence in India becoming the third largest economy in the world over the next decade.
• Creating a mission-oriented ethos that is assessment-oriented and which provides adequate support for accomplishing India’s district-level SDGs is now urgently needed.
• India needs to innovate a new policy path in order to meet the aspirations of its people in the decade ahead
• To succeed in meeting its SDG targets, especially those related to population health and well-being, basic quality infrastructure, and gender equality , a similar concerted, pioneering, nation-wide effort would be the need of the hour.

QUESTION FOR PRACTICE

Reforming the government delivery system through the Direct Benefit Transfer Scheme is a progressive step, but it has its limitations too. Comment.(UPSC 2022) (200 WORDS, 10 MARKS)

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• 26 Mar 2024

IFC India: Financing the Climate Transition in India

Professor Vikram Gandhi’s Immersive Field Course (IFC) “Development while Decarbonizing: India’s Path to Net-Zero" delved into the critical aspect of decarbonization and sustainability goals amid India's rapid development. The course presented an opportunity for students to advance their knowledge of sustainability efforts, decarbonization, and net zero in the context of a broader development agenda. The class culminated in a series of site visits in January 2024 in Mumbai and Bangalore and this is one of 14 student essays that highlights their reflections on uncovering sustainable solutions across the country.

Our recent field trip to India provided valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities associated with decarbonization, particularly focusing on the financing aspects. Based on a discussion with India Climate Collaborative, we outlined four challenges that the country faces in its journey towards a net-zero target by 2070:

1) Funding Gap – Where is the Money Coming From?

A study by the CEEW (Singh & Sidhu, 2021) reveals that India needs USD 10.1 trillion between 2020 and 2070 to achieve its net-zero target. Conventional sources of capital are expected to provide USD 6.6 trillion, leaving a substantial investment gap of USD 3.5 trillion. To bridge this gap, India requires investment support worth USD 1.4 trillion until 2070, with an annual average of USD 28 billion over the next 50 years. Key sectors such as electricity, hydrogen, and vehicles are the focus of this estimate, presenting a roadmap for sustainable investment.

Is this gap unsurmountable? We believe there are reasons to feel hopeful - It all depends on how we choose to contextualize. Benchmarking the funding gap against average income per capita in rich countries (USD 40 thousand per year) offers optimism. If individuals in rich countries contribute USD 700 each, we could potentially meet the funding needs.

2) Where is the Current Funding Going?

80% of the allocated funds are directed towards energy and mobility, accounting for 40% of emissions. Sectors such as agriculture, food systems, industry, steel, and cement, collectively responsible for 60% of emissions, are not receiving adequate funding. Notably, two-thirds of venture capital (VC) is channeled into electric vehicles (EVs), indicating a disproportionate focus.

3) Global North and Global South Disparities

Despite the potential for higher social returns in developing countries, 80% of climate finance still flows to developed nations. The pivotal moment for India lies in the current decisions shaping whether it follows a high or low carbon pathway.

4) Adaptation vs. Mitigation

Only 10% of the allocated funds are dedicated to adaptation efforts, highlighting the need for a more balanced approach. Striking a balance between mitigation and adaptation is crucial for addressing the immediate impacts of climate change.

Learning from Site Visits

After spending extensive time researching our sites, our team was very excited to visit them in person in Mumbai! We attended sessions at the famous Bombay Gymkhana club in Mumbai. We had impressive guests from each site that gave tremendous overviews on GEAPP and BEST. After the presentations, our team led a site visit in person at BEST.

GEAPP Field Visit

Overview: GEAPP is an alliance of entrepreneurs, governments, technology, policy, and financing partners working together to support developing countries shift to a clean energy model that ensures universal energy access while enabling the global community to meet critical climate goals during the next decade. It was founded by Rockefeller and Ikea foundations and the Bezos Earth Fund. GEAPP launched at COP26 with aligned investments of $10B+. It is an alliance of preeminent philanthropic, government, donor, multilateral development banks, development finance institutions and private sector partners working to improve people’s lives through an inclusive and just transition to renewable energy for all. It is made up of anchor partners, investment partners, and delivery partners, as well as the country partners we work with.

Key Objectives: a. Help avoid or avert over 4 billion tons of greenhouse gasses b. Extend sustainable, reliable, productive-use energy to 1 billion underserved people c. Enable 150 million green jobs that generate inclusive economic growth

• Coordination Challenges: GEAPP recognizes that the primary challenge lies in coordinating diverse stakeholders to reach a tipping point in the renewable energy sector. Convincing the government, despite being a crucial leader, proves to be a significant hurdle. Overcoming this challenge is essential for effective sectoral leadership.

• Blended Finance Criticism: There's a notable criticism of blended finance, particularly using philanthropic capital to de-risk private investments. The response emphasizes investing philanthropic funds in systemic changes, acknowledging the pragmatic but imperfect nature of this approach for ecosystem building.

• FDI Incentives: To encourage Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in renewable projects, GEAPP engaged in central government guarantees to private actors to address issues arising from state-level payment delays. This approach acknowledges the federal system's complexities but raises concerns about potential inefficiencies in coordination.

• Innovation Imperative: Given the Western world's development on cheap fossil fuel, GEAPP highlights the challenges a need for innovative approaches in the absence of a playbook for developing without relying on inexpensive fuel sources.

BEST Field Visit:

Overview: BEST is a civic transport and electricity provider public body based in Mumbai and operates one of India's largest fleets of buses. “The Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport (BEST) operates buses in Brihan, Mumbai, Navi Mumbai, and Thane area, and distributes electricity in Mumbai. It is an autonomous state owned enterprise under the Mumbai Municipal Corporation. It was formally known as Bombay Electric Supply & Transport and changed its name to Brihanmumbai Electric Supply & Transport in 1995. It was founded in 1873 and is based in Mumbai, India.” “BEST has existed for over 150 years as the transportation system for Mumbai, connecting around 3.5 million people daily with economic opportunities and essential services. As the city has grown, BEST is putting significant effort into expanding its transport options to accommodate increased demand for transportation.

Key Objectives: a. BEST will be servicing 6.5 million people by 2025 b. Transition entire fleet to electric (10k+ busses) c. Over a period of 10 years, they will save approximately 6,000 million liters of fuel and reduce CO2 emissions by 6.5 million [metric] tons

• Operational Model Shift: BEST's shift from a capital expenditure model to an operational expenditure (wet lease or dry lease) model is recognized as a strategic move. This shift allows for rapid scaling of the bus fleet without the need for substantial upfront capital.

• Collaboration with Private Actors: While BEST excels in expanding the government fleet, there's an interest in exploring ways to collaborate with private bus operators. Incentivizing private actors to transition to electric buses could significantly amplify the impact on overall emissions reduction.

• Positive Brand Perception: BEST, as a government-run company, stands out for its positive brand sentiment and customer perception. This positive image contributes to the success of their initiatives. Understanding and replicating this positive perception could be a valuable consideration for other similar entities globally. Their demand far surpasses their supply. So this new financing model will allow them to rapidly grow their fleet.

Overall, our site visits coupled with our research provided us with a broad understanding of the challenges and solutions to tackling the financing gap for the climate transition in India! Being hand on and talking to the operators far outweighed all prior research we did. It was eye opening to see organizations in India have adopted novel solutions to magnify their impact in the climate space and achieve climate sustainability goals. We are excited to go back over the coming years and watch the progression!

• Bezos earth fund: https://www.bezosearthfund.org/our-programs/global-energy-alliance-forpeople-and-planetgeapp#:~:text=Founded%20by%20Rockefeller%20and%20Ikea,enabling%20the%20global%20co mmunity%20to • Energy Alliance.org: https://www.energyalliance.org/news-insights/global-energy-alliance-forpeople-and-planet-reports-strong-first-year-working-to-boost-energy-access-and-reduceemissions-in-12-countries/ • Livemint.com: https://www.livemint.com/industry/energy/global-energy-alliance-partners-withindian-railways-ashoka-university-and-mahapreit-to-achieve-clean-energy-independence-inindia-by-2047-11683198064723.html • Netzerowired.energy: https://netzerowired.energy/geapp-announces-key-partnerships-tosupport-indias-clean-energy-goals/ • News.decresearch.com: https://news.decresearch.com/geapp-announces-major-partnershipsfor-supporting-clean-energy-goals-in-india/ • ADB.org: https://www.adb.org/news/adb-geapp-announce-35-million-energy-access-andtransition-south-and-southeast-asia • BEST: www.bestundertaking.com: https://www.bestundertaking.com/in/iis6954.asp?lang=en • Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihanmumbai_Electric_Supply_and_Transport • CB Insights: https://www.cbinsights.com/company/brihanmumbai-electric-supply-and-transport • Infa.com: https://infra.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/urban-transportation/bests-entire-fleet-will-have-electric-buses-by-2028-aaditya-thackeray/86775154 • Thecityfix.com: https://thecityfix.com/blog/building-capacity-to-scale-zero-emission-buses/ • Zoom Info: https://www.zoominfo.com/c/best-undertaking/357978137 • The ceo magazine: https://www.theceomagazine.com/executive-interviews/transportation-logistics/lokesh-chandra-2/ • Scribd.com: https://www.scribd.com/document/553185934/Urban-Trnasport • New World Encyclopedia: https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Brihanmumbai_Electricity_Supply_and_Transpo rt

India’s ancient philosophy on holistic education and its relevance for target 4.7 of the United Nations sustainable development goals

• Perspective
• Open access
• Published: 02 April 2024
• Volume 5 , article number  51 , ( 2024 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Shilpa Khatri Babbar 1 &
• Lara Johannsdottir   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5912-3337 2  

The paper's objective is to study one of the world´s early living civilizations, i.e., India, focusing primarily on its rich ancient philosophy with specific reference to holistic education to understand how it may act as a prototype for target 4.7 of the Sustainable Development Goals. The study uses Interpretive sociology to understand the meanings contextually from the insider's perspective. Extensive and intensive usage of symbolism in Indian philosophy is studied through social constructionism and phenomenology. India’s ancient philosophy on holistic education has a relevance to modern approaches to address sustainability issues such as by addressing specific aspects of the SDGs, or the SDGs holistically, given the goals interconnects, and potential synergies and trade-offs, thereby serving as a prototype for target 4.7 of SDG 4. The findings also revel a lack of connection to higher power of spirituality. The originality of the study is the effort enabling comparative analysis across contexts, by placing the SDGs in the context of India’s ancient philosophy on holistic education, befitting the expectations of SDGs, specifically target 4.7. Authors are aware of the tendency of the “book view” (Indological Approach) to homogenize but this is in tune with the papers objective as the intention is to draw an ideal–typical proto-type of holistic education.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

The world is witnessing massive environmental and societal changes that are impacting human and non-human species, societies, and ecosystems and will continue to do so for a long time to come. Of “nine planetary boundaries within which humanity can continue to develop and thrive for generations to come” six have already been crossed [ 1 , 2 ]. According to the doughnut economy perspective, the societal and economic aspects are added, claiming that humanity should be within defined boundaries of social foundations, and ecological ceiling, as that is the “safe and just space for humanity” where it can thrive [ 3 ], p. 4,2017). This is not the case given the multiple crises addressed in the Paris Agreement and the [ 4 ]Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs) [ 5 , 6 ]. Generally, the SDGs are presented as a set of 17 goals, with 169 targets and an indicator framework including 231 indicators aimed at actions [ 7 ] “to end poverty and inequality, protect the planet, and ensure that all people enjoy health, justice and prosperity” within the targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [ 8 , 9 ]. These global goals have also been presented in a “wedding cake model”, where four of the goals are relevant to biosphere, serving as the cake’s foundation for eight goals relevant to the society, and four that are pertinent to the economy. Goal 17, partnership for the goals, then connects the parts of the model together [ 10 ]. Pope Francis [ 11 ], in his Encyclical Letter Laudato si’ [Ls] on care for our Common Home, has tied spirituality to sustainability through the seven Laudato Si’ goals which are 1) Responses to the Cry of the Earth, 2) Responses to Cry of the Poor, 3) Ecological Economics, 4) Adoption of Sustainable Lifestyles, 5) Ecological Education, 6) Ecological Spirituality, and 7) Community Resilience and Empowerment [ 12 ]. The call for a rescue plan for people and the planet is getting constantly louder, and in this context education plays a crucial role [ 6 ]. The idea about spirituality and the SDGs has also been presented in a framework showing how being spiritual influences the cycle between well-being and sustainability [ 13 ].

Every society has some essential normative orientations or ideologies that lay down the foundational structure on which the societies ‘ought to be’ built. These include the fundamental ontological perspective/s or philosophies which in the case of India began as oral transmission of lived experiences from one generation to another. Later, these were written down as non-technical narratives, in the Epics, justifying and lending support and coherence to the foundational oral philosophical ontologies. Honward [ 14 ] argues that this orally transmitted indigenous knowledge specific to certain communities develops into systems over time, and reflects the ties between social, cultural, and ecological systems [ 15 ]. French philosopher Michel Foucault [ 16 ] in his work introduces the concept of ‘episteme’ as unconscious rules that determine the social observances, conventions, and the possibility of discourses. Though he treated this concept as a purely Western sixteenth century phenomenon, if we eliminate the specificity of geography and historicity, the concept fits well into the current context of the paper. Consciously carved ontologies in India, over time, have indeed evolved into everyday life as unconscious rules, governing all forms of knowledge.

Though these ideologies have been assembled over time and space by individual members of the society they have acquired power beyond the individual members. Relevant epistemological perspectives evolve to theorize, conceptualize, and explain social reality as it exists at the empirical level. In societies, like India, where the collective is or is intended to be given primacy over the individuals, Western scholarship, devoid of the involvement of emic categories and indigenous intellectual traditions, wrongly misconstrued [ 17 ] such a social reality as ‘hyperreality’ [ 18 ]. In India, given the vast landscape and consequent heterogeneity, coherent symbols or sets of signifiers were created to build an orderly systematic normative arrangement. The idea of multiple identities like territoriality, religious denominations, gastronomical peculiarities, etc. were addressed by a unique philosophical orientation, and subsequent signifiers and symbols were selected, socially stamped, and presented as a significant part of the socialization process across multiple identities [ 19 , 20 ].

According to the functionalist perspective, for any society to sustain, a minimalistic integration among the parts is a primary prerequisite. Almost every biological need has a corresponding cultural response. Contextually speaking, to hunger, there are three broad cultural categories of food in India, Sattvic , Rajasic , and Tamasic , which are associated with specific ideologies and modes of being. Stability at the Cultural (symbolic) system level, is ensured by establishing symbols that provide information necessary for co-existence with the environment. This includes not just the physical and tangible environment but also the array of uncertainties caused by the sudden occurrence of illnesses, disease, death, etc. in the passage of life of an individual. These appear in the ancient Indian texts as verses ( mantras ), such as the Gāyatrī Mantra (Rig Veda, 3.62.10) which offers salutations to the Sun, and the Mahāmṛtyuṃjaya Mantra (Rig Veda, 7.59.12) which asks for liberation or Moksha from the anxiety of disease and death. These symbols also provide a sense of oneness or what Malinowski calls, ‘communal rhythm’ in everyday life [ 21 ]. Daily chanting of such like verses helps in the internalization of normative ideologies, and this is superimposed by recurrent collective chanting. This becomes an instrument of asserting social harmony over individual differences.

In the background of the above, the objective of the paper is to understand the philosophical structuring and its role in curating a model for holistic education which can be recurrated for the globe as a prototype for target 4.7 of the Sustainable Development Goals.

The structure of the paper is such that it first provides a theoretical background for the analysis and then discusses Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Holistic Education. This is followed by detailed discussion about the periods of development of ancient Indian philosophy, teaching and learning in ancient Indian context including the teacher-student relationship and the pedagogy, four stages of human life, the ideas of non-duality and the world being one unit, respect for resources, the skill to remain focused, yog and its forms, four fundamentals of ‘ideal’ life, and finally the significance of peace. This is followed by discussions and conclusions sections.

2 Theoretical background

As mentioned earlier, the study uses Interpretive sociology to understand the meanings underlying subjective experiences, belief systems, and practices, from the standpoint of the involved social participants and social institutions. Social constructionism, phenomenology, and interpretative understanding [ 22 ] is used to understand how the idea of sustainability is closely tied to the human mind and experience in the ancient philosophy. This has helped us in comprehending how reality is made meaningful through collective participation. Through social constructionism, the intensive symbolism deployed in ancient Indian philosophy is studied. Phenomenology has been used to perceive social responses to the physical reality.

This study involves ethnographic observation and qualitative content analysis [ 23 ] using an interpretivist (theoretical) perspective [ 22 ]. The founding father of this perspective, Max Weber, argues that only when a behaviour is invested with meaning, does it constitute an action and when intersubjectivities are involved, such an action becomes social action [ 24 ]. For the current study, we have primarily focused on, the relevant Upaniṣads and the Bhagavadgītā [ 25 ], to grasp the sustainable social and cultural semantics behind the uninterrupted continuity of the Indian civilization. The original reference texts (both the Upaniṣads and the Bhagavadgītā ), are in Sanskrit language. For this study, we have relied on several of their English translations [ 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ] to comprehend the unique learning, institutionalized by focusing on the human mind and experiential erudition, with an emphasis on the idea of sustainability. Weber´s conceptual category of ‘ideal types’ [ 24 ] has been used not as an absolute explanatory tool but to evolve model/s for sustainable education, and for education that can advance sustainability. As Weber suggests, ideal type is being constructed as an “emergency safe haven(s) until one has learned to find one´s bearings while navigating the immense sea of empirical facts” [ 31 ], p. 133). It has primarily been used as a comparative tool to shape the empirical reality. Authors are conscious of the cautioned by Weber that the usage of this “conceptual accentuation” [ 31 ], p. 124) is heuristic.

3 Indigenous knowledge systems and holistic education

Education, across the globally diverse political, economic, and cultural systems, plays a significant role in ensuring a sustainable life. The word 'Education' itself includes some of the essential elements such as Equity, Development, Universality, Compassionate virtues, Acceptance, Training, Inclusivity, Opportunities for All, and Nurturing, all of which play a significant role in strengthening the foundational integrity of ‘sustainability’. Unfortunately, amidst the global pursuits, some of these essentials have been reduced to mere agendas. This compromised, ‘bandaged approach’ compelled the [ 4 ]to adopt a common set of goals with ‘sustainability’ as the prime agenda. The purpose was to set forth a “universal call for action to end poverty, protect the planet and improve the lives and prospects of everyone, everywhere”. However, “action to meet the Goals is not yet advancing at the speed or scale required” [ 4 ]. This calls for conscious deterministic efforts to look into ancient philosophical structures which have successfully sustained their respective civilizations for a significant period and can be adopted as models across the globe.

Education is addressed in one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals stating that “inclusive and equitable quality education” should be ensured and “lifelong learning opportunities for all” promoted. Furthermore, by the end of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development commitment period all learners should “ acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development (Target 4.7)” [ 4 , 32 ].

This requires a holistic educational approach in the case of philosophical focus and pedagogical methods employed, as it addresses needs of different learners, fosters a connections or wholeness between parts in a person’s life or relationships, considering life experiences and cultures and known and unknown aspects of life [ 33 ]. Wholeness and connectedness are thus relevant to a person, a community, a society, and the planet, and the cosmos, resulting in a cosmic harmony, or “ultimacy” [ 33 ], p. 183). Holistic education is, furthermore, expressed in the following key principles [ 33 ], pp. 183–184), representing a “profound respect for the deeper, largely unrealized power of human nature [ 34 ], p. 2)”:

Educating for Human Development.

Honoring Students as Individuals.

The Central Role of Experience.

Wholeness of the educational process.

New Role of Educators.

Freedom of Choice.

Educating for a Participatory Democracy.

Educating for Global Citizenship.

Educating for Earth Literacy.

Spirituality and Education.

Indigenous Peoples, who lacked the idea of boundaries of statehood or specificities of nationhood, were the first to educate holistically with the focus on interconnectedness and holistic knowledge [ 34 ]. They intricately weave subjectivity into their lives vis-a-vis the territory they live on; people, animals, and trees they live with; natural phenomenon they experience, etc. They associate meanings or symbolisms with everything that concerns them and indulge in meaningful engagements with them. For instance, worshipping trees as providers of food, shelter, and even medical care, ensured forest preservation. Source of all meanings and values, especially among the indigenous people, because of the intimacy of interaction, lie in and derive from, the experiences with the world in which they live [ 35 ]. Such knowledge has been popularly categorized either as indigenous or traditional, given the historicity and the locale of its origin. It includes a vast landscape of systematic beliefs, practices which over time have manifested themselves as cultural arrangements with structural modalities. Through inter-generational socialization, they are passed down from one generation to another, rendering unique identities to their respective communities [ 36 , 37 ]. This knowledge also contains elements of “technical knowledge and know-how, agricultural knowledge, and astronomy” [ 38 ]. Thus traditional or Indigenous knowledge (IK) is a “unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within, and developed around the specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a geographic area” [ 39 ], p. 1,[ 40 ], p. 211). Consequently, holistic education, and Indigenous and traditional knowledge are intrinsically and deeply interconnected.

4 Periods of development of ancient indian philosophy

Indian philosophy can be broadly divided into four major periods of development: Vedic period (between 2500 and 600 B.C.E), Epic period (approximately from 500 or 600 B.C.E to A.D. 200), Sūtra period (approximately from the early centuries of the Christian era); and Scholastic period (from the Sūtra period to the 17thc), see Fig.  1 .

Authors illustration of Periods of Development of ancient Indian Philosophy (own illustration)

4.1 The vedic period

The root word of Veda is ‘ vid ’, (when roughly translated to English, it could mean, ‘to know’ or ‘to understand’). ‘ Vid ’ is also the root word of vidya , the closest equivalent of this in English would be ‘knowledge’. However, it is important for the readers to know that vidya is much deeper, holistic, and because of its undefined vastness, carries an element of sanctity (and maybe mystery). In fact, if placed on a continuum, it is closer to the English word ‘wisdom’ and has been popularly referred to as jñāna in the Indian philosophy. The feature of ‘sanctity’ makes it superior to the other mundane categories or contexts of knowledge, and thus worthy of preservation by compliance and practice (preservation by perpetuation).

The Vedic period is characterized by four Vedas, i.e. Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva [ 41 ], see Fig.  2 . Out of these Rig Veda is the oldest, dating 500 CE. Yajur Veda is associated with most of the Principal Upaniṣads and is subdivided into Krishna Yajurveda and Shukla Yajurveda [ 42 ]. The origins of Indian classical music, dance, and theatre can be traced to Samaveda, while Atharvaveda lays down nuances of everyday life. Each of the four Vedas is divided into four sections, i.e., Saṃhitā , Brāhmaṇam , Āraṇyaka , and Upaniṣad .

Authors illustration of the Vedas in the Vedic period (own illustration)

Vedas are anonymous works, believed to have been revealed to deeply focused sages over years of meditation and deep contemplation. These revelations, for almost 2000 years, were transmitted orally and are a part of the ‘heard literature’ ( Śruti s) of India. It was around 1500 BCE (Before the Common Era) that a sage named Vyasa compiled it together. Vedas provide a discerning study about the various facets of existence and provide deep insights about several dimensions of sustainability.

The core of the Vedas is scripted in its last section, called the Upaniṣad (also referred to as Vedānta ). Though there is no proof of the exact number of Upaniṣads , but there is almost a consensus on them running in 100s [ 28 ]. The teachings from the Upaniṣad have deeply influenced Indian social institutions, including education.

None of these teachings/learnings were meticulously drafted like systematic and sequential chapters in a book. As mentioned earlier, these were revelations and thus appear as random pieces of wisdom, beyond the fetters of temporality or space. These were experienced learnings, to be learned by experience and passed from one generation to another. In this background, the teacher in the Indian philosophy appears as someone who is highly experienced and has the skill to equip the student to understand the experience [ 43 ]. This shall be discussed in greater details later.

4.2 The Epic period

The Epic period is characterized by the indirect presentation of philosophical doctrines through the medium of nontechnical narrative literature such as the Rāmāyaṇa , the Mahābhārata , and the Bhagavadgītā . Unlike the Vedas, epics are the ‘remembered’ literature ( Smṛti) , authored from what was seen, experienced, understood, and remembered. The Bhagavadgītā presents ancient Indian philosophy in its applied form, thus making it a popular narrative not just in India but across the globe.

4.3 The Sūtra period

The Sūtra period is the next phase in Indian philosophy in which nine different perspectives or schools were developed. These are: Samkhya, Yog, Vaisesika, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa), Carvaka, Jain, and Buddhists. Out of these, the first six believed in the Vedas and accepted them as a valid means of knowledge while the last three rejected the Vedas. Despite the different foundations, all the nine schools have the same objective or pursuit: balanced endurance of suffering and accepting it as an inescapable reality.

4.4 The scholastic period

Since the Sūtras were written as maxims and were difficult to comprehend, elaborate commentaries were written for better comprehension in the Scholastic Period. These commentaries added fresh interpretations to the existing understanding, thereby making the document alive and fertile. However, it is important to note that these interpretations carried author-specific biases inviting gender and caste-based discrimination, which as the paper will show were not a part of the original oral discourse.

As mentioned earlier, for the current study, the primary focus is on some of the relevant Upaniṣads from the Vedic period, and the Bhagavadgītā from the Epic period. These symbolize theoretical and applied learning and act as foundational sources for later philosophical development.

5 Teaching and learning in ancient India

Teaching and learning in ancient India is presented from the following perspectives; namely teacher-student, four stages of human life, the ideas of non-duality, the world as one family, four fundamentals of an ideal life, distinction between body and soul, idea of karma, and the significance of peace.

5.1 Teacher-student

Upaniṣad appear as conversations, mostly between a teacher and a student, on deep and complex topics, much beyond contemporary textbook. Etymologically speaking, the word ‘Upaniṣad’ is made up of three Sanskrit syllables—upa, which means to move closer; ni, which means ‘at a lower level’; and shad, which means ‘to sit’. So ‘Upaniṣad’ literally translates as ‘sitting close to someone, at a lower level’. This brings to light two important aspects; the first being that a typical teacher-student relationship in India, is hierarchical. A teacher is seen as a provider of ‘ultimate’ knowledge (jñāna), much beyond the written texts, details of which shall be discussed later in the paper. In the Upaniṣads, a teacher is referred to as Bhagavaḥ, meaning the wise and the respected one. A student is referred to as Saumya, meaning faithful. This conceptual nomenclature reveals that the teacher-student relationship is based on trust and authority. Taittiriya Upaniṣad begins and ends with a verse (prayer) (Taittriya Upaniṣad, 3.10.6) devoted to the continued sustenance, and well-being of this relationship, in addition to peaceful coexistence of their thoughts. The teacher is also referred to as a ‘guru’ which etymologically speaking, is made up of two words, ‘gu’ and ‘ru’. ‘Gu’ means darkness (a metaphor for ignorance) and ‘ru’ means dispeller. Therefore, ‘guru’ is seen as the dispeller of ignorance (Advayataraka Upaniṣad, 16–18).

The second aspect is that as a mentor, the teacher is expected to shoulder the holistic growth and welfare of their student, beyond the boundaries of temporality and space. The Upaniṣads show him uncovering the most fundamental experiences of life like suffering, etc., making such like experiences appear as ‘normal’, thereby helping the student to accept and endure it. Consequently, one of the earliest focuses in ancient education was on the emotional and mental well-being of the student. Such fundamental learnings were skilfully labelled as secrets and made to appear as challenges, stirring enthusiasm and excitement in young flexible minds. Storytelling was used as the most popular pedagogical tool to keep the students involved and participative.

Teaching and learning were outcome based focusing on nurturing respect for resources, despite there being abundance of resources during that time. Some of the lessons for instance taught never to waste food (Taittriya Upaniṣad, Krishna Yajurveda, 3.8–99), have compassion and warmth for those seeking shelter or care (Taittriya Upaniṣad, Krishna Yajurveda, 3.10.1), etc.

The wisdom of the teachers in ancient India reflects their far-sightedness, for they anticipated population growth, increasing diversity, competition for renewable and non-renewable resources [ 44 , 45 ], etc., in a growing civilization and to ensure abundance and sustenance, they weaved the idea of ‘sacredness’ around everything which needed to be preserved. The French sociologist Emile Durkheim [ 46 ], in his work, The Elementary Forms of religious life speaks about sacred not as an inherent trait, but as a quality acquired by being “ set apart and forbidden ” [ 47 ], p. 129). He adds that things deemed as sacred were consumed only on specific occasions and with conscious awareness that it belongs to the collective. This is exactly how the resources, especially the natural resources were viewed by teachers in ancient India. Hymns were written and practices encultured to give them a status of “sacred”. For instance, pṛthvī (Sanskrit term for Earth) Sūkta (hymn) sees earth as a space for all beings and as a provider of resources for each. She is addressed either as a mother or a goddess and worn on the forehead as tilak (dot), as a sign of reverence (Bhaktivedanta [ 48 ]. The deeper objective behind such discourse, was not theology but the scientism involving a narrative of respect for resources which were community´s asset.

A unique thing about Upaniṣad is the idea that learning is not viewed as a theoretical embodiment of pre-established historical narratives but as applied knowledge, which is to be self-curated by the student. Taittiriya Upaniṣad views self-learning as a joyful pursuit. Questions asked by the students have evoked further questions from the teachers, thus advancing, and celebrating, constant engagement, treating critical thinking as the prime pedagogical tools, and encouraging multiple perspectives. Teaching and self-learning, in the ancient texts appear as continuous processes.

The idea of institutional teaching and learning, similar to the concept of school today, was very different from the contemporary understanding. There was no defined boundary of concrete. ‘School’ then was not bound by the clock for learning and teaching was a 24/7 activity. The defined skill training and the internalization of undefined multiple skills of everyday living were pursued in the serenity of deep forests, away from all distractions. Days were charted in sync with nature and powerful forces of nature like the Sun. The foundational textbook used to impart knowledge were the Vedas, which mainly comprise of hymns praising the elements that sustain us – the Sun, the rain, the fire, the wind, and the water. Through such narratives, Vedas not only signify the power of nature but also encourage the cultivation of a lasting and sustainable relationship with the larger universe based on trust and mutuality. This is apparent from the fact that distinct salutations were offered to the Sun, with chants making references to it as a friend of all, a provider of cosmic wisdom, an eliminator of darkness (ignorance), and a giver of holistic (mental, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual) nourishment and well-being [ 49 ].

5.2 The four stages of life

As mentioned above, the learning spaces in the deep forests were training grounds for skills (theoretical, vocational, and experiential). Every student, by the virtue of his enrolment, was accepted as a member of the teacher’s ( guru ´s) clan ( kul ). There were detailed normatively structured principles, both ascriptive and achieved, which qualified a student for learning under a chosen teacher or for an admission into a gurukul ( guru ´s clan). Ascriptive criteria focused on the community and the family from which he descended, for it was believed that legacy (good or bad) is hereditary. Once accepted, the student stayed with the teacher, 24/7 for almost 15 years, learning skills both tangible and intangible like living in harmony with others, adopting austerities despite their material backgrounds, following the path of righteousness ( dharma ), evolving social values like compassion, etc. Consequently, such a learning plays a positive role in curating a sustainable society.

Life of every individual was broadly compartmentalized or divided into four stages, each of which were normatively defined with specific objectives and outcomes, see Fig.  3 . “ The education of the indi-vidual spirit is arranged through the scheme of asramas or stages of life and varnas or classes of men. It takes into account the different sides of human nature “ [ 50 ], p. 7).

Authors illustration of the four stages of lives of human beings (own illustration)

The first was the student stage ( brahmachari ), the stage of learning from the wise, and was marked by “self-control in thought and action” [ 26 ], p. 19). With the age of enrolment roughly being 10, the primary focus was on physical and mental growth and development.

Once the teacher felt that his student was ripe (responsible enough) to go back into the mainstream society and enter into a social relationship through marriage (and thereafter procreation), he proactively participated in his transition from the student stage that of the householder ( grihastha ). It is important for the reader to note that marriage in India, conventionally, is arranged and is a bond between communities, which is seen as lasting beyond the current life. This idea of the cyclical nature of life is discussed later.

The transition to the third stage, that of a forest dweller ( vanaprastha ), is temporally defined by the birth of grandchildren. It calls for a slow but conscious and steady withdrawal from material things (things appealing to our external senses, including relationships. Undertaking pilgrimages were used as popular tools to distance, distract, channelize, and transform human emotions and attachments into Bhakti Yog (one of the several forms of Yog mentioned later in the paper. Like the first stage, in the third stage too, the members resort to austerities both physical and mental but unlike the first, continue to live within the larger society, participating though not actively, in annual festivities. They were actively involved in guiding and nurturing the two adjacent generations [ 51 ].

Once the skill of detachment from the material world was acquired, the transition towards the fourth and the final stage, of the homeless renouncer ( sannyasi ) began. Radhakrishnan, in a lighter vein, refers to the homeless renouncer as, … the superman of the Bhagavadgita, awakened of Buddhism, the true Brahman who glories in his poverty, rejoices in suffering, and is finely balanced in mind, with peace and joy at heart … [ 50 ], pp. 19–20). The sole objective of his remaining life was to build a firm connection with the universal truth, which has been discussed in detail in the next subsection as the belief that the cosmic being lives in everything.

This kind of universally fixed pattern of life, with pre-defined objectives and defined outcomes, may appear coercive to the west but acted as social norms in India and played a significant role in institutionalizing solidarity and interdependence. Despite the vastness of the geography, these norms made existence very disciplined, focused and a lifelong learning pursuit. It also allowed the mind to move beyond fixations and get acquainted with a variety of purposes. Emotionally, the narrative of absolute truth and a patterned living within the community allowed ideas such as compassion and empathy to bloom. All these undoubtedly contribute to making lifestyle and its development sustainable [ 52 ].

5.3 Non-duality and the idea of one world one family

The twin philosophies of universe as a creation of the Supreme consciousness, and the omnipresence of this consciousness in all beings, are the prime essentials of the Upaniṣad . These ideas are closely associated with promotion of peace, non-violence, global citizenship, and appreciation of cultural diversity. The Rig Vedic hymn called the Pūruṣaḥ-Sūkta (Rig Veda, 10.7.90.1–16) introduces the divine as the Supreme consciousness ( pūruṣaḥ) , also referred to as the Mahā-Pūruṣaḥ , Adi-Pūruṣaḥ , Virat Pūruṣaḥ , Bhagwan , Parameshwar , etc. across the translations and even in some original verses and speaks about the sacred sacrifices (offerings) made by this divine cosmic being. The hymn states that these sacrifices are the highest of all the sacrifices , for the pūruṣaḥ ‘consumed’ Himself in the fire of creation, to create the entire universe [ 53 ]. It is important to note that there is no specific mention of the gender or form of the divine cosmic creator in the Upaniṣads , however, the translations have used masculine pronouns for the Supreme Consciousness (the creator).

This ‘creation narrative’ from the Rig Veda, appears in several other ancient texts too [ 54 ]. The underlying idea is that since everything (and every being) has been created by the Supreme cosmic divinity, by sacrificing His own body, therefore every being manifests divinity within themselves. This fosters the idea of inclusivity and oneness and by extension, makes all creations of this universe divine or manifestations of the divine (non-dual spirituality or Advaita Vedānta ) thus respectable (human rights).

When moving from the Vedas to the Upaniṣad , the idea of pūruṣaḥ, without losing its essence, gets replaced by the idea of Brahman (exception being the first verse of Isha Upaniṣad , where word īśā is used). The word Brahman is made up of the root word ‘ bṛh ’ or ‘ brahm ’ which means ‘to grow’, and the word mana , which refers to ‘mind’ (full of infinite desires) [ 55 ]. Thus, Brahman is an infinite being without any defined finite material form (or gender). This discourse furthers the idea of inclusivity in addition to equitable living.

Learning, understanding, and embracing the idea of Brahman ( pūruṣaḥ or īśā) as the one who is omnipresent, and the Universe as one of His several manifestations, is treated as the universal truth and the highest form of knowledge ( jñāna yog), involving a combination of intelligence, intuition, wisdom, and empathy. Such a knowledge is regarded as the foundation and root of all knowledge. Teachers in the ancient India, played a significant role in nurturing the self-realization of this universal truth. Since such knowledge is beyond the manifestation of material reality and mundane logic, many western scholars have incorrectly labelled it as mysticism.

Through consistent socialization and internalization of the idea of seeing divinity in ourselves and in every other being, a humanitarian discourse of one world and global citizenship, much beyond external and tangible differences of culture, gender, nation states, etc. is built. The end goal is to respect one’s own body and mind as sacred spaces, nurturing it with love, and eliminating its abuse of any kind. It also calls for respect and kindness toward everything around us. Internalizing such a discourse, built powerful narratives against self-inflicted abuses like drugs, or violence, toxic emotions like anger, bitterness, jealousy, grief, and expectation, filling collective living with joy and affection ( Īśa Upaniṣad, 1.6–7 ).

Īśa Upaniṣad , while talking about the omnipresence of īsa in its opening verse [ 56 ], insists on being consciously reminiscent of the need to set aside external appearances and live in unison for all are manifestations of the same divine essence. It reiterates this again later by stating that ‘the’ only way to understand the Supreme divinity is to experience it by perceiving Him in the others (all His creations) [ 57 ].

The verse further reads that since everything (and everyone) ‘belong’ to the Supreme, we must not treat anything (including relations) as ‘our’ exclusive possessions. Instead of building false attachments to things or beings, it is argued, we must show gratitude to the divine for all the things (including relations) that He has showered on us as gifts. This idea instils gratitude, appreciation, respect, and humility, all which are values befitting of collective co-existence. It also plays a significant role in facilitating transition from life stage II to III and from III to IV for they involve the idea of detachment at various levels.

Mahā Upaniṣad (one of the minor Upaniṣads ) merges the diverse narratives of oneness into the idea of treating the entire world as one family (Mahā Upaniṣad, 6.71–73). In its recent G20 presidency, from December 1st 2022 1st to 30th November 30th 2023, India had set this idea of, vasudhaiva kuṭumbakam (One Earth, One Family, One Future), as the theme [ 58 ]. Subsequent verses (Mahā Upaniṣad, 6.74–75), on lines similar to the above-mentioned verse from the Īśa Upaniṣad, argue for detachment and altruism as prerequisites to enable universal experience of the benevolence of the Supreme ( Brahman ).

Consequently, education encompassed not just intellectual growth but also mental and emotional growth, making Indian civilization, one of the most ancient living civilizations, sustaining itself through the intensive ideas of extensive education.

5.4 The skill to remain focused

Learning was seen as a joyous and passionate pursuit putting every functionality of the human embodiment to appropriate use. The prime objective was focused learning devoid of any distractions, as mentioned earlier. Desires were viewed as the causative of distractions, pushed endlessly by our external sense perceptions which constantly yearn for pleasure, possession, and attachments. Kaṭha Upaniṣad uses a chariot as a metaphor to explain this (Katha Upaniṣad, 1.3.3–5). The chariot is perceived as symbolizing the human body, Intellect or knowledge ( Buddhi ) as the driver, and Mind ( Manah ) represent the reins, which control (or get controlled by) the five horses denoting the five external senses. The path which the horses wish to cross represents our selfish desires. An intellect that is immature (has consistent desires), has been referred to as lower ( aparā consciousness) and gets enslaved by the mind. Such an immature intellect is unable to discriminate between the absolute truth (the idea of oneness evolving from the union of cosmic being and self) and the universe which is illusionary ( maya ). It gets invested and wasted in emotional and physical attachments to tangible things and material relationships. Such an indiscriminative mind is restless and anxious because of the constant urge to satiate ever-springing desires arising from the external senses.

It is further argued (Kaṭha Upaniṣad, 1.3.6) that a focused pursuit, paves way for a mature mind which has the capacity to discriminate between the absolute truth and the illusionary universe. Such a cautious and mature pursuit allows us to exercise a certain level of detachment or distance from deep emotional involvements and relationships. It allows us to understand them as transitory, far away from reality. Such a discriminatory understanding, once achieved, guides us to the path of “perfection”. According to the Bhagavadgītā , perfection enables us to dutifully rise above the material ideas of victories and failures and takes us to a level beyond. Such an elevated condition of living empowers us and equips us to endure all life events, with a balanced grace (Bhagavadgītā, 2.48).

5.5 Yog and its forms

Perfection requires a harmonious and balanced interplay between four fundamentals, our external actions ( karma ), intellect ( buddhi ), emotions ( bhaav ), and internal energies ( kriya ). This can be accomplished through several forms of Yog , involving a disciplined and consistent training of the above-mentioned fundamentals. Yog enables a skilful withdrawal from the distractions of the illusionary world and bridges a connection with the calm Pure Consciousness within. The Bhagavadgītā , illustrates this by giving example of a tortoise, stating that such a pursuit leads to de-cluttering of thoughts and a clear and focused vision. It enables and empowers us to withstand difficulties, which must be accepted as an essentiality of human life (Bhagavadgītā, 2.58). Such an approach makes life emotionally and mentally sustainable.

Depending on the practitioner’s ( yogi ) choice, Yog can take several forms. The idea of training intellect to detach from the outcomes of our actions ( karma ) is introduced as Buddhi Yog (Bhagavadgītā 2:47). It is argued that relationships involve commitments, which must be fulfilled as prescribed duties. Consequently, India has long lasting social institutions like family and kinship which act as primary supporters and providers of child and elderly care, and community bonding. However, in the same verse, it is said that we must not have any expectations in return as fruits or recognition. This keeps us away from attachments which could create emotions like jealousy, regret, suffering, pain, etc. The Bhagavadgītā in chapter 3, on Karm Yogi , states that all humans have come to this earth for specific a purpose (duty). Those who shrug or run away from their duties are escapists and those who abandon their duties prematurely are ignorant. None of these two are appreciated. The Wise are those who perform their duties and perceive it as an offering to the divine.

The verse (Bhagavadgītā, 2.58) in its second line (Bhagavadgītā 2:47) states that we must neither perceive ourselves as the cause of the outcome of our activities, nor should we be attached to inaction (non-performance of duty). We all have been born to fulfil specific purposes and we must duly perform our duties. This makes life not just purposive but also meaningful, organized, and systematic, thus sustainable.

Kaṭha Upaniṣad , introduces the idea of adhyātma-yog , to enable the realization of non-dual spirituality through self-contemplation, which as mentioned earlier is considered to be the universal truth and is the highest form of knowledge ( jñāna ) (Kaṭha Upaniṣad, 1.3.14). To experience this, insist the Upaniṣad , one must contemplate and meditate deeply on the highest chant AUM (also known as Pranava or Udgitha ) . The importance of AUM and its relationship with the several stages of our consciousness have been dwelled upon in the Māṇḍūkya (1.1–12).

Since a life devoid of distractions is not an easy path, Upaniṣad do accepts that practicing adhyātma-yog with devout focus is not simple. It is sprinkled with pain and difficulties, thus demanding great courage (Kaṭha Upaniṣad, 1.3.14). It is best lived when we live according to the four fundamentals of ‘ideal’ life ( puruṣārthas ) in accordance with the ancient Indian philosophy, by pursuing dharma , artha , kāma , and mokṣa.

5.6 Four fundamentals of ‘ideal’ life (puruṣārthas)

Value-based education has been fostered in India since times immemorial. Out of the above mentioned four fundamentals of an ‘ideal’ life, dharma, artha, kāma , and mokṣa, see Fig.  4 , the concept of mokṣa was introduced later in the  Upaniṣad , while the preceding  Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇam, and Āraṇyaka  do mention the first three. Some argue [ 59 ] that the first known sources mentioning the four together are the epics  Ramayana  and  Mahābhārata and the  Dharmaśāstras (based on ancient Dharmasūtras, which themselves emerged from the Brahmana layer of the Vedas).

Authors illustration of the four fundamentals of ‘ideal’ life (own illustration)

Dharma is righteousness and demands moral unrighteousness, performance of and fulfilment of our duties and responsibilities. The usage of the term artha , with respect to life is to lead it meaningfully to be meaningful, life must have a goal and purpose, which amidst other things, must also include the welfare of the larger community, in addition to acquiring material wealth through morally upright means. Kāma refers to pleasure and to lead a life with pleasure meant that we must treat it as a celebration (within the boundaries of dharma ) and not as a burden. Mokṣa or liberation was considered the highest goal of human life. It valorized freedom as detachment from attachments (bondages). While translating and writing a simultaneous commentary [ 60 ]. Prabhupada [ 60 ] refers to dharma as “material religiosity”, artha as economic development, kāma as “sense gratification”, and mokṣa as “an attempt to become one with the Supreme”.

5.7 Distinction between the body and soul and the idea of karma

Ancient Indian Philosophy skilfully distanced an individual from the fear and pain of separation and death by separating the body from the soul. It is argued that once discriminative knowledge is acquired, the body and soul can be comprehended as distinct with the former being transitory while the latter, eternal, and permanent. Death signifies the end of only the body while the soul is unborn and primeval and moves on to another body (Bhagavadgītā 2.22).

According to Īśa Upaniṣad , the soul is the master of the body and is not defined by or restricted to the experiences of the body. It is indestructible and insoluble, like the divine cosmic being. When death comes, the soul breaks free. This thought has been very explicitly illustrated through a narrative on the cyclical flow of birth and rebirth ( saṃsāra ), and life beyond death, in the Kaṭha Upaniṣad (1.6) too. Just as a person puts on new garments after discarding the old ones, says the Bhagavadgītā , the living entity or the individual soul acquires a new body after casting away the old body (Bhagavadgītā 2.22). A similar understanding is received from the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad (4.4.3) [ 61 ].

No human on this earth, states the Bhagavadgītā , can be in state of inaction. Depending upon their qualities, all humans are innately karmic (action oriented) (Bhagavadgītā 3:5) for actions or deeds ( karmas ) are determinants of the next journey of our soul (Īśa Upaniṣad, 17–18). It is only the fire of highest form of knowledge (self-realization of universal truth) that can turn to ashes (or undo) the consequences of our material actions (Bhagavadgītā 4:37).

Broadly speaking there are three kinds of karmas [ 62 ]: the accumulated ones (from our previous births called sachita ; the ones whose effect we are reaping in the current life ( parabdha) ; and the ones which we perform today, consequences of which shall be on our future ( agami ). The first and the last can be zeroed by the attainment of the highest form of knowledge. But the second can be exhausted only by experiencing their consequences.

…When we leave this world, we take nothing with us. …But we take something with us. Like an encrustation that has grown upon us, the forces of Karma cling to our subtle body which alone departs when the physical body is shed ( Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, 4.4.6) . In some other Upaniṣhad it is said that a calf finds its own mother even in the midst of a thousand cows by moving hither and thither in the herd; as it goes to its own mother though the cows may be thousands in number, likewise our Karma will find us wherever we are [ 63 ] , p. 445).

This narrative compels humans to exercise restraint and cautionary discretion in everyday conduct. Mindful efforts must be made to weave positive actions which necessarily include charity and other welfare activities. It is argued that even the thought has the power to determine our next birth (Bhagavadgītā 8:6). Sharing or sacrificing the ‘gifts’ bestowed on self is the best form of service or offering to the Supreme. It is a reliable pathway to immortality.

5.8 Significance of peace

Every Upaniṣad begins with a special prayer ( mantra ) for peace ( śāntih mantra ) which was recited before the Upaniṣad was explained. Each of these prayers end with repetition of the sacred syllable AUM, thrice. This is because it invokes peace at three levels, peace within, peace within the community vis a vis other being, and peace vis a vis the natural environment and larger universe.

Peace prayer of the Principal Upaniṣads (Aitareya) associated with the Rig Veda ask for elimination of all kinds of distractions, harmonious synchronization between mind and words, and internalization of that which is taught [ 64 ]. It ends with a request to protect the teacher and also the self. Peace prayer of the Principal Upaniṣads (Chandogya and Kena) associated with the Sama Veda ask for nourishment of all senses and ability to internalize the wisdom rooted in the Upaniṣads [ 65 ]. Peace prayers of the Principal Upaniṣads associated with Yajur Veda, subdivided into Shukla Yajur Veda (Isha, Brihadaranyaka) and Krishna Yajur Veda (Katha, Taittiriya), asks for a feeling of completeness which is blissfully desireless [ 66 ]. Following this, there is another prayer which asks for protection for all [ 67 ]. It desires energy and strength for all and resonates with the idea of universal mankind and oneness when it asks for elimination of differences and establishment of harmony. Peace prayer of the Principal Upaniṣads (Mandukya, Mundaka, Prashna) associated with the Atharva Veda asks for distance from negativities, hearing the pleasant, seeing the blessed, and a life which can be dedicated to the service of the divine creator and all his creations [ 68 ].

All the prayers curate a desire for harmony, peace, collective well-being and joyful co-existence in the minds of the learners. The sound and words of these mantras are believed to calm the mind and facilitate learning [ 43 ]. The significance of Vedic chanting has been globally recognized and registered [ 69 ].

6 Discussion and implications

Analysing and placing India’s ancient rich ancient philosophy and its focus on holistic education in the context of target 4.7 of the Sustainable Development Goals, and relevant international commitments and discussions reveals that because of its intensive depth and extensive richness it indeed can act as a prototype for deepening the understanding of what holistic education for sustainable development entails. Tying the SDGs to spirituality has been previously be done, [ 13 ] but not from the educational or the Indian philosophical point of view. Table 1 synthesizes the main ideas and semantics settings relevant to sustainability, to provide an ideal type of holistic education for sustainability. Key ideas have been categorized based on social and cultural, ecological, economic, and educational settings, in addition to highlight cross cutting themes and/or spiritual settings. The grey-shaded boxes in the table mean that particular settings are not evident in the respective models and frameworks that serve collectively as a foundation for a model of holistic education.

The synthesizes from Table  1 reveals that the planetary boundary framework only addresses the environmental setting, the doughnut economy model adds elements relevant to the social/cultural setting, economic setting, as well as the educational setting, although only mentioning quality education without further explanation. Similar aspects can be found in the SDGs wedding cake model, although it adds a cross cutting theme emphasising that partnerships (Goal 17) are important for reaching the SDGs. Pope Francis Laudato Si' Goals provide understanding of important elements for addressing sustainability issues as can be drawn collectively from previous models and frameworks, although it adds to the discussion on education by emphasising particularly ecological education (Goal 5, and that it should take place at schools, in families, in the media, in catechesis and elsewhere. Furthermore, ecological spirituality (Goal 6) is also stated as a relevant aspect when addressing sustainability issues. The holistic education key principles offer insights to all categories except for the economic setting, deepening understanding in the educational setting by bringing up how students should be honoured as individuals (Principle 2), addressing the central role of experience (Principle 3), emphasising the wholeness of the educational process (Principle 4), as well drawing the attention to the role of educators (Principle 5), thereby representing a “profound respect for the deeper, largely unrealized power of human nature [ 34 ], p. 2).

Target 4.7 of SDG4, quality education, is then narrower in the sense than the collective ideas drawn from previously discussed models and frameworks. It does not address the ecological or the economic settings, although the main aims are education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles as well as relevant knowledge and skills to promote sustainable development. It should, however, be noted that education plays a key role in many of the SDGs, including the eliminating poverty (Goal 1), affordable and clean energy (Goal 7), decent work and economic growth (Goal 8), reduction of inequalities (Goal 10), responsible consumption and production (Goal 12), climate action (Goal 13), and partnership for the goals (Goal 17) [ 6 ].

As brought up in the paper, the word 'Education' itself includes some of the essential elements such as Equity, Development, Universality, Compassionate virtues, Acceptance, Training, Inclusivity, Opportunities for All, and Nurturing, all of which play a significant role in strengthening the foundational integrity of ‘sustainability’. This requires a holistic view of education and what it entails so that the ideal type of holistic education for sustainability can be proposed. Therefore, analysis of the rich ancient Indian philosophy can help provide more holistic views on what this entails beyond SDG target 4.7 and the ideas from the frameworks and models presented in the paper and in Table  1 .

From the Indian philosophy on holistic education the Socio-cultural setting, see Table  1 , emphasises of non-duality and perceiving the Universe as the creation of the Supreme by sacrificing and investing His own physical, emotional, and mental Self plays a very strong role in enforcing respect not just for fellow humans but also for other living beings. It further evokes submission to the larger environment and the natural resources by treating them as embodiments of the Supreme and humans as mere caretakers. This consciously woven hierarchy keeps a check on the ecological balance. The idea of forest spirits, mountain elves, water goddesses, etc. which appear as mysticism to the outsiders, in fact, have had deep symbolic significance for sustainability. Ancient philosophy treats them as personified, living, totemic emblems serving as providers and patrons of human existence. This is consistently perpetuated and manifested by calendrical rituals and pilgrimages which function as tributes to providers of ecological sustenance. Such a philosophical tone voices ideas of compassion, non-violence, peaceful coexistence, and community resilience. The understanding of oneness and global citizenship evolves a step ahead when we read about vasudhaiva kuṭumbakam (One Earth, One Family ( One Future (authors´emphasis)) in the Mahā Upaniṣad (6.71–73). Being a collective society, each generation has the responsibility to provide for the sustenance of the next. Admission of a child into the student stage was seen as a movement from his ascriptive kin group to the kin group of his teacher, pledging loyalty forever. Teacher in return served as his mentor forever. This exhibits the depth and the strength of the Teacher-Student bond.

The philosophy of perceiving roles and responsibilities, both ascriptive and achieved, as the pathways to rewards in the future and/or as punishments for past deeds builds endurance and sustains focused perusal. Social norms thus acted as the means to social control, stability, and order. Skilful channelling of physical, emotional, and mental energies through several forms of Yog serves as an instrumental tool to empower and to build harmonious co-existence within the self, with others, and with the larger universe. Thus, the philosophy adeptly includes mental and emotional well-being.

With respect to the ecological settings, learning and teaching during the ancient period were organized in deep forests where all students lived as members of the family of the teacher. Thus, curating emotional bonding with the ecology. Conscious steps such as modest uniforms, lessons in food-gathering and cooking, serving, etc. were evolved to eliminate differences and structure a disciplined routine clocked in tune with nature. This subtly led to the internalization of respect for resources and trust in nature. Chants signifying the incessant glory of and gratitude towards ecology hold paramount significance in ancient Indian philosophy. As mentioned above, restraint and respect were expected of humans as Mother Nature in her several manifestations was perceived as a provider and sustainer of life. The Universe and its plenitude, in ancient philosophy, is seen as a generous gift by the Supreme and to be shared among all. This called for humility and gratitude, through preservation and conservation.

Ancient philosophy treats desire as the root cause of suffering and the material world as an illusionary creation, draws focus to the economic setting. Student life involved the adoption of uniform clothing, austerities, and minimalistic living. An abundance of resources in later life was seen as symbolic of being the chosen one to share the entitlements with others. The wider the spectrum of welfare, the higher the probability of rewards in this birth and in future rebirths. Food, housing, shelter, health, children, etc. were all seen as gifts or grace, and their wastage or asocial abuse was seen as an evil act.

With reference to the educational setting, ancient philosophy accorded a sacred status to education and all the stakeholders (teacher, student, parents, and the community) were mandated to harmoniously fulfil their respective roles with due diligence and absolute righteousness. The teacher was perceived as a mentor. The syllabus was vast, intricately intertwined with everyday life skills. The learnings were anchored in experience and self-discovered through discussions and questions. The knowledge received was referred to as jñāna (wisdom). The focus was on holistic education using interactive pedagogies like participative learning, experiential learning, critical thinking, etc. Demonstrative application of skill-based learning was consciously evolved by creating real-life conditions demanding the application of knowledge. Ecology was viewed as a canvas within which this learning was curated.

In relation to the cross-cutting themes and/or the spiritual setting the foundation of ancient Indian philosophy is spirituality but has often been wrongly misconstrued by the orientalists as religion. The philosophy is of sanatam dharma which when translated into English would roughly mean universal codes of morality . These codes were penned as righteous, meaningful, passionate perusals closely intertwined with harmonious co-existence. The Supreme was perceived as a formless, genderless, omnipresent consciousness. Service toward mankind was the only form in which the Supreme could be served. Social was most significant for it was viewed as an embodiment of collective conscience. Understanding the principle of non-duality and the material world as a mere illusion was perceived as the highest form of knowledge. The ancient teachings appear as random revelations and were written down much later. Spirituality has been used as an instrument for social control, with emphasis on the ideas of samsara , and karma . These philosophical concepts acted as anxiety pacifiers and confidence boosters. Several forms of yog served as roads to spirituality through balanced self-contemplation.

Drawing from the above discussion we propose a diagram showing a prototype on what holistic education for sustainable development entails, see Fig.  5 . What it suggests is that spirituality and religion envelope the other settings in the diagram guiding evoking submission to a higher power, the supreme. Within this setting is the ecological setting where natural environment and resources are treated as embodiments of the supreme and humans as mere caretakers of the environment. The social and cultural setting enforces respect for fellow humans as well as other living beings, and emphasizing the importance of individuals and their physical, emotional, and mental well-being. To enlighten learners about this philosophy is education that is holistic and relevant to real-life conditions. Finally, is the economic setting including the material aspects of life. This setting gets the least emphasis in the diagram, as other settings are considered more important in the case of holistic education. This suggest that some elements, and depth in the discussion, are missing from the previously mentioned models and frameworks and Target 4.7 of the SDG4. ‘Ideal type’ [ 24 ] has been used not as an absolute explanatory tool but to evolve model/s for sustainable education, and for education that can advance sustainability.

Prototype on what holistic education for sustainable development entails (authors illustration)

Drawing from Weber’s ideal type constructed as an “emergency safe haven(s) until one has learned to find one´s bearings while navigating the immense sea of empirical facts” [ 31 ], p. 133), what is in particular missing in target 4.7 and the models and frameworks presented is the focus on higher power and the mental well-being of individuals from Indian philosophy suggesting than one should live in harmony with universe to sustain existence of all living beings and act as a reminder for internalizing peaceful coexistence and respect for human and non-human resources.

7 Conclusions

The transference of knowledge is at risk given change in oral communication channels, although there is more willingness to listen to Indigenous Peoples by national governments and actors within the international political system. The paper demonstrates how ancient philosophy can be used to deepen the understanding in the context of target 4.7 of SDG4, and other relevant models and frameworks, our understanding of what holistic education entails. This is furthermore presented in Table  1 and Fig.  5 .

Authors acknowledge that language and symbols carry deep cultural significance and meaning and have been conscious in ensuring their best to do justice to it and are aware of the tendency of the “book view” (Indological Approach) to homogenize but this is in tune with the objective intending to draw an ideal–typical proto-type of holistic education as presented in Fig.  5 .

This paper only deals with one aspect of sustainable development and the SDGs, that is education. However, the paper conceptualization can serve as a comparative tool for shaping the empirical global reality. It gives the possibility to look at other elements of sustainable development or the SDGs in a similar way, i.e., by learning from ancient philosophy and what lessons it has to offer to modern societies on how to address local or global challenges.

Data availability

No primary data was collected, see the reference list and citations for sources used.

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Babbar, S.K., Johannsdottir, L. India’s ancient philosophy on holistic education and its relevance for target 4.7 of the United Nations sustainable development goals. Discov Sustain 5 , 51 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-024-00225-2

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Breaking the Silence: Gender-Based Challenges in the Lesotho Highlands Water Project ll

World Bank Lesotho - Maseru Mazenod Reservoir

MASERU, Lesotho, Apr 3 2024 (IPS) - In the journey towards gender equality and justice, recent decades have seen strides made, yet the road ahead remains treacherous. In the race to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030, attention is turning to the role that over five hundred public development banks worldwide could play.

Public development banks are increasingly exploring how to promote financial inclusion more effectively, as an important vehicle for women’s economic empowerment. Financial inclusion transcends mere access to capital; it is a radical shift of social norms, addressing social issues that hinder women’s advancement.

However, in many projects funded by PDBs, women are not only excluded and left behind, but are put in a position of harm. One such case is the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) where there is growing evidence of a wide range of negative gender impacts within the affected communities.

The objective of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) is to provide water to the Gauteng region of South Africa and to generate hydroelectricity for Lesotho by harnessing the waters of the Senqu/Orange River in the Lesotho highlands through the construction of a series of dams.

Hailed as a remarkable engineering feat with anticipated economic benefits, it has instead garnered international notoriety for its severe socioeconomic and environmental repercussions on communities. Phase I of the project led to the displacement of thousands without fair compensation, submerging arable and grazing land, exacerbating erosion, creating impoverishment, “social disintegration”, and limiting access to water resources.

Despite long-standing concerns and documented impacts on communities, including increased HIV/AIDS risk, the project proceeds with Phase II without adequately addressing residual issues.

The project’s impacts disproportionately affect women, exacerbating vulnerabilities through increased risks of displacement, lack of access to water and healthcare, and heightened instances of sexual exploitation, contributing to a cycle of socio-economic marginalization and health disparities.

Gender inequality in Lesotho remains a problem despite progressive legal strides in recent years. Implementation and enforcement of laws, especially in rural communities, continues to be a problem. Outdated cultural practices and stereotypes continue to create barriers to ownership of land, denying women the resources needed to secure livelihoods and increasing their economic vulnerability and susceptibility to gender-based violence.

Seinoli Legal Centre (Seinoli) is a Lesotho based public interest law centre that has been working directly with the affected communities in the Mokhotlong district where LHWP Phase II is being implemented, since the signing of the Agreement on Phase II in 2011.

Increased incidents of gender-based violations have been reported within the project affected communities which should come as no surprise; projects of this nature and scale, including the resultant forced displacement often amplify the risks of gender-based violence.

Furthermore, there are thousands of migrant workers from Lesotho itself and South Africa, who have come to work on LHWP. Migrant workers should be accommodated in designated camps, in healthy accommodations and living conditions in accordance with best practices . The situation on the ground stands in complete contrast to this; there are contractors living and renting accommodation within the communities of Masakong, Ha Ramonakalali, and Tloha-re-Bue. In the case of Ha Ramonakalali, there is also a temporary camp belonging to one of the private companies contracted to work on LHWP which is located within the communities – having profound impacts.

Cases of transactional sex between migrant workers and young women and girls have increased, including cases of abortion and concealment of birth, human trafficking, sexual exploitation, and high school drop-outs.

Seinoli was recently alerted to the predicament of the fifteen-year-old Lineo ( name changed to protect the victim and her family ) and her parents. This young girl was impregnated by one of the migrant laborers working for an LHWP contractor. Lineo decided to have an illegal abortion – as abortion is prohibited in the country -in fear of her parents. The abortion led to health complications, which necessitated informing her parents about the events. Lineo’s parents made a complaint to the police. Seinoli received a report that the police were not able to make charges against the perpetrator as they could not locate him after he was moved to another camp by his employers. Consequently, the young girl has been left with the scourge and stigma of having had an abortion and lives in shame within her community. She has also been forced to drop out of school, which will have severe repercussions on her future and ability to earn an income.

The LHWP receives substantial funds from PDBs such as the Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) , the New Development Bank (NDB) and the African Development Bank (AfDB). While these banks do indicate concern for gender equality, more needs to be done for the development and strengthening of their gender strategies to ensure that the projects they fund do not violate women’s safety or security.

Currently, the Lesotho Highlands Development (LHDA), the project’s implementing authority, does not have a safeguarding policy to protect communities against sexual exploitation, abuse, and harassment risk to ensure accountability.

Communities need to be better informed about their rights and have access to reporting mechanisms which can lead to expedited support for victims whilst holding the perpetrator and their employers accountable.

It has been five years since LHWP Phase II commenced, with advanced infrastructure works since January 2019. However, there has not been any shift towards protecting the rights of vulnerable women and girls since the project begun.

The role of international financial institutions and PDBs in fostering gender equality has been discussed extensively in many quarters, including the academic and research communities. However, many questions remain on the commitment of PDBs to promote gender equality and women’s empowerment.

In practice, concerning some of the public financiers of the LHWP, the NDB still does not have a gender strategy or policy in place despite having been fully operational for close to 10 years. The DBSA and the AfDB represent financiers of the LHWP with a gender policy or strategy, however, the effectiveness of their gender frameworks is questionable considering the challenges that women are now being exposed to in projects such as the LHWP Phase II.

Basotho women faced similar difficulties during the first phase of the LHWP when women, including female-headed households were excluded from families who received some limited minimal compensation for resettlement. Women were extremely vulnerable to gender-based violence, not only physical but also economic violence. During that time, the World Bank was a major financier involved in the construction of the Katse Dam.

The World Bank gender framework has evolved, providing finance to the LHWP Phase I. The World Bank has now integrated safeguard policies against sexual exploitation and abuse in its Environmental and Social Framework as well as Procurement Framework.

These frameworks ensure that development projects take measures to reduce the risk of sexual exploitation, abuse, and harassment, especially within communities. After civil society groups raised complaints about gender-based violence associated with a World Bank-financed road project in Uganda, the World Bank took several measures to address this issue.

In 2020, the World Bank introduced a mechanism that can disqualify contractors for failing to comply with obligations related to the prevention of gender-based violence. The World Bank will also soon launch their World Bank Gender Strategy 2024 – 2030: Accelerate Gender Equality for a Sustainable, Resilient and Inclusive Future , which recognizes gender equality as central to sustainable development. The strategy emphasizes gender outcomes in project implementation, including eradication of gender-based violence.

All PDBs should ensure that such measures (policies and practice) are put in place to avoid the ongoing violations against women that put young girls such as Lineo at high risk.

There is a growing dialogue among PDBs and United Nations Agencies such as UN Women , including those engaging in the Finance in Common movement, on the importance of financial inclusion, which places emphasis on improving women’s access to finance. PDBs must take stronger leadership in ensuring that financial inclusion addresses social issues that are an obstacle to women’s advancement. This includes removing outdated cultural practices and stereotypes that continue to create barriers to land ownership. Women in as much as half the countries of the world are unable to assert equal land and property rights despite legal protections .

PDBs often provide substantial funds to mega-infrastructure projects such as the LHWP II in which communities are often exposed to high levels of vulnerability, including worsening levels of poverty, inequality and GBV. One way that PDBs can contribute to making real progress on the Agenda 2030, is through addressing the root causes of poverty and inequality and integrating SDG 5 , “achieving gender equality” a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous and sustainable world. There has been progress over the last decades, but the world is not on track to achieve gender equality by 2030.

In doing so, PDBs (national, regional and international) must have robust gender policies and practice in place that support projects centred on gender equality, justice and women’s empowerment.

All PDB funded projects should have gender equality imperatives at the onset of the project cycle through rigorous impact assessment processes that involve women and their communities.

The human rights costs are high in second phase of the LHWP with hundreds of families at risk of involuntarily resettlement and displacement from their homes and lands . Achieving the SDGs will require transformative action that can deliver real impact and change for women and young girls such as in Lesotho. The DBSA, AfDB, NDB and other PDBs involved in LHWP II can play an important role in ensuring that the second phase does not repeat the same mistakes made in LHWP I and in so many other development projects.

This article has been written as part of the Forus March With Us campaign for gender justice – a full month dedicated to the stories of activists and civil society organisations at the forefront of gender equality and justice.

Marianne Buenaventura Goldman is co-Chair, Civil Society Forum of the NDB (Africa) & Project Coordinator for Financing for Sustainable Development, Forus Reitumetse Nkoti Mabula is Executive Director, Seinoli Legal Centre

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