great zimbabwe essay

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Great zimbabwe.

Great Zimbabwe was a medieval African city known for its large circular wall and tower. It was part of a wealthy African trading empire that controlled much of the East African coast from the 11th to the 15th centuries C.E.

Geography, Human Geography, Social Studies, Ancient Civilizations, World History

Great Zimbabwe's Great Enclosure

Great Zimbabwe is the name for the stone remains of a medieval city in southeastern Africa. It is composed of three parts, including the Great Enclosure (shown here). It is believed to have been a royal residence or a symbolic grain storage facility.

Photograph by Christopher Scott

Great Zimbabwe is the name of the stone ruins of an ancient city near modern day Masvingo, Zimbabwe. People lived in Great Zimbabwe beginning around 1100 C.E. but abandoned it in the 15th century. The city was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, which was a Shona (Bantu) trading empire . Zimbabwe means “stone houses” in Shona. Great Zimbabwe was part of a large and wealthy global trading network. Archaeologists have found pottery from China and Persia, as well as Arab coins in the ruins there. The elite of the Zimbabwe Empire controlled trade up and down the east African coast. However, the city was largely abandoned by the 15th century as the Shona people migrated elsewhere. The exact reasons for the abandonment are unknown, but it is likely that exhaustion of resources and overpopulation were contributing factors. The archaeological site at Great Zimbabwe consists of several sections. The first section is the Hill Complex, a series of structural ruins that sit atop the steepest hill of the site. This is generally believed to have been the religious center of the site. The Hill Complex is the oldest part of Great Zimbabwe, and shows signs of construction that date to around 900 C.E. The ruins of the second section, the Great Enclosure, are perhaps the most exciting. The Great Enclosure is a walled, circular area below the Hill Complex dating to the 14th century. The walls are over 9.7 meters (32 feet) high in places, and the enclosure’s circumference is 250 meters (820 feet). The walls were built without mortar , relying on carefully shaped rocks to hold the wall’s shape on their own. Inside the enclosure is a second set of walls, following the same curve as the outside walls, which end in a stone tower 10 meters (33 feet) high. While the function of this enclosure is unknown, archeologists suggest it could have been a royal residence or a symbolic grain storage facility. It is one of the largest existing structures from ancient sub-Saharan Africa. The third section is the Valley Ruins. The Valley Ruins consist of a significant number of houses made mostly of mud-brick ( daga) near the Great Enclosure. The distribution and number of houses suggests that Great Zimbabwe boasted a large population, between 10,000–20,000 people. Archaeological research has unearthed several soapstone bird sculptures in the ruins. These birds are thought to have served a religious function, and may have been displayed on pedestals. These birds appear on the modern Zimbabwean flag and are national symbols of Zimbabwe. The ruins of Great Zimbabwe were designated a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site in 1986. There have only been a limited number of archaeological excavations of the site. Unfortunately, significant looting and destruction occurred in the 20th century at the hands of European visitors. Although they were all too happy to explore and loot the ruins of Great Zimbabwe, in their racism, European colonists thought the city was too sophisticated to have been built by Africans, and instead thought it had been built by Phoenicians or other non-African people. However, despite the damage done by these colonial looters , today, the legacy of Great Zimbabwe lives on as one of the largest and most culturally important archaeological sites of its kind in Africa.

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Great Zimbabwe

Aerial view of Great Zimbabwe’s Great Enclosure and adjacent ruins, looking southeast (photo: Janice Bell , CC BY-SA 4.0)

Great Zimbabwe and Harare (underlying map © Google)

Great Zimbabwe has been described as “one of the most dramatic architectural landscapes in sub-Saharan Africa.” [1] It is the largest stone complex in Africa built before the modern era, aside from the monumental architecture of ancient Egypt . The ruins that survive are a four-hour drive south of Zimbabwe’s present-day capital of Harare. It was constructed between the 11th and 15th centuries and was continuously inhabited by the Shona peoples until about 1450. But Great Zimbabwe was by no means a singular complex—at the site’s cultural zenith, it is estimated that seven comparable states existed in this region.

The word  zimbabwe  translates from the Bantu language of the Shona to either “judicial center” or “ruler’s court or house.” A few individual zimbabwes (houses) have survived exposure to the elements over the centuries. Within these clay structures, excavations have revealed interior furnishings such as pot-stands, elevated surfaces for sleeping and sitting, as well as hearths. Taken together, the settlement encompasses a cluster of approximately 250 royal houses built of clay, which in addition to other multi-story clay and thatch homes would have supported as many as 20,000 inhabitants—a exceptional scale for a sub-Saharan settlement at this time.

Plan of Great Zimbabwe showing the different constituent enclosures. Adapted from Chirikure & Pikirayi Shadreck Chirikure and Innocent Pikirayi, “Inside and outside the dry stone walls: Revisiting the material culture of Great Zimbabwe,” Antiquity 82 (December 2015), pp. 976–993.

The stone constructions of Great Zimbabwe can be categorized into roughly three areas: the Hill Ruin (or Hill Complex, on a rocky hilltop), the Great Enclosure, and the Valley Ruins (or Enclosures). The Hill Ruin dates to approximately 1250, and incorporates a cave that remains a sacred site for the Shona peoples today. The cave once accommodated the residence of the ruler and his immediate family. The Hill Ruin also held a structure surrounded by 30-foot high walls and flanked by cylindrical towers and monoliths carved with elaborate geometric patterns.

Between two walls, Great Enclosure, Great Zimbabwe (photo: Mandy , CC BY 2.0)

The Great Enclosure was completed in approximately 1450, and it too is a walled structure punctuated with turrets and monoliths, emulating the form of the earlier Hill Ruin. The massive outer wall is 32 feet high in some places. Inside the Great Enclosure, a smaller wall parallels the exterior wall creating a tight passageway leading to large towers. Because the Great Enclosure shares many structural similarities with the Hill Ruin, one interpretation suggests that the Great Enclosure was built to accommodate a surplus population and its religious and administrative activities. Another theory posits that the Great Enclosure may have functioned as a site for religious rituals.

The third section of Great Zimbabwe, the Valley Ruins, include a number of structures that offer evidence that the site served as a hub for commercial exchange and long distance trade. Archaeologists have found porcelain fragments originating from China, beads crafted in southeast Asia, and copper ingots from trading centers along the Zambezi River and from Central African kingdoms. [2]

A monolithic  soapstone sculpture of a seated bird resting on atop a register of zigzags was unearthed here. The pronounced muscularity of the bird’s breast and its defined talons suggest that this represents a bird of prey, and scholars have conjectured it could have been emblematic of the power of Shona kings as benefactors to their people and intercessors with their ancestors.

Conical Tower, Great Zimbabwe (photo: Mandy , CC BY 2.0)

Conical tower

All of the walls at Great Zimbabwe were constructed from granite hewn locally. While some theories suggest that the granite enclosures were built for defense, these walls likely had no military function. Many segments within the walls have gaps, interrupted arcs or elements that seem to run counter to needs of protection. The fact that the structures were built without the use of mortar to bind the stones together supports speculation that the site was not, in fact, intended for defense. Nevertheless, these enclosures symbolize the power and prestige of the rulers of Great Zimbabwe.

The conical tower of Great Zimbabwe is thought to have functioned as a granary. According to tradition, a Shona ruler shows his largess towards his subjects through his granary, often distributing grain as a symbol of his protection. Indeed, advancements in agricultural cultivation among Bantu-speaking peoples in sub-Saharan Africa transformed the pattern of life for many, including the Shona communities of present-day Zimbabwe.

Great Enclosure entrance (restored), Great Zimbabwe (photo: Mandy , CC BY 2.0)

Wealth and trade

Great Zimbabwe and port of Sofala (underlying map © Google)

Archaeological debris indicate that the economy of Great Zimbabwe relied on the management of livestock. In fact, cattle may have allowed the Shona peoples to move from subsistence agriculture to mining and trade. Iron tools have been found on site, along with copper, and gold wire jewelry and ornaments. Great Zimbabwe is thought to have prospered, perhaps indirectly, from gold that was mined 25 miles from the city and that was transported to the Indian Ocean port at Sofala where it made its way by dhow , up the coast, and by way of Kilwa Kisiwani , to the markets of Cairo.

By about 1500, however, Great Zimbabwe’s political and economic influence waned. Speculations as to why this occurred point to the frequency of droughts and environmental fragility, though other theories stress that Great Zimbabwe might have experienced political skirmishes over political succession that interrupted trade, still other theories hypothesize disease that may have afflicted livestock. [3]

Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) banknote featuring the conical tower at Great Zimbabwe, 1955 (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Great Zimbabwe stands as one of the most extensively developed centers in pre-colonial sub-Saharan Africa and stands as a testament to the organization, autonomy, and economic power of the Shona peoples. The site remains a potent symbol not only to the Shona, but for Zimbabweans more broadly. After gaining independence from the British, the nation formerly named after the British industrialist and imperialist, Cecil Rhodes, was renamed Zimbabwe.

[1] Webber Ndoro, The Preservation of Great Zimbabwe: Your Monument, Our Shrine (ICCROM, 2005), p. 16.

[2] Peter Garlake, Early Art and Architecture of Africa (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 153.

[3] Garlake, 157.

Additional resources

The Economist Magazine interactive.

Great Zimbabwe World Heritage Site (UNESCO).

Great Zimbabwe student worksheet (The British Museum).

Great Zimbabwe on the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.

Webber Ndoro, The Preservation of Great Zimbabwe: Your Monument, Our Shrine (ICCROM, 2005).

Thomas N. Huffman, “Debating Great Zimbabwe,” South African Archaeological Bulletin, 66 (2011), pp. 27–40.

Thomas N. Huffman, The Soapstone Birds from Great Zimbabwe, African Arts , 18 (May 1985), pp. 68–73.

P. Hubbard, “The Zimbabwe Birds: Interpretation and Symbolism,” Honeyguide: Journal of Birdlife Zimbabwe 55 (2009), pp. 109–116.

Great Zimbabwe from Scientific American.

“Lost cities # 9: racism and ruins – the plundering of Great Zimbabwe,” The Guardian (August 18, 2016).

Peter S. Garlake, Great Zimbabwe (Stein & Day Pub, 1973).

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Great Zimbabwe History Overview: The Ancient Mystery in Southern Africa Essay

A brief characteristic of great zimbabwe, who built great zimbabwe, the function of the complexes, the reason to leave great zimbabwe.

Great Zimbabwe is considered to be an enormous wrecked town that is encircled with the wall made of stones. The ancient mystery is situated in the southern Africa. The wall around the Great Zimbabwe was built then the complex itself and has differences in style and techniques (Sayre, 2015, p. 390). The ancient complex holds a lot of secrets proving that the modern mankind with all the technical progress still does not know the real power of ancient people.

According to the translation of the word, ‘Zimbabwe’ means home or grave (Grimbly, 2013, p. 50). The Great Zimbabwe was the capital of the ancient empire Shona. Farmers settled down in the territory of the Great Zimbabwe in the 900 A. D. as there were perfect conditions to grow crops and have cattle (Grimbly, 2013, p. 50). The territory appeared to be one of the most significant trading points (Sayre, 2015, p. 390). Scientists have already developed some theories that explain what kind of society lived there, how they managed to erect such an impressive construction without the equipment, and why the site is abandoned now. Great Zimbabwe contributes to the cultural and historical context by providing the necessary information concerning the ancient epoch and people who erected such an impressive construction and how the architectural preferences changed overtime.

The walls are solid as their height is almost twice as big as the width. Due to the specific shape of stones they are easily connected. The great majority of the enigmatic construction is built of granite (Tucker, 2010, p. 100). According to Credo Mutwa, Great Zimbabwe was created by the multicultural and globalized society that was ruled by powerful kings, usually referred as the Lords of the World (Tucker, 2010, p. 100).

According to Tudor Parfitt, a lot of African tribes are sure that their ancestors built Great Zimbabwe; however, the Lemba tribe is viewed as those who actually could build the massive construction (Moyo, 2015, p. 14). The scholars have found the evidence that support such theory. The Lemba were traders they could have been responsible for building Great Zimbabwe as the inhabitants of Great Zimbabwe were talented traders. The African civilization was powerful and consisted of thousands of tribes; Great Zimbabwe is seen as the heart of the ancient African tribes (Moyo, 2015, p. 14).

Political and religious beliefs of the ancient people influenced the way Great Zimbabwe was built. The building comprises three major parts, namely Hill Complex, the Valley Complex, and the Great Enclosure (Tucker, 2010, p. 101). The scientists cannot find a common sense concerning the purpose of the architectural complexes. According to one of the most widespread theory, such groupings were erected for different kings that took the power. However, there is also an idea that such complexes were built to satisfy the needs of the society, as the Hill Complex resembles a temple, the Valley is believed to be the residence for the citizens, and the Great Enclosure could serve the needs of the king. This theory is reasonable, as the ancient society was highly developed and had all the features of the progressive community.

The reasons for people to leave the massive complex are considered to be the following: the lack of water sources, climate changes, and political issues. All the stated above reasons seem to be relevant, as climate conditions and political situation within the society could influence people in a significant way and force them to leave the territory.

In conclusion, it should be stated that all the secrets of the ancient enigma probably will never be discovered. The mystery around the site seems to be difficult for understanding. It should be stressed, that ancient people had way more developed skills and abilities than modern people think they did, as Great Zimbabwe will keep its history unknown forever.

Grimbly, S. (2013). Encyclopedia of the ancient world . London, U.K.: Routledge.

Moyo, F. (2015). The Bible, the bullet, and the ballot: Zimbabwe: The impact of Christian protest in socio-political transformation, ca. 1900-ca. 2000 . Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications.

Sayre, H. (2015). The humanities: Culture, continuity & change (3d ed., vol. 1). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Tucker, L. (2010). Mystery of the white lions: Children of the sun god . Carlsbad, CA: Hay House.

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Ch. 11 African Civilizations

Great zimbabwe, learning objective.

• Explain the social structure, unique aspects, and decline of Great Zimbabwe
• Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city in the southeastern hills of today’s Zimbabwe. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country’s Late Iron Age. Construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century.
• David Beach believes that the city and its state, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, flourished from 1200 to 1500, although a somewhat earlier date for its demise is implied by a description transmitted in the early 1500s to João de Barros. Its growth has been linked to the decline of Mapungubwe from around 1300, due to climatic change or the greater availability of gold in the hinterland of Great Zimbabwe.
• Archaeological evidence suggests that Great Zimbabwe became a center for trading, with a trade network linked to Kilwa Kisiwani and extending as far as China. This international trade was mainly in gold and ivory. The rulers of Zimbabwe brought artistic and stone masonry traditions from Mapungubwe. The construction of elaborate stone buildings and walls reached its apex in the kingdom.
• Causes suggested for the decline and ultimate abandonment of the city of Great Zimbabwe have included a decline in trade compared to sites further north, the exhaustion of the gold mines, political instability, and famine and water shortages induced by climatic change.
• In the early 11th century, people from the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in Southern Africa are believed to have settled on the Zimbabwe plateau. There, they would establish the Kingdom of Zimbabwe around 1220.
• Nyatsimba Mutota from Great Zimbabwe established his dynasty at Chitakochangonya Hill, and the land he conquered would become the Kingdom of Mutapa. Within a generation, Mutapa eclipsed Great Zimbabwe. By 1450, the capital and most of the kingdom had been abandoned.

Kingdom of Zimbabwe

A medieval (c. 1220–1450) kingdom located in modern-day Zimbabwe. Its capital, Great Zimbabwe, is the largest stone structure in precolonial Southern Africa.

A ruined city in the southeastern hills of Zimbabwe near Lake Mutirikwe and the town of Masvingo. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country’s Late Iron Age. Construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century. It is believed to have served as a royal palace for the local monarch. As such, it would have been used as the seat of political power.

A group of Bantu people in Zimbabwe and some neighboring countries. The main part of them is divided into five major clans and adjacent to some people of very similar culture and languages. They created empires and states on the Zimbabwe plateau. These states include the Kingdom of Zimbabwe (12th–16th century), the Torwa State, and the Munhumutapa states.

A pre-colonial state in Southern Africa located at the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers, south of Great Zimbabwe. It was the first stage in a development that would culminate in the creation of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe in the 13th century and with gold trading links to Rhapta and Kilwa Kisiwani on the African east coast. It lasted about 80 years, and at its height its population was about 5,000 people.

Introduction

Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city in the southeastern hills of today’s Zimbabwe. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country’s Late Iron Age. Construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century. The exact identity of the Great Zimbabwe builders is at present unknown. Local traditions recorded in the 18th and 19th centuries assert that the stoneworks were constructed by the early Lemba. However, the most popular modern archaeological theory is that the edifices were erected by the ancestral Shona.

Origins and Growth

Construction of the stone buildings started in the 11th century and continued for over 300 years. The ruins at Great Zimbabwe are some of the oldest and largest structures in Southern Africa; they are the second oldest after nearby Mapungubwe in South Africa. The most formidable edifice, commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure, makes it the largest ancient structure south of the Sahara Desert. David Beach believes that the city and its state, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, flourished from 1200 to 1500, although a somewhat earlier date for its demise is implied by a description transmitted in the early 1500s to João de Barros. Its growth has been linked to the decline of Mapungubwe from around 1300, due to climatic change or the greater availability of gold in the hinterland of Great Zimbabwe. At its peak, estimates are that Great Zimbabwe had as many as 18,000 inhabitants. The ruins that survive are built entirely of stone, and they span 730 ha (1,800 acres).

Archaeological evidence suggests that Great Zimbabwe became a center for trading, with a trade network linked to Kilwa Kisiwani (the historic center of the Kilwa Sultanate; off the southern coast of present-day Tanzania in eastern Africa)and extending as far as China. This international trade was mainly in gold and ivory. Some estimates indicate that more than 20 million ounces of gold were extracted from the ground. That international commerce was in addition to the local agricultural trade, in which cattle were especially important. The large cattle herd that supplied the city moved seasonally and was managed by the court. Archaeological evidence also suggests a high degree of social stratification, with poorer residents living outside of the city. Chinese pottery shards, coins from Arabia, glass beads, and other non-local items have been excavated. Despite these strong international trade links, there is no evidence to suggest exchange of architectural concepts between Great Zimbabwe and other centers such as Kilwa Kisiwani.

A tower of Great Zimbabwe Great Zimbabwe is notable for its advanced masonry techniques. The ruins form three distinct architectural groups. They are known as the Hill Complex, the Valley Complex and the Great Enclosure. The Hill Complex is the oldest, and was occupied from the 9th to 13th centuries. The Great Enclosure was occupied from the 13th to 15th centuries, and the Valley Complex from the 14th to 16th centuries.

The Kingdom of Zimbabwe, of which Great Zimbabwe was the capital, existed between circa 1220 and 1450 in modern-day Zimbabwe. Although it was formally established during the medieval period, archaeological excavations suggest that state formation here was considerably more ancient. In the early 11th century, people from the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in Southern Africa are believed to have settled on the Zimbabwe plateau. There, they would establish the Kingdom of Zimbabwe around 1220. Sixteenth-century records left by the explorer João de Barros indicate that Great Zimbabwe appears to have still been inhabited as recently as the early 1500s.

The rulers of Zimbabwe brought artistic and stone masonry traditions from Mapungubwe. The construction of elaborate stone buildings and walls reached its apex in the kingdom. The kingdom taxed other rulers throughout the region. It was composed of over 150 tributaries headquartered in their own minor zimbabwes (stone structures). The Kingdom controlled the ivory and gold trade from the interior to the southeastern coast of Africa. Asian and Arabic goods could be found in abundance. The Great Zimbabwe people mined minerals like gold, copper, and iron. They also kept livestock.

Decline of the State and the City

Causes suggested for the decline and ultimate abandonment of the city of Great Zimbabwe have included a decline in trade compared to sites further north, the exhaustion of the gold mines, political instability, and famine and water shortages induced by climatic change.Around 1430, prince Nyatsimba Mutota from Great Zimbabwe traveled north in search of salt among the Shona-Tavara. He defeated the Tonga and Tavara with his army and established his dynasty at Chitakochangonya Hill. The land he conquered would become the Kingdom of Mutapa. Within a generation, Mutapa eclipsed Great Zimbabwe as the economic and political power in Zimbabwe. By 1450, the capital and most of the kingdom had been abandoned.

The end of the kingdom resulted in a fragmentation of proto-Shona power. Two bases emerged along a north-south axis. In the north, the Kingdom of Mutapa carried on and even improved upon Zimbabwe’s administrative structure. It did not carry on the stone masonry tradition to the extent of its predecessor. In the south, the Kingdom of Butua was established as a smaller but nearly identical version of Zimbabwe. Both states were eventually absorbed into the largest and most powerful of the Kalanga states, the Rozwi Empire.

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Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology pp 4696–4709 Cite as

Great Zimbabwe, 1100–1600 AD, Rise, Development, and Demise of

• Innocent Pikirayi 2  
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• First Online: 26 October 2020

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State of Knowledge and Current Debates

Introduction.

Since the monumental architecture of Great Zimbabwe and sites related to it became known to Westerners in the sixteenth century, the scope and grandeur of the site has never ceased to amaze observers. From the days of the earliest Portuguese travelers’ narratives, speculation about the site has been continuous and inventive. Since serious scholarly interest started in the late nineteenth century, debate on the origins, development, and decline of the culture once based there and later elsewhere has never stopped. With increased archaeological research throughout the twentieth century, and at the beginning of the twenty-first century, it has become even more complex. From the viewpoint of heritage, Great Zimbabwe is testimony to a major civilization that existed in Southern Africa between the eleventh and seventeenth centuries. The settlement, whose remains cover some 700 hectares, was an important trading center, connected to the...

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Pikirayi, I. (2020). Great Zimbabwe, 1100–1600 AD, Rise, Development, and Demise of. In: Smith, C. (eds) Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30018-0_2666

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Unesco social media, great zimbabwe national monument.

• Description

The ruins of Great Zimbabwe – the capital of the Queen of Sheba, according to an age-old legend – are a unique testimony to the Bantu civilization of the Shona between the 11th and 15th centuries. The city, which covers an area of nearly 80 ha, was an important trading centre and was renowned from the Middle Ages onwards.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Monument national du Grand Zimbabwe

Les ruines du Grand Zimbabwe, qui, selon une légende séculaire, aurait été la capitale de la reine de Saba, sont un témoignage unique de la civilisation bantoue des Shona entre le XI e et le XV e siècle. La ville, d'une superficie de près de 80 ha fut un centre d'échanges important, renommé dès le Moyen Âge.

نصب زيمبابوي الكبرى الوطني

تشكل انقاض زيمبابوي الكبرى التي كانت بحسب إحدى الأساطير العلمانية عاصمة ملكة سبأ شاهداً فريداً على حضارة البانتو الخاصة بقبائل شونا بين القرنين الحادي عشر والخامس عشر. وأصبحت المدينة الممتدة على مساحة تقارب 80 هكتاراً مركزاً هاماً للتبادل ذاعت شهرته منذ القرون الوسطى.

source: UNESCO/CPE Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

据一个古老的传说，大津巴布韦遗址是希巴皇后的首府，同时还是11世纪到15世纪期间绍纳城班图文明唯一的见证。这座城市面积将近80公顷，曾经是一个重要的贸易中心，自中世纪以来闻名于世。

Monumento nacional del Gran Zimbabwe

Las ruinas del Gran Zimbabwe –capital de la reina de Saba, según una vieja leyenda– son un testimonio excepcional de lo que fue la civilización bantú de los shona entre los siglos XI y XV. La ciudad, que abarcaba una superficie de unas 80 hectáreas, fue un importante centro de intercambios comerciales, muy conocido desde la Edad Media.

大ジンバブエ国立記念物

source: NFUAJ

Nationaal monument Groot Zimbabwe

Het Nationaal monument Groot Zimbabwe ligt op 30 km van Masvingo (voorheen Fort Victoria). Het gebied strekt zich uit over bijna 800 hectare en is verdeeld in de Hill ruins (heuvelruïnes), Great Enclosure (grote omheining) en de Valley ruins (valleiruïnes). De indrukwekkende ruïnes getuigen op een unieke manier van de Bantoebeschaving van de Shona zoals die was tussen de 11e en 15e eeuw. Volgens een eeuwenoude legende is Groot-Zimbabwe de hoofdstad van de koningin van Sheba. De stad - met een oppervlakte van bijna 80 hectare - was een belangrijk handelscentrum en gerenommeerd sinds de Middeleeuwen en daarna.

Source: unesco.nl

Outstanding Universal Value

Brief synthesis

Great Zimbabwe National Monument is approximately 30 km from Masvingo and located in the lowveld at an altitude of some 1100 m in a sparsely populated region of the Bantu/Shona people. The property, built between 1100 and 1450 AD, extends over almost 800 ha and is divided into three groups: the Hill Ruins, the Great Enclosure and the Valley Ruins.

The Hill Ruins, forming a huge granite mass atop a spur facing north-east/south-west, were continuously inhabited from the 11th to 15th centuries, and there are numerous layers of traces of human settlements. Rough granite rubble-stone blocks form distinct enclosures, accessed by narrow, partly covered, passageways. This acropolis is generally considered a 'royal city'; the west enclosure is thought to have been the residence of successive chiefs and the east enclosure, where six steatite upright posts topped with birds were found, considered to serve a ritual purpose.

The Great Enclosure, which has the form of an ellipsis, is located to the south of the hills and dates to the 14th century. It was built of cut granite blocks, laid in regular courses, and contains a series of daga-hut living quarters, a community area, and a narrow passage leading to a high conical tower. The bricks (daga) were made from a mixture of granitic sand and clay. Huts were built within the stone enclosure walls; inside each community area other walls mark off each family's area, generally comprising a kitchen, two living huts and a court.

The Valley Ruins are a series of living ensembles scattered throughout the valley which date to the 19th century. Each ensemble has similar characteristics: many constructions are in brick (huts, indoor flooring and benches, holders for recipients, basins, etc.) and dry stone masonry walls provide insulation for each ensemble. Resembling later developments of the Stone Age, the building work was carried out to a high standard of craftsmanship, incorporating an impressive display of chevron and chequered wall decorations.

Scientific research has proved that Great Zimbabwe was founded in the 11th century on a site which had been sparsely inhabited in the prehistoric period, by a Bantu population of the Iron Age, the Shona. In the 14th century, it was the principal city of a major state extending over the gold-rich plateaux; its population exceeded 10,000 inhabitants. About 1450, the capital was abandoned because the hinterland could no longer furnish food for the overpopulated city and because of deforestation. The resulting migration benefited Khami, which became the most influential city in the region, but signaled waning political power. When in 1505 the Portuguese settled in Sofala, the region was divided between the rival powers of the kingdoms of Torwa and Mwene-Mutapa.

Archaeological excavations have revealed glass beads and porcelain from China and Persia, and gold and Arab coins from Kilwa which testify to the extent of long-standing trade with the outer world. Other evidence, including potsherds and ironware, gives a further insight to the property’s socio-economic complexity and about farming and pastoral activities. A monumental granite cross, located at a traditionally revered and sacred spiritual site, also illustrates community contact with missionaries.

Criterion (i): A unique artistic achievement, this great city has struck the imagination of African and European travellers since the Middle Ages, as evidenced by the persistent legends which attribute to it a Biblical origin.

Criterion (iii): The ruins of Great Zimbabwe bear a unique testimony to the lost civilisation of the Shona between the 11th and 15th centuries.

Criterion (vi): The entire Zimbabwe nation has identified with this historically symbolic ensemble and has adopted as its emblem the steatite bird, which may have been a royal totem.

The property, extending to almost 800 ha, is considered relatively intact and of an appropriate size to maintain the diverse cultural needs, functions and interactions of the traditional and urban communities in an ongoing process. The boundaries and buffer zone have been delineated and are of sufficient size to contain the natural and aesthetic attributes of the property. It is well protected from modern environmental pressures and alternative land uses by surrounding cultural and traditional barriers, and by the traditional communities themselves.

The natural environment within and around the Great Zimbabwe Estate is important for the survival of the archaeological remains and the understanding of the relationship between the built environment and its setting. Measures need to be continued so that this important attribute continues to be protected. The natural fauna has to a large extent been eliminated by poaching and other means. Although the flora is not much different from the surrounding areas, it needs to be kept under control, particularly from the invasive lantana camara .

Authenticity

The authenticity of the property is unquestionable, particularly the fossil localities which need to remain undisturbed. It is a non-functional sacred archaeological site that is still being used by contemporary communities for spiritual reasons.

The method of construction is unique in African architecture and, although they are examples of similar work elsewhere, none are as distinguished and imposing as Great Zimbabwe. It is an edifice which emulates that of the prehistoric people and is unquestionably of Bantu origin. The Shona word Zimbabwe means the house in stone. The divine soapstone figurines, the Zimbabwe Birds, found within the ruins are testimony to the use of the site as place of worship spanning from the ancient past to the present day.

Decay phenomena have occurred due to variations in temperature, soil moisture content, and tourism pressure, encroaching invasive vegetation and improper preservation methods. All of these factors need to be controlled through a sustained conservation and maintenance plan to maintain the conditions of authenticity. Particular attention needs to be put on the conservation techniques and materials employed as well as on the application of conservation standards that meet international requirements but are balanced with traditional uses at the property. Provisions should also be made to accommodate rituals and practices that substantiate the associative values of the property.

Protection and management requirements

The site has been legally protected since 1893 and is currently protected under the National Museum & Monuments Act Chapter 25:11 (1976) which provides for the legal protection of the resources within the property.

The National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe (NMMZ), under the Ministry of Home Affairs, is the entity directly responsible for the management of the property. Funding for the management and conservation of the property comes mainly from the central government with limited income generated by entrance fees, accommodation and sale of publications which are used to finance projects at the national level at the discretion of the NMMZ Board of Trustees.

Although there are management arrangements for the property, an updated and integrated Management Plan is critical to ensure the long term conservation of the property and address existing factors mainly potential encroachments, impacts from unplanned or inappropriate tourism development and public use. Adequate financial resources need to be provided to ensure the sustained implementation of conservation, maintenance and monitoring activities and skilled staff needs to exist to mitigate the progressive deterioration of the historic fabric. The Management Plan should also emphasize the implementation of programmes to enhance community participation and promote the continuation of the religious functions of the site.

State of Conservation (SOC)

The Great Zimbabwe

Interactive Archeology: Unearthing the Truth: A Zimbabwean archeologist reimagines the story of a great civilization.  A virtual 3D tour of the Great Zimbabwe, with background information, an audio option for listening to the text. A must see resource!

Who built the Great Zimbabwe? And Why? A Ted-Ed Lesson by Breeanna Elliot

New Technology in Great Zimbabwe During the Iron Age

Introduction.

Great Zimbabwe is called the African Iron Age Capital because of the great contributions brought about by the new technology compared to other settlements in the 11 th  – 15 th  century. Great Zimbabwe is known as  “the cultural landscape carriers, arguably, one of the most extensive and diverse records of iron production technologies in South Africa.”[1] . Notably, the name Zimbabwe has a meaning in the Shona language as the “house of stone.” Most people living in Zimbabwe have an ancestral origin of the Shona people. Before the country gained independence in 1980, it was referred to as Rhodesia. Scholars have been skeptical in the past to acknowledge that the Southern region of Africa has adopted the new technological advancement. The country became the Iron Age capital because it started the iron production process as early as the 11 th  century before the introduction of technology in the 12 th  century but was fully actualized in the 16 th  century. However, archeological research and discoveries by scientists and European explorers show that the region had adopted new technology during its Iron Age period.[2]. The archeological findings and discoveries provide the basis for researching the significance of the new technology in the development of Great Zimbabwe. Therefore, the paper will seek to analyze how the new technology during the Iron Age help the development of Great Zimbabwe better in the 11 th  -15 th  century. It will show the thematic issues that made Great Zimbabwe better.

Research shows that the use of technological advancement in the Iron Age dates back to the early second millennium AD. During the ages, Great Zimbabwe was part of the archeological sites that experienced the technological wave. According to Mtetwa (2017), technological advancement was evident  “at the peak between the 12 th  and 16 th  century AD.”[3].  Thus, it shows that technological advancement from the 12 th  century was subsequently better than in the 11 th  century. However, the success of the technological advancement was evident at the end of the 15 century after the Shona society understood how to use the technological advancement. According to Mtetwa (2017), the discoveries that point to the roles played by technology after the 15 th  century in iron production were discovered in the 1890s. Thus, it shows that it took time before archeologists, explorers, and scientists discovered the technological advancement in ancient times in Great Zimbabwe.

Scholars and scientists were skeptical about addressing the existence of technological use in ancient times. Thus, the earliest literature on the use of technology in Great Zimbabwe needed to be expanded. However, archeological evidence has been significant in identifying the existence of the shaft furnace that signals the existence of iron production, dating back more than 1500 years. Some of the evidence was located between the Limpopo and the Zambezi rivers. Others that were associated with trade were located towards the North of Zambezi. Further, archeological reports showed the existence of iron remains in most of the southern corridor countries, including Malawi, Zambia, and Tanzania. The contradiction of the scholars on the existence of evidence that technology was used in the past within Great Zimbabwe prompted the physical visits by archeologists to the various sites that were believed to play host to iron production in the past. The sites include the Baranda, Bondlfi, Swartkrans, Boroma, and Veza, among other areas suspected to have been involved in iron production and trade, including nearby areas. The findings of the site visitations are captured in the literature review to understand the role played by technology during the Iron Age in developing Great Zimbabwe.

Literature Review

Early archeological site visits to the physical landscape of the regions that facilitated iron production in Zimbabwe show that technology was in play. Research by Mtetwa (2021) highlights that preview of the Great Zimbabwe archeological sites that are located southern region of the Zimbabwe plateau. The mountains and the physical terrains within Great Zimbabwe’s regions depicted evidence of ironstones. According to the archeological study,  “these iron-rich ores sustained pre-industrial iron metal-lurgy in the area.”[4].  The show of the pre-industrial iron metallurgy is evidence that the ancient people living in Great Zimbabwe took part in iron production and trade. Other regions, including the areas of Bondolfi, showed evidence of the existence of gold mines due to the presence of gold deposits in the sites still mined to date. A German explorer, Carl Mauch revealed that the regions within Great Zimbabwe had evidence of holes and physical disturbance of the mountains and land which shows that there was mining or processing which took place in the past in the area. The visits to the various cities showed iron-related activities that took place in a specific place in ancient times. Therefore, it is evident that iron production and trading took place in Great Zimbabwe.

Literature on the findings from the archeological sites believed to have played host to iron production was significant in understanding the role of new technology. Research by Mtetwa (2017) on different archeological sites shows that technology was applied in several ways to extract and produce metals during the Iron Age era. Notably, most of the extraction sites visible today are within the urban cities illustrating that the activities during those ancient times were significant in developing specific regions. Metals were extracted in the form of tag slag, draft furnaces, and rectangular furnace design, which were substantial in informing the archeologist about technology’s role in establishing Great Zimbabwe. Zambezi and Mashava sites where tap slag was showed how technology was utilized in production. According to the author,  “the presence of large natural draft furnaces in the Chigaramboni hills, Mashava, Boroma, Mutevedzi, and Veza sites represents a significant change in technology.”[5].  The change in the technology from the old model that was used from the 11 th  to 15 th  century boosted the region’s economic, social, and political status. Thus, the country could increase its production units because of the efficacy provided by the new technology.

Further, the technological advancement during Iron Age facilitated the growth in trade and operations. Mtetwa (2017) explains that  “the coveted iron from the interior southern Africa traded along the Mozambican Coast during AI Idrisi’s visit in 1154 derived from the iron industry of the great Zimbabwe”[6].  The literature shows that technological development facilitated regional trade growth. Notably, the finance production was done pumping the bellows, an advanced method that was  “driven by air sucked in at the base as buoyant hot air rises through the chimney  compared to the earlier operations. The production of furnaces in the early 11 th  century used the mechanical forced draft technology used to pump the bellows. Therefore, the former used less energy than what was used in pushing the bellows, reducing the hours used in production. Thus, every person in society, including women, could participate in the production process rather than rely on men because of the energy needed. Therefore, societal participation in the production unit prompted significant unity in increasing production for trade.

World archeological conferences have referred to the Iron Age activities as more of a social than a technical aspect. During the Eighth World archeological Congress in Kyoto, Japan compelled more research into the social aspects of the metal presence in Africa. The conference aimed to analyze the roles of metals in societies’ development. The conference  “called for discussion on multiple issues embedded in social archaeometallurgy.”[7] Reflected on the early push by the mining conference held in Lake Como, Italy. During the conference, the participants made a rallying call to the scientist and the archeologist to delve into the metal mining issue among communities as a social phenomenon. Research shows that the metal or iron mining era developed society socially because both the communities participating in the metal works included men and women.

Further, research by Chirikure shows that the presence of metal production and trade facilitated the development of Great Zimbabwe politically. According to the author Africa received little attention from the international community and the non-African archeologist. At the start of this paper, we acknowledged that scholars were skeptical of recording or documenting the existence of iron ores in Africa. However, the archeological and comparative historical data analysis shows that Africa was under reconfiguration and configuration of its economic and political system. The research concludes that iron has a worldview interest because of its value. Thus, iron production and trading was an African identity that gave the African leaders the limelight of being recognized by a powerful nation. This would create a power structure where the traders, archeologists, explorers, and those who wished to do business would have to meet with the Great Zimbabwe leaders. Thus, it allowed for the negotiation, creation, and institutionalization of political power. Therefore, Great Zimbabwe was aided by the expansion of iron production and trading caused by technological advancements.[8].

The new technology during the Iron Age was significant in promoting industrial activities. Literature shows that the new technology led to the establishment of Great Zimbabwe as a hub of socio-political transformations. Notably, the iron works prompted the community members to participate in social activities and production where both members of the society, including men and women, were iron producers. Thus, they could produce materials and participate in everyday activities, significantly developing great Zimbabwe. Notably, archeological sites revealed the existence of large-scale industrial iron production signifying the technical works that facilitated the development of Great Zimbabwe. Technology was used in metal extraction, processing, and novel design in slap slagging obtained from the Zambezi River.[9]. However, another production process, categorized as domestic extraction, took place within the settlements where every person could access and participate in the activities. Therefore, the literature evidence shows that the new technology was utilized to decentralize the production process and increase the significant industrial activities in the Great Zimbabwe development.

Further, the production process during the Iron Age contributed to increased trade activities and Great Zimbabwe’s economic boost. The adoption of decentralized methods of production due to the widespread use of technology means that Great Zimbabwe was a hub of production, attracting global trade. Early-age explorers acknowledged that the trade prevalence was increasing in Southern Africa because of the innovations and adoption of new technology for production. The production at extraction sites and household levels attracted an extensive trade network. Thus, the attraction of the global trade network became the foundation for the country’s economic boost. Research on ancient trade history shows that most Southern African countries participated in trade which was a major economic boost and a driver for stability and development. Relatively, the trade practice that originated from ancient times has culminated in being the solution to the collapsing economy of Great Zimbabwe in the 21 st  century. Thus, it shows that the foundation in ancient times sustains the country to date.[10].

Further, the Iron Age period shaped the social and political framework of Great Zimbabwe. Notably, iron technology facilitated all genders to participate in the production. Women conducted production domestically. Literature shows that the  “female chief negotiated her way into iron production usually viewed as a male domain.  The advancement aided the penetration of technology in society. Thus, women deemed weak were aware and able to contribute to the production processes. Notably, the new technology equipped everyone with skills and knowledge to facilitate the production process. Thus, the Iron Age’s technological advancement improved the social status of the people because they participated in trade and other economic-oriented activities. Some of the literature suggests that technological advancement led to the establishment of urban cities that became the hub for the trade of the products produced. Additionally, the new technology contributed to the political and environmental system development. The political system was developed to protect Great Zimbabwe’s resources and establishment of structures that would facilitate smooth trade. The political leadership negotiated and provided an enabling environment that would befit the production and trade with other nations.[11].

In conclusion, new technology was a significant element in the development of Great Zimbabwe during the Iron Age. Notably, iron production’s prevalence positioned the country and the Shona community on the map of the world because of its value. Also, I was not the expectation of the scholars that a country deep in Africa would utilize technology in its mining and iron production. However, archeological research and visits show that Great Zimbabwe used new technology during the pre-colonial period. The success associated with using the new technology was not recognizable at the time because of the limited research methods. However, the outcome of the research that took place in the recent past show that the new technology use had an impact on the development of Great Zimbabwe. Some iconic developments include increased industrial activities due to the production process within the mining sites and domestically. Further, Great Zimbabwe became established in trade because the new technology enabled the producers to increase output. Lastly, technology promoted the socio-political aspects of society because the increase in the economy was significant for establishing a stable society. The research is wide and may not be completed within one research paper. There is a need to research the situation of the Great Zimbabwe infrastructure and the role played by the colonizers after knowing of the existence of such a significant resource.

Chirikure, S. (2007). Metals in society: Iron production and its position in Iron Age communities of southern Africa.  Journal of Social Archaeology ,  7 (1), 72-100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469605307073164

Mtetwa, E. (2017).  Technology, ideology, and environment: the social dynamics of iron metallurgy in Great Zimbabwe, AD 900 to the present  (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History). https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1162620/FULLTEXT01.pdf

Hirst, K. K. (2019, May 30).  The Great Stone House of Shona Ancestors: Great Zimbabwe . ThoughtCo. Retrieved March 20, 2023, from https://www.thoughtco.com/great-zimbabwe-african-iron-age-capital-171118

Mtetwa, E. (2021). Diversity and Variability in the Pre-industrial Iron-Smelting Technologies of Great Zimbabwe, Southern Africa. In  Africa, the Cradle of Human Diversity  (pp. 148-176). Brill. https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/52526/9789004500228.pdf?sequence=1#page=158

[1] Mtetwa, E. (2017).  Technology, ideology, and environment: the social dynamics of iron metallurgy in Great Zimbabwe, AD 900 to the present  (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History).

[2] Hirst, K. K. (2019, May 30).  The Great Stone House of Shona Ancestors: Great Zimbabwe . ThoughtCo. Retrieved March 20, 2023, from https://www.thoughtco.com/great-zimbabwe-african-iron-age-capital-171118

[3] Mtetwa, E. (2017).  Technology, ideology, and environment: the social dynamics of iron metallurgy in Great Zimbabwe, AD 900 to the present  (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History).

[4] Mtetwa, E. (2021). Diversity and Variability in the Pre-industrial Iron-Smelting Technologies of Great Zimbabwe, Southern Africa. In  Africa, the Cradle of Human Diversity  (pp. 148-176). Brill.

[5] Mtetwa, E. (2017).  Technology, ideology, and environment: the social dynamics of iron metallurgy in Great Zimbabwe, AD 900 to the present  (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History).

[6] Mtetwa, E. (2017).  Technology, ideology, and environment: the social dynamics of iron metallurgy in Great Zimbabwe, AD 900 to the present  (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History).

[7] Mtetwa, E. (2017).  Technology, ideology, and environment: the social dynamics of iron metallurgy in Great Zimbabwe, AD 900 to the present  (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History).

[8] Chirikure, S. (2007). Metals in society: Iron production and its position in Iron Age communities of southern Africa.  Journal of Social Archaeology ,  7 (1), 72-100.

[9] Mtetwa, E. (2017).  Technology, ideology, and environment: the social dynamics of iron metallurgy in Great Zimbabwe, AD 900 to the present  (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History).

[10] Mtetwa, E. (2017).  Technology, ideology, and environment: the social dynamics of iron metallurgy in Great Zimbabwe, AD 900 to the present  (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History).

[11] Mtetwa, E. (2017).  Technology, ideology, and environment: the social dynamics of iron metallurgy in Great Zimbabwe, AD 900 to the present  (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History).

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