research paper topics vocabulary

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100+ Research Vocabulary Words & Phrases

The academic community can be conservative when it comes to enforcing academic writing style , but your writing shouldn’t be so boring that people lose interest midway through the first paragraph! Given that competition is at an all-time high for academics looking to publish their papers, we know you must be anxious about what you can do to improve your publishing odds.

To be sure, your research must be sound, your paper must be structured logically, and the different manuscript sections must contain the appropriate information. But your research must also be clearly explained. Clarity obviously depends on the correct use of English, and there are many common mistakes that you should watch out for, for example when it comes to articles , prepositions , word choice , and even punctuation . But even if you are on top of your grammar and sentence structure, you can still make your writing more compelling (or more boring) by using powerful verbs and phrases (vs the same weaker ones over and over). So, how do you go about achieving the latter?

Below are a few ways to breathe life into your writing.

1. Analyze Vocabulary Using Word Clouds

Have you heard of “Wordles”? A Wordle is a visual representation of words, with the size of each word being proportional to the number of times it appears in the text it is based on. The original company website seems to have gone out of business, but there are a number of free word cloud generation sites that allow you to copy and paste your draft manuscript into a text box to quickly discover how repetitive your writing is and which verbs you might want to replace to improve your manuscript.

Seeing a visual word cloud of your work might also help you assess the key themes and points readers will glean from your paper. If the Wordle result displays words you hadn’t intended to emphasize, then that’s a sign you should revise your paper to make sure readers will focus on the right information.

As an example, below is a Wordle of our article entitled, “ How to Choose the Best title for Your Journal Manuscript .” You can see how frequently certain terms appear in that post, based on the font size of the text. The keywords, “titles,” “journal,” “research,” and “papers,” were all the intended focus of our blog post.

2. Study Language Patterns of Similarly Published Works

Study the language pattern found in the most downloaded and cited articles published by your target journal. Understanding the journal’s editorial preferences will help you write in a style that appeals to the publication’s readership.

Another way to analyze the language of a target journal’s papers is to use Wordle (see above). If you copy and paste the text of an article related to your research topic into the applet, you can discover the common phrases and terms the paper’s authors used.

For example, if you were writing a paper on links between smoking and cancer , you might look for a recent review on the topic, preferably published by your target journal. Copy and paste the text into Wordle and examine the key phrases to see if you’ve included similar wording in your own draft. The Wordle result might look like the following, based on the example linked above.

research words and phrases word cloud, cancer study

If you are not sure yet where to publish and just want some generally good examples of descriptive verbs, analytical verbs, and reporting verbs that are commonly used in academic writing, then have a look at this list of useful phrases for research papers .

3. Use More Active and Precise Verbs

Have you heard of synonyms? Of course you have. But have you looked beyond single-word replacements and rephrased entire clauses with stronger, more vivid ones? You’ll find this task is easier to do if you use the active voice more often than the passive voice . Even if you keep your original sentence structure, you can eliminate weak verbs like “be” from your draft and choose more vivid and precise action verbs. As always, however, be careful about using only a thesaurus to identify synonyms. Make sure the substitutes fit the context in which you need a more interesting or “perfect” word. Online dictionaries such as the Merriam-Webster and the Cambridge Dictionary are good sources to check entire phrases in context in case you are unsure whether a synonym is a good match for a word you want to replace.

To help you build a strong arsenal of commonly used phrases in academic papers, we’ve compiled a list of synonyms you might want to consider when drafting or editing your research paper . While we do not suggest that the phrases in the “Original Word/Phrase” column should be completely avoided, we do recommend interspersing these with the more dynamic terms found under “Recommended Substitutes.”

A. Describing the scope of a current project or prior research

B. outlining a topic’s background, c. describing the analytical elements of a paper, d. discussing results, e. discussing methods, f. explaining the impact of new research, wordvice writing resources.

For additional information on how to tighten your sentences (e.g., eliminate wordiness and use active voice to greater effect), you can try Wordvice’s FREE APA Citation Generator and learn more about how to proofread and edit your paper to ensure your work is free of errors.

Before submitting your manuscript to academic journals, be sure to use our free AI proofreader to catch errors in grammar, spelling, and mechanics. And use our English editing services from Wordvice, including academic editing services , cover letter editing , manuscript editing , and research paper editing services to make sure your work is up to a high academic level.

We also have a collection of other useful articles for you, for example on how to strengthen your writing style , how to avoid fillers to write more powerful sentences , and how to eliminate prepositions and avoid nominalizations . Additionally, get advice on all the other important aspects of writing a research paper on our academic resources pages .

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 113 great research paper topics.

General Education

One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

Current Events

What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
Should graduate students be able to form unions?

What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
How does stress affect the body?
Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
What were the causes of the Civil War?
How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
What caused Hitler's rise to power?
Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
What are the pros and cons of fracking?
What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
How are black holes created?
Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
Has social media made people more or less connected?
What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

What's Next?

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Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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50 Useful Academic Words & Phrases for Research

Like all good writing, writing an academic paper takes a certain level of skill to express your ideas and arguments in a way that is natural and that meets a level of academic sophistication. The terms, expressions, and phrases you use in your research paper must be of an appropriate level to be submitted to academic journals.

Therefore, authors need to know which verbs , nouns , and phrases to apply to create a paper that is not only easy to understand, but which conveys an understanding of academic conventions. Using the correct terminology and usage shows journal editors and fellow researchers that you are a competent writer and thinker, while using non-academic language might make them question your writing ability, as well as your critical reasoning skills.

What are academic words and phrases?

One way to understand what constitutes good academic writing is to read a lot of published research to find patterns of usage in different contexts. However, it may take an author countless hours of reading and might not be the most helpful advice when faced with an upcoming deadline on a manuscript draft.

Briefly, “academic” language includes terms, phrases, expressions, transitions, and sometimes symbols and abbreviations that help the pieces of an academic text fit together. When writing an academic text–whether it is a book report, annotated bibliography, research paper, research poster, lab report, research proposal, thesis, or manuscript for publication–authors must follow academic writing conventions. You can often find handy academic writing tips and guidelines by consulting the style manual of the text you are writing (i.e., APA Style , MLA Style , or Chicago Style ).

However, sometimes it can be helpful to have a list of academic words and expressions like the ones in this article to use as a “cheat sheet” for substituting the better term in a given context.

How to Choose the Best Academic Terms

You can think of writing “academically” as writing in a way that conveys one’s meaning effectively but concisely. For instance, while the term “take a look at” is a perfectly fine way to express an action in everyday English, a term like “analyze” would certainly be more suitable in most academic contexts. It takes up fewer words on the page and is used much more often in published academic papers.

You can use one handy guideline when choosing the most academic term: When faced with a choice between two different terms, use the Latinate version of the term. Here is a brief list of common verbs versus their academic counterparts:

Although this can be a useful tip to help academic authors, it can be difficult to memorize dozens of Latinate verbs. Using an AI paraphrasing tool or proofreading tool can help you instantly find more appropriate academic terms, so consider using such revision tools while you draft to improve your writing.

Top 50 Words and Phrases for Different Sections in a Research Paper

The “Latinate verb rule” is just one tool in your arsenal of academic writing, and there are many more out there. But to make the process of finding academic language a bit easier for you, we have compiled a list of 50 vital academic words and phrases, divided into specific categories and use cases, each with an explanation and contextual example.

Best Words and Phrases to use in an Introduction section

1. historically.

An adverb used to indicate a time perspective, especially when describing the background of a given topic.

2. In recent years

A temporal marker emphasizing recent developments, often used at the very beginning of your Introduction section.

3. It is widely acknowledged that

A “form phrase” indicating a broad consensus among researchers and/or the general public. Often used in the literature review section to build upon a foundation of established scientific knowledge.

4. There has been growing interest in

Highlights increasing attention to a topic and tells the reader why your study might be important to this field of research.

5. Preliminary observations indicate

Shares early insights or findings while hedging on making any definitive conclusions. Modal verbs like may , might , and could are often used with this expression.

6. This study aims to

Describes the goal of the research and is a form phrase very often used in the research objective or even the hypothesis of a research paper .

7. Despite its significance

Highlights the importance of a matter that might be overlooked. It is also frequently used in the rationale of the study section to show how your study’s aim and scope build on previous studies.

8. While numerous studies have focused on

Indicates the existing body of work on a topic while pointing to the shortcomings of certain aspects of that research. Helps focus the reader on the question, “What is missing from our knowledge of this topic?” This is often used alongside the statement of the problem in research papers.

9. The purpose of this research is

A form phrase that directly states the aim of the study.

10. The question arises (about/whether)

Poses a query or research problem statement for the reader to acknowledge.

Best Words and Phrases for Clarifying Information

11. in other words.

Introduces a synopsis or the rephrasing of a statement for clarity. This is often used in the Discussion section statement to explain the implications of the study .

12. That is to say

Provides clarification, similar to “in other words.”

13. To put it simply

Simplifies a complex idea, often for a more general readership.

14. To clarify

Specifically indicates to the reader a direct elaboration of a previous point.

15. More specifically

Narrows down a general statement from a broader one. Often used in the Discussion section to clarify the meaning of a specific result.

16. To elaborate

Expands on a point made previously.

17. In detail

Indicates a deeper dive into information.

Points out specifics. Similar meaning to “specifically” or “especially.”

19. This means that

Explains implications and/or interprets the meaning of the Results section .

20. Moreover

Expands a prior point to a broader one that shows the greater context or wider argument.

Best Words and Phrases for Giving Examples

21. for instance.

Provides a specific case that fits into the point being made.

22. As an illustration

Demonstrates a point in full or in part.

23. To illustrate

Shows a clear picture of the point being made.

24. For example

Presents a particular instance. Same meaning as “for instance.”

25. Such as

Lists specifics that comprise a broader category or assertion being made.

26. Including

Offers examples as part of a larger list.

27. Notably

Adverb highlighting an important example. Similar meaning to “especially.”

28. Especially

Adverb that emphasizes a significant instance.

29. In particular

Draws attention to a specific point.

30. To name a few

Indicates examples than previously mentioned are about to be named.

Best Words and Phrases for Comparing and Contrasting

31. however.

Introduces a contrasting idea.

32. On the other hand

Highlights an alternative view or fact.

33. Conversely

Indicates an opposing or reversed idea to the one just mentioned.

34. Similarly

Shows likeness or parallels between two ideas, objects, or situations.

35. Likewise

Indicates agreement with a previous point.

36. In contrast

Draws a distinction between two points.

37. Nevertheless

Introduces a contrasting point, despite what has been said.

38. Whereas

Compares two distinct entities or ideas.

Indicates a contrast between two points.

Signals an unexpected contrast.

Best Words and Phrases to use in a Conclusion section

41. in conclusion.

Signifies the beginning of the closing argument.

42. To sum up

Offers a brief summary.

43. In summary

Signals a concise recap.

44. Ultimately

Reflects the final or main point.

45. Overall

Gives a general concluding statement.

Indicates a resulting conclusion.

Demonstrates a logical conclusion.

48. Therefore

Connects a cause and its effect.

49. It can be concluded that

Clearly states a conclusion derived from the data.

50. Taking everything into consideration

Reflects on all the discussed points before concluding.

Edit Your Research Terms and Phrases Before Submission

Using these phrases in the proper places in your research papers can enhance the clarity, flow, and persuasiveness of your writing, especially in the Introduction section and Discussion section, which together make up the majority of your paper’s text in most academic domains.

However, it's vital to ensure each phrase is contextually appropriate to avoid redundancy or misinterpretation. As mentioned at the top of this article, the best way to do this is to 1) use an AI text editor , free AI paraphrasing tool or AI proofreading tool while you draft to enhance your writing, and 2) consult a professional proofreading service like Wordvice, which has human editors well versed in the terminology and conventions of the specific subject area of your academic documents.

For more detailed information on using AI tools to write a research paper and the best AI tools for research , check out the Wordvice AI Blog .

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211 Research Topics in Linguistics To Get Top Grades

Many people find it hard to decide on their linguistics research topics because of the assumed complexities involved. They struggle to choose easy research paper topics for English language too because they think it could be too simple for a university or college level certificate.

All that you need to learn about Linguistics and English is sprawled across syntax, phonetics, morphology, phonology, semantics, grammar, vocabulary, and a few others. To easily create a top-notch essay or conduct a research study, you can consider this list of research topics in English language below for your university or college use. Note that you can fine-tune these to suit your interests.

Linguistics Research Paper Topics

If you want to study how language is applied and its importance in the world, you can consider these Linguistics topics for your research paper. They are:

An analysis of romantic ideas and their expression amongst French people
An overview of the hate language in the course against religion
Identify the determinants of hate language and the means of propagation
Evaluate a literature and examine how Linguistics is applied to the understanding of minor languages
Consider the impact of social media in the development of slangs
An overview of political slang and its use amongst New York teenagers
Examine the relevance of Linguistics in a digitalized world
Analyze foul language and how it’s used to oppress minors
Identify the role of language in the national identity of a socially dynamic society
Attempt an explanation to how the language barrier could affect the social life of an individual in a new society
Discuss the means through which language can enrich cultural identities
Examine the concept of bilingualism and how it applies in the real world
Analyze the possible strategies for teaching a foreign language
Discuss the priority of teachers in the teaching of grammar to non-native speakers
Choose a school of your choice and observe the slang used by its students: analyze how it affects their social lives
Attempt a critical overview of racist languages
What does endangered language means and how does it apply in the real world?
A critical overview of your second language and why it is a second language
What are the motivators of speech and why are they relevant?
Analyze the difference between the different types of communications and their significance to specially-abled persons
Give a critical overview of five literature on sign language
Evaluate the distinction between the means of language comprehension between an adult and a teenager
Consider a native American group and evaluate how cultural diversity has influenced their language
Analyze the complexities involved in code-switching and code-mixing
Give a critical overview of the importance of language to a teenager
Attempt a forensic overview of language accessibility and what it means
What do you believe are the means of communications and what are their uniqueness?
Attempt a study of Islamic poetry and its role in language development
Attempt a study on the role of Literature in language development
Evaluate the Influence of metaphors and other literary devices in the depth of each sentence
Identify the role of literary devices in the development of proverbs in any African country
Cognitive Linguistics: analyze two pieces of Literature that offers a critical view of perception
Identify and analyze the complexities in unspoken words
Expression is another kind of language: discuss
Identify the significance of symbols in the evolution of language
Discuss how learning more than a single language promote cross-cultural developments
Analyze how the loss of a mother tongue affect the language Efficiency of a community
Critically examine how sign language works
Using literature from the medieval era, attempt a study of the evolution of language
Identify how wars have led to the reduction in the popularity of a language of your choice across any country of the world
Critically examine five Literature on why accent changes based on environment
What are the forces that compel the comprehension of language in a child
Identify and explain the difference between the listening and speaking skills and their significance in the understanding of language
Give a critical overview of how natural language is processed
Examine the influence of language on culture and vice versa
It is possible to understand a language even without living in that society: discuss
Identify the arguments regarding speech defects
Discuss how the familiarity of language informs the creation of slangs
Explain the significance of religious phrases and sacred languages
Explore the roots and evolution of incantations in Africa

Sociolinguistic Research Topics

You may as well need interesting Linguistics topics based on sociolinguistic purposes for your research. Sociolinguistics is the study and recording of natural speech. It’s primarily the casual status of most informal conversations. You can consider the following Sociolinguistic research topics for your research:

What makes language exceptional to a particular person?
How does language form a unique means of expression to writers?
Examine the kind of speech used in health and emergencies
Analyze the language theory explored by family members during dinner
Evaluate the possible variation of language based on class
Evaluate the language of racism, social tension, and sexism
Discuss how Language promotes social and cultural familiarities
Give an overview of identity and language
Examine why some language speakers enjoy listening to foreigners who speak their native language
Give a forensic analysis of his the language of entertainment is different to the language in professional settings
Give an understanding of how Language changes
Examine the Sociolinguistics of the Caribbeans
Consider an overview of metaphor in France
Explain why the direct translation of written words is incomprehensible in Linguistics
Discuss the use of language in marginalizing a community
Analyze the history of Arabic and the culture that enhanced it
Discuss the growth of French and the influences of other languages
Examine how the English language developed and its interdependence on other languages
Give an overview of cultural diversity and Linguistics in teaching
Challenge the attachment of speech defect with disability of language listening and speaking abilities
Explore the uniqueness of language between siblings
Explore the means of making requests between a teenager and his parents
Observe and comment on how students relate with their teachers through language
Observe and comment on the communication of strategy of parents and teachers
Examine the connection of understanding first language with academic excellence

Language Research Topics

Numerous languages exist in different societies. This is why you may seek to understand the motivations behind language through these Linguistics project ideas. You can consider the following interesting Linguistics topics and their application to language:

What does language shift mean?
Discuss the stages of English language development?
Examine the position of ambiguity in a romantic Language of your choice
Why are some languages called romantic languages?
Observe the strategies of persuasion through Language
Discuss the connection between symbols and words
Identify the language of political speeches
Discuss the effectiveness of language in an indigenous cultural revolution
Trace the motivators for spoken language
What does language acquisition mean to you?
Examine three pieces of literature on language translation and its role in multilingual accessibility
Identify the science involved in language reception
Interrogate with the context of language disorders
Examine how psychotherapy applies to victims of language disorders
Study the growth of Hindi despite colonialism
Critically appraise the term, language erasure
Examine how colonialism and war is responsible for the loss of language
Give an overview of the difference between sounds and letters and how they apply to the German language
Explain why the placement of verb and preposition is different in German and English languages
Choose two languages of your choice and examine their historical relationship
Discuss the strategies employed by people while learning new languages
Discuss the role of all the figures of speech in the advancement of language
Analyze the complexities of autism and its victims
Offer a linguist approach to language uniqueness between a Down Syndrome child and an autist
Express dance as a language
Express music as a language
Express language as a form of language
Evaluate the role of cultural diversity in the decline of languages in South Africa
Discuss the development of the Greek language
Critically review two literary texts, one from the medieval era and another published a decade ago, and examine the language shifts

Linguistics Essay Topics

You may also need Linguistics research topics for your Linguistics essays. As a linguist in the making, these can help you consider controversies in Linguistics as a discipline and address them through your study. You can consider:

The connection of sociolinguistics in comprehending interests in multilingualism
Write on your belief of how language encourages sexism
What do you understand about the differences between British and American English?
Discuss how slangs grew and how they started
Consider how age leads to loss of language
Review how language is used in formal and informal conversation
Discuss what you understand by polite language
Discuss what you know by hate language
Evaluate how language has remained flexible throughout history
Mimicking a teacher is a form of exercising hate Language: discuss
Body Language and verbal speech are different things: discuss
Language can be exploitative: discuss
Do you think language is responsible for inciting aggression against the state?
Can you justify the structural representation of any symbol of your choice?
Religious symbols are not ordinary Language: what are your perspective on day-to-day languages and sacred ones?
Consider the usage of language by an English man and someone of another culture
Discuss the essence of code-mixing and code-switching
Attempt a psychological assessment on the role of language in academic development
How does language pose a challenge to studying?
Choose a multicultural society of your choice and explain the problem they face
What forms does Language use in expression?
Identify the reasons behind unspoken words and actions
Why do universal languages exist as a means of easy communication?
Examine the role of the English language in the world
Examine the role of Arabic in the world
Examine the role of romantic languages in the world
Evaluate the significance of each teaching Resources in a language classroom
Consider an assessment of language analysis
Why do people comprehend beyond what is written or expressed?
What is the impact of hate speech on a woman?
Do you believe that grammatical errors are how everyone’s comprehension of language is determined?
Observe the Influence of technology in language learning and development
Which parts of the body are responsible for understanding new languages
How has language informed development?
Would you say language has improved human relations or worsened it considering it as a tool for violence?
Would you say language in a black populous state is different from its social culture in white populous states?
Give an overview of the English language in Nigeria
Give an overview of the English language in Uganda
Give an overview of the English language in India
Give an overview of Russian in Europe
Give a conceptual analysis on stress and how it works
Consider the means of vocabulary development and its role in cultural relationships
Examine the effects of Linguistics in language
Present your understanding of sign language
What do you understand about descriptive language and prescriptive Language?

List of Research Topics in English Language

You may need English research topics for your next research. These are topics that are socially crafted for you as a student of language in any institution. You can consider the following for in-depth analysis:

Examine the travail of women in any feminist text of your choice
Examine the movement of feminist literature in the Industrial period
Give an overview of five Gothic literature and what you understand from them
Examine rock music and how it emerged as a genre
Evaluate the cultural association with Nina Simone’s music
What is the relevance of Shakespeare in English literature?
How has literature promoted the English language?
Identify the effect of spelling errors in the academic performance of students in an institution of your choice
Critically survey a university and give rationalize the literary texts offered as Significant
Examine the use of feminist literature in advancing the course against patriarchy
Give an overview of the themes in William Shakespeare’s “Julius Caesar”
Express the significance of Ernest Hemingway’s diction in contemporary literature
Examine the predominant devices in the works of William Shakespeare
Explain the predominant devices in the works of Christopher Marlowe
Charles Dickens and his works: express the dominating themes in his Literature
Why is Literature described as the mirror of society?
Examine the issues of feminism in Sefi Atta’s “Everything Good Will Come” and Bernadine Evaristos’s “Girl, Woman, Other”
Give an overview of the stylistics employed in the writing of “Girl, Woman, Other” by Bernadine Evaristo
Describe the language of advertisement in social media and newspapers
Describe what poetic Language means
Examine the use of code-switching and code-mixing on Mexican Americans
Examine the use of code-switching and code-mixing in Indian Americans
Discuss the influence of George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” on satirical literature
Examine the Linguistics features of “Native Son” by Richard Wright
What is the role of indigenous literature in promoting cultural identities
How has literature informed cultural consciousness?
Analyze five literature on semantics and their Influence on the study
Assess the role of grammar in day to day communications
Observe the role of multidisciplinary approaches in understanding the English language
What does stylistics mean while analyzing medieval literary texts?
Analyze the views of philosophers on language, society, and culture

English Research Paper Topics for College Students

For your college work, you may need to undergo a study of any phenomenon in the world. Note that they could be Linguistics essay topics or mainly a research study of an idea of your choice. Thus, you can choose your research ideas from any of the following:

The concept of fairness in a democratic Government
The capacity of a leader isn’t in his or her academic degrees
The concept of discrimination in education
The theory of discrimination in Islamic states
The idea of school policing
A study on grade inflation and its consequences
A study of taxation and Its importance to the economy from a citizen’s perspectives
A study on how eloquence lead to discrimination amongst high school students
A study of the influence of the music industry in teens
An Evaluation of pornography and its impacts on College students
A descriptive study of how the FBI works according to Hollywood
A critical consideration of the cons and pros of vaccination
The health effect of sleep disorders
An overview of three literary texts across three genres of Literature and how they connect to you
A critical overview of “King Oedipus”: the role of the supernatural in day to day life
Examine the novel “12 Years a Slave” as a reflection of servitude and brutality exerted by white slave owners
Rationalize the emergence of racist Literature with concrete examples
A study of the limits of literature in accessing rural readers
Analyze the perspectives of modern authors on the Influence of medieval Literature on their craft
What do you understand by the mortality of a literary text?
A study of controversial Literature and its role in shaping the discussion
A critical overview of three literary texts that dealt with domestic abuse and their role in changing the narratives about domestic violence
Choose three contemporary poets and analyze the themes of their works
Do you believe that contemporary American literature is the repetition of unnecessary themes already treated in the past?
A study of the evolution of Literature and its styles
The use of sexual innuendos in literature
The use of sexist languages in literature and its effect on the public
The disaster associated with media reports of fake news
Conduct a study on how language is used as a tool for manipulation
Attempt a criticism of a controversial Literary text and why it shouldn’t be studied or sold in the first place

Finding Linguistics Hard To Write About?

With these topics, you can commence your research with ease. However, if you need professional writing help for any part of the research, you can scout here online for the best research paper writing service.

There are several expert writers on ENL hosted on our website that you can consider for a fast response on your research study at a cheap price.

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Research Paper Topics

Choose your Topic Smart

What starts well, ends well, so you need to be really careful with research paper topics. The topic of a research paper defines the whole piece of writing. How often have you chosen the book by its title? First impression is often influential, so make sure your topic will attract the reader instantly. By choosing your topic smart, the half of your job is done. That is why we have singled out several secrets on how to pick the best topic for you.

Browse Research Paper Topics by Category:

Anthropology
Argumentative
Communication
Criminal Justice
Environmental
Political Science

What is the Key to a Perfect Topic for a Research Paper?

The key to a perfect topic includes three main secrets: interest, precision, and innovation.

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It is impossible to do something great if you have no interest in what you are doing. For this reason, make sure you choose the topic that drives you. If you are bored by what you investigate, do not expect that your paper will be exciting. Right now, spend some minutes or even hours thinking about what interests you. Jot down all your preferences in life, science, politics, social issues etc. It will help you get the idea what you can write about.

After realizing what drives you, narrow this general idea to a more specific one. A research paper is not about beating around the bush. You will need clear facts and data. You will have to provide evidence to your ideas. You will need to be precise, specific and convincing.

Finally, the idea of any research is that it should be surprising and distinctive. Think what makes your perspective and approach special. What is the novelty of your research?

Use Technology

If you are still stuck, use technology. Today we have an opportunity to make our lives easier with a bit of technology used. You can find paper topic generators online. This software will examine the category you want to investigate and the keywords from your research. Within several seconds, this program generates paper topics, so you can try it yourself. It can help you get started with your assignment.

100% Effective Advice

We will now give you advice that is 100% effective when picking the topic. Firstly, forget about what others may think about your topic. This is your topic and this is your perception of the world. Stay personal and let your personal style get you the top grades. Secondly, never decide on the topic before analyzing the background for your research. By this we mean, investigate the topic before you start the research proper. It happens quite often that students choose the topic and later they realize there is no data or information to use. That is why conduct some research beforehand. Thirdly, read other researchers’ papers on the topic you want to write about. It will help you get the idea of the investigation. Moreover, it will help you understand whether you truly want to write a paper on this topic. Finally, when you have picked the topic, started your research, make sure you dedicate your time and energy. If you want to get high results, you need to study every little details of your research.

Examine Different Ideas

People often come up with genius ideas after analyzing thousands of other people’s ideas. This is how our brain works. That is why you can analyze other people’s ideas for research paper topics and think up your own. If you have never written any paper of that kind, it will help you understand the gist of this assignment, the style and the requirements. By comparing different topics, you can motivate yourself and get inspired with these ideas. Luckily, you have come to the right place. Here is our list of top 100 research paper topics.

What Makes a Good Topic for a Research Paper?

A good research paper topic is the one that is successful and manageable in your particular case. A successful research paper poses an interesting question you can actually answer. Just as important, it poses a question you can answer within the time available. The question should be one that interests you and deserves exploration. It might be an empirical question or a theoretical puzzle. In some fields, it might be a practical problem or policy issue. Whatever the question is, you need to mark off its boundaries clearly and intelligently so you can complete the research paper and not get lost in the woods. That means your topic should be manageable as well as interesting and important.

A topic is manageable if you can:

Master the relevant literature
Collect and analyze the necessary data
Answer the key questions you have posed
Do it all within the time available, with the skills you have

A topic is important if it:

Touches directly on major theoretical issues and debates, or
Addresses substantive topics of great interest in your field

Ideally, your topic can do both, engaging theoretical and substantive issues. In elementary education, for example, parents, teachers, scholars, and public officials all debate the effectiveness of charter schools, the impact of vouchers, and the value of different reading programs. A research paper on any of these would resonate within the university and well beyond it. Still, as you approach such topics, you need to limit the scope of your investigation so you can finish your research and writing on time. After all, to be a good research paper, it first has to be a completed one. A successful research paper poses an interesting question you can actually answer within the time available for the project. Some problems are simply too grand, too sweeping to master within the time limits. Some are too minor to interest you or anybody else.

The solution, however, is not to find a lukewarm bowl of porridge, a bland compromise. Nor is it to abandon your interest in larger, more profound issues such as the relationship between school organization and educational achievement or between immigration and poverty. Rather, the solution is to select a well-defined topic that is closely linked to some larger issue and then explore that link. Your research paper will succeed if you nail a well-defined topic. It will rise to excellence if you probe that topic deeply and show how it illuminates wider issues.The best theses deal with important issues, framed in manageable ways. The goal is to select a well-defined topic that is closely linked to some larger issue and can illuminate it.

You can begin your project with either a large issue or a narrowly defined topic, depending on your interests and the ideas you have generated. Whichever way you start, the goals are the same: to connect the two in meaningful ways and to explore your specific topic in depth.

Of course, the choice of a particular research paper topic depends on the course you’re taking. Our site can offer you the following research paper topics and example research papers:

Moving from a Research Paper Idea to a Research Paper Topic

Let’s begin as most students actually do, by going from a “big issue” to a more manageable research paper topic. Suppose you start with a big question such as, “Why has the United States fought so many wars since 1945?” That’s certainly a big, important question. Unfortunately, it’s too complex and sprawling to cover well in a research paper. Working with your professor or instructor, you could zero in on a related but feasible research topic, such as “Why did the Johnson administration choose to escalate the U.S. war in Vietnam?” By choosing this topic, your research paper can focus on a specific war and, within that, on a few crucial years in the mid-1960s.

You can draw on major works covering all aspects of the Vietnam War and the Johnson administration’s decision making. You have access to policy memos that were once stamped top secret. These primary documents have now been declassified, published by the State Department, and made available to research libraries. Many are readily available on the Web. You can also take advantage of top-quality secondary sources (that is, books and articles based on primary documents, interviews, and other research data).

Drawing on these primary and secondary sources, you can uncover and critique the reasons behind U.S. military escalation. As you answer this well-defined question about Vietnam, you can (and you should) return to the larger themes that interest you, namely, “What does the escalation in Southeast Asia tell us about the global projection of U.S. military power since 1945?” As one of America’s largest military engagements since World War II, the war in Vietnam should tell us a great deal about the more general question.

The goal here is to pick a good case to study, one that is compelling in its own right and speaks to the larger issue. It need not be a typical example, but it does need to illuminate the larger question. Some cases are better than others precisely because they illuminate larger issues. That’s why choosing the best cases makes such a difference in your research paper.

Since you are interested in why the United States has fought so often since 1945, you probably shouldn’t focus on U.S. invasions of Grenada, Haiti, or Panama in the past two decades. Why? Because the United States has launched numerous military actions against small, weak states in the Caribbean for more than a century. That is important in its own right, but it doesn’t say much about what has changed so dramatically since 1945. The real change since 1945 is the projection of U.S. power far beyond the Western Hemisphere, to Europe and Asia. You cannot explain this change—or any change, for that matter—by looking at something that remains constant.

In this case, to analyze the larger pattern of U.S. war fighting and the shift it represents, you need to pick examples of distant conflicts, such as Korea, Vietnam, Kosovo, Afghanistan, or Iraq. That’s the noteworthy change since 1945: U.S. military intervention outside the Western Hemisphere. The United States has fought frequently in such areas since World War II but rarely before then. Alternatively, you could use statistics covering many cases of U.S. intervention around the world, perhaps supplemented with some telling cases studies.

Students in the humanities want to explore their own big ideas, and they, too, need to focus their research. In English literature, their big issue might be “masculinity” or, to narrow the range a bit, “masculinity in Jewish American literature.” Important as these issues are, they are too vast for anyone to read all the major novels plus all the relevant criticism and then frame a comprehensive research paper.

If you don’t narrow these sprawling topics and focus your work, you can only skim the surface. Skimming the surface is not what you want to do in a research paper. You want to understand your subject in depth and convey that understanding to your readers.

That does not mean you have to abandon your interest in major themes. It means you have to restrict their scope in sensible ways. To do that, you need to think about which aspects of masculinity really interest you and then find works that deal with them.

You may realize your central concern is how masculinity is defined in response to strong women. That focus would still leave you considerable flexibility, depending on your academic background and what you love to read. That might be anything from a reconsideration of Macbeth to an analysis of early twentieth-century American novels, where men must cope with women in assertive new roles. Perhaps you are interested in another aspect of masculinity: the different ways it is defined within the same culture at the same moment. That would lead you to novelists who explore these differences in their characters, perhaps contrasting men who come from different backgrounds, work in different jobs, or simply differ emotionally. Again, you would have considerable flexibility in choosing specific writers.

Connecting a Specific Research Paper Topic to a Bigger Idea

Not all students begin their research paper concerned with big issues such as masculinity or American wars over the past half century. Some start with very specific topics in mind. One example might be the decision to create NAFTA, the North American Free Trade Agreement encompassing Canada, the United States, and Mexico. Perhaps you are interested in NAFTA because you discussed it in a course, heard about it in a political campaign, or saw its effects firsthand on local workers, companies, and consumers. It intrigues you, and you would like to study it in a research paper. The challenge is to go from this clear-cut subject to a larger theme that will frame your paper.

Why do you even need to figure out a larger theme? Because NAFTA bears on several major topics, and you cannot explore all of them. Your challenge—and your opportunity—is to figure out which one captures your imagination.

One way to think about that is to finish this sentence: “For me, NAFTA is a case of ___________.” If you are mainly interested in negotiations between big and small countries, then your answer is, “For me, NAFTA is a case of a large country like the United States bargaining with a smaller neighbor.” Your answer would be different if you are mainly interested in decision making within the United States, Mexico, or Canada. In that case, you might say, “NAFTA seems to be a case where a strong U.S. president pushed a trade policy through Congress.” Perhaps you are more concerned with the role played by business lobbies. “For me, NAFTA is a case of undue corporate influence over foreign economic policy.” Or you could be interested in the role of trade unions, environmental groups, or public opinion.

The NAFTA decision is related to all these big issues and more. You cannot cover them all. There is not enough time, and even if there were, the resulting paper would be too diffuse, too scattershot. To make an impact, throw a rock, not a handful of pebbles.

Choosing one of these large issues will shape your research paper on NAFTA. If you are interested in U.S. decision making, for example, you might study the lobbying process or perhaps the differences between Democrats and Republicans. If you are interested in diplomacy, you would focus on negotiations between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Either would make an interesting research paper, but they are different topics.

Although the subject matter and analysis are decidedly different in the humanities, many of the same considerations still apply to topic selection. In English or comparative literature, for example, you may be attracted to a very specific topic such as several poems by William Wordsworth. You are not trying, as a social scientist would, to test some generalizations that apply across time or space. Rather, you want to analyze these specific poems, uncover their multiple meanings, trace their allusions, and understand their form and beauty.

As part of the research paper, however, you may wish to say something bigger, something that goes beyond these particular poems. That might be about Wordsworth’s larger body of work. Are these poems representative or unusual? Do they break with his previous work or anticipate work yet to come? You may wish to comment on Wordsworth’s close ties to his fellow “Lake Poets,” Coleridge and Southey, underscoring some similarities in their work. Do they use language in shared ways? Do they use similar metaphors or explore similar themes? You may even wish to show how these particular poems are properly understood as part of the wider Romantic movement in literature and the arts. Any of these would connect the specific poems to larger themes.

How to Refine Your Research Paper Topic

One of your professor’s or instructor’s most valuable contributions to the success of your research paper is to help you refine your topic. She can help you select the best cases for detailed study or the best data and statistical techniques. S/he can help you find cases that shed light on larger questions, have good data available, and are discussed in a rich secondary literature. She may know valuable troves of documents to explore. That’s why it is so important to bring these issues up in early meetings. These discussions with your instructor are crucial in moving from a big but ill-defined idea to a smart, feasible topic.Some colleges supplement this advising process by offering special workshops and tutorial support for students. These are great resources, and you should take full advantage of them. They can improve your project in at least two ways.

First, tutors and workshop leaders are usually quite adept at helping you focus and shape your topic. That’s what they do best. Even if they are relatively new teachers, they have been writing research papers themselves for many years. They know how to do it well and how to avoid common mistakes. To craft their own papers, they have learned how to narrow their topics, gather data, interpret sources, and evaluate conjectures. They know how to use appropriate methods and how to mine the academic literature. In all these ways, they can assist you with their own hard-won experience. To avoid any confusion, just make sure your instructor knows what advice you are getting from workshop leaders and tutors. You want everyone to be pulling in the same direction.

Second, you will benefit enormously from batting around your research paper in workshops. The more you speak about your subject, the better you will understand it yourself. The better you understand it, the clearer your research and writing will be. You will learn about your project as you present your ideas; you will learn more as you listen to others discuss your work; and you will learn still more as you respond to their suggestions. Although you should do that in sessions with your instructor, you will also profit from doing it in workshops and tutorial sessions.

Secrets to Keep in Mind when Writing a Research Paper

As a bonus, we have prepared several secrets for you to make your paper perfect. Firstly, always write your paper from scratch. Do not copy the already existing materials, as it can lead to unsatisfactory mark or even expulsion. Secondly, start your research early; do not put off investigating the topic. The earlier you start, the easier it will be to meet the deadline. Thirdly, plan your work and create an outline for your task. A planned work will help you be systematic. Plus, it will help you avoid writer’s block, as you always have an outline to follow. Another secret is following all the requirements. A research paper is an academic assignment, so all these structural and formatting standards are important. Finally, make sure you proofread and edit your task. Check your paper for grammar and spelling mistakes, examine your choice of vocabulary. If it seems too much, you can always ask our professional editors and they will check the paper for you. A mistakes-free paper is essential to get high results.

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Lawrence W. Tyree Library
Library How-To Guides

*Research 101

Library and research vocabulary.

Developing a Topic
How to Search
Books & eBooks
Popular vs. Scholarly Articles
Internet Sources
Writing Resources
Organizing & Citing Sources
Research Beyond SF

As you use the library or do research, there are specialized terms and words you will find. This list includes the more common words you will find, along with a definition.

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Training videos | Faqs

Academic Writing Resources – Academic PhraseBank | Academic Vocabulary & Word Lists

1. ref-n-write phrasebank for writing research papers.

REF-N-WRITE phrase bank contains a comprehensive collection of the phrases that you can readily use to write your research paper. The site contains plenty of academic phrases, sentence stubs and academic vocabulary that covers various sections of the paper – abstract, introduction, materials & methods, results, discussion, conclusion, acknowledgments, and appendix. The academic phrases and vocabulary were extracted from a wide collection of scientific research papers. The phrases and sentence stubs provided on the site are very generic, so there will not be any copyright or plagiarism implications if you use them directly in your papers. This is a perfect place to start if you are writing your first research paper or if you are a non-native English speaker. There is also a nice tutorial explaining how to write a research paper with a brief description of various sections that constitute a research paper.

Click here to go to REF-N-WRITE Academic Phrasebank for Research Paper Writing ….

2. Manchester PhraseBank for General Academic Writing

This Academic phrase bank is the most popular general resource for academic writers created by Dr. John Morley at the University of Manchester. It provides phraseological ideas for the main sections of a research paper or dissertation. The phrases cover various aspects of academic writing and are categorised under following sections: (1) Being critical, (2) Being cautious, (3) Classifying and listing, (4) Compare and contrast, (5) Defining terms, (6) Describing trends, (7) Describing quantities, (8) Explaining causality, (9) Giving examples as support, (10) Signalling transition, and (11) Writing about the past. Even though, the resource was designed primarily for academic and scientific writers who are non-native speakers of English, however native speaker writers may still find much of the material helpful. There is a general section covering topics such as (1) Academic style, (2) Commonly confused words, (3) British and US spelling, Punctuation, (3) Using articles, (4) Sentence structure, (5) Paragraph structure and (6) Helpful tips for writers. The Academic Phrasebank is not discipline specific. The phrases provided in the site are content neutral and generic in nature and hence using them, will not constitute plagiarism or stealing others ideas.

Click here to go to Manchester Phrasebank for Academic Writing ….

3. UEFAP (Using English for Academic Purposes For Students in Higher Education)

The UEFAP site has plenty of resources in academic writing. The site is maintained by Andy Gillett – the author the book “Successful Academic Writing.” This site touches upon various elements of academic writing and is organised under following sections: (1) Functions; (2) Paragraphs; (3) Plagiarism; (4) reporting; (5) Genres; (6) References; (7) Citation; (8) Punctuation; and (9) Spelling. There are plenty of fill-in-the-blanks type exercises to practice your academic writing skills.

Click here to go to UEFAP Academic Vocabulary Exercises for Academic Writing ….

4. Academic Word List – Dr. Averil Coxhead (Victoria University of Wellington)

Dr. Averil Coxhead, Senior Lecturer School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies developed and evaluated The Academic Word List (AWL) for her MA thesis. This list is a very useful resource for improving academic writing skills for learners and a good teaching resource for tutors. The list contains 570 word families which were selected according to principles. The list does not include words that are in the most frequent 2000 words of English since they are likely to be mostly articles, prepositions and very basic vocabulary. The academic word list was extracted from the Academic Corpus containing approximately 3,500,000 running words. The materials for the corpus came from four broad fields of study: Arts, Commerce, Law, and Science. Each of these contained approximately 875,000 running words. Words from each field were further divided into seven subject areas of approximately 125,000 running words.

Click here to go to Dr. Averil Coxhead’s Academic Word List Webpage ….

5. Academic Vocabulary – Sandra Haywood, University of Nottingham, UK

This site is maintained by Sandra Haywood of Nottingham and has plenty of resources to expand your academic vocabulary using the Academic Word List (the AWL). The ‘AWL Highlighter’ tool available in this site highlights AWL words in texts you cut and paste into the site. The ‘AWL Gapmaker’ creates gaps in place of AWL words in texts you cut and paste into the site. There are plenty of exercises for beginners in academic writing and teaching resources for academic writing tutors. This resource is handy for home students and overseas students, who need to learn the technical vocabulary of their field. This will help them improve their comprehension of academic texts and also help them write assignments in an academic writing style.

Click here to go to Dr. Sandra Haywood’s Academic Word List Webpage ….

6. Word and Phrase Info – Mark Davis, Brigham Young University

This is a very useful site that allows you to analyze your writing by comparing your text with data from a Corpus. After inputting the text, the site processes your text and displays useful information about words and phrases in the text, based on data from the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). It will highlight all of the medium and lower-frequency words in your text and create lists of these words that you can use offline. You can also have it show you the “academic” words in your text. You can click on the words in the text to see a detailed information such as word sketch, definition, collocates, and the frequency of the word (overall, and by genre). You can search for related phrases on selected phrases in your text, to show related phrases in COCA. In this way, this resource is like a “collocational thesaurus” to see what related phrases are most likely in different styles of English. This will help you use just the right phrase based on a huge collection of native English texts.

Click here to go to Mark Davis’s Academic Vocabulary & Phrase Analysis Webpage ….

7. Exam English

This site contains plenty of free practice tests for the learners of English. They have converted academic word list produced by Dr. Averil Coxhead into a series of practice tests. The 570 words are divided into 10 Groups. The groups are ordered such that the words in the first Group are the most frequent words and those in the last Group are the least frequent. This site is excellent if you would like to improve your academic writing skills through practice.

Click here to go to Academic Word List Practice Webpage ….

8. Academic Vocabulary Exercises – Gerry Luton, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada

This site is maintained by Gerry Luton, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. There are plenty of academic vocabulary exercises to improve your academic writing skills. The Academic Word List (AWL) is divided into 10 sublists of word families, and there are exercises for each sublist. The exercises include different derivations for the words given. This website features over 750 gap-fill exercises to learn and review over 2000 items of General vocabulary and Academic vocabulary in English. Gap-fill exercises are an excellent way to practice vocabulary in different contexts and can be used to broaden the student’s understanding of the range of meaning of vocabulary. The online format of the exercises allows students to get immediate feedback on their answers.

Click here to go to Academic Vocabulary Exercise Webpage ….

Academic Phrases for Writing Methods Section of a Research Paper

In this blog, we discuss phrases related to materials and methods such as experimental setup, data collection & analysis, and statistical testing.

Academic Phrases for Writing Introduction Section of a Research Paper

In this blog, we discuss phrases related to introduction section such as opening statement, problem definition and research aims.

Academic Phrases for Writing Abstract Section of a Research Paper

In this blog, we discuss phrases related to the abstract section. An abstract is a self-contained and short synopsis that describes a larger work.

Useful Phrases and Sentences for Academic & Research Paper Writing

In this blog, we explain various sections of a research paper and give you an overview of what these sections should contain.

Academic Phrases for Writing Results & Discussion Sections of a Research Paper

In this blog, we discuss phrases related to results and discussion sections such as findings, limitations, arguments, and comparison to previous studies.

Academic Phrases for Writing Acknowledgements & Appendix Sections of a Research Paper

In this blog, we discuss phrases related to thanking colleagues, acknowledging funders and writing the appendix section.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

Glossary of research terms.

Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Reading Research Effectively
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Research Process Video Series
Executive Summary
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tiertiary Sources
Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Insiderness
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Writing Concisely
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Generative AI and Writing
USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
Bibliography

This glossary is intended to assist you in understanding commonly used terms and concepts when reading, interpreting, and evaluating scholarly research. Also included are common words and phrases defined within the context of how they apply to research in the social and behavioral sciences.

Acculturation -- refers to the process of adapting to another culture, particularly in reference to blending in with the majority population [e.g., an immigrant adopting American customs]. However, acculturation also implies that both cultures add something to one another, but still remain distinct groups unto themselves.
Accuracy -- a term used in survey research to refer to the match between the target population and the sample.
Affective Measures -- procedures or devices used to obtain quantified descriptions of an individual's feelings, emotional states, or dispositions.
Aggregate -- a total created from smaller units. For instance, the population of a county is an aggregate of the populations of the cities, rural areas, etc. that comprise the county. As a verb, it refers to total data from smaller units into a large unit.
Anonymity -- a research condition in which no one, including the researcher, knows the identities of research participants.
Baseline -- a control measurement carried out before an experimental treatment.
Behaviorism -- school of psychological thought concerned with the observable, tangible, objective facts of behavior, rather than with subjective phenomena such as thoughts, emotions, or impulses. Contemporary behaviorism also emphasizes the study of mental states such as feelings and fantasies to the extent that they can be directly observed and measured.
Beliefs -- ideas, doctrines, tenets, etc. that are accepted as true on grounds which are not immediately susceptible to rigorous proof.
Benchmarking -- systematically measuring and comparing the operations and outcomes of organizations, systems, processes, etc., against agreed upon "best-in-class" frames of reference.
Bias -- a loss of balance and accuracy in the use of research methods. It can appear in research via the sampling frame, random sampling, or non-response. It can also occur at other stages in research, such as while interviewing, in the design of questions, or in the way data are analyzed and presented. Bias means that the research findings will not be representative of, or generalizable to, a wider population.
Case Study -- the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including data derived from the subjects themselves.
Causal Hypothesis -- a statement hypothesizing that the independent variable affects the dependent variable in some way.
Causal Relationship -- the relationship established that shows that an independent variable, and nothing else, causes a change in a dependent variable. It also establishes how much of a change is shown in the dependent variable.
Causality -- the relation between cause and effect.
Central Tendency -- any way of describing or characterizing typical, average, or common values in some distribution.
Chi-square Analysis -- a common non-parametric statistical test which compares an expected proportion or ratio to an actual proportion or ratio.
Claim -- a statement, similar to a hypothesis, which is made in response to the research question and that is affirmed with evidence based on research.
Classification -- ordering of related phenomena into categories, groups, or systems according to characteristics or attributes.
Cluster Analysis -- a method of statistical analysis where data that share a common trait are grouped together. The data is collected in a way that allows the data collector to group data according to certain characteristics.
Cohort Analysis -- group by group analytic treatment of individuals having a statistical factor in common to each group. Group members share a particular characteristic [e.g., born in a given year] or a common experience [e.g., entering a college at a given time].
Confidentiality -- a research condition in which no one except the researcher(s) knows the identities of the participants in a study. It refers to the treatment of information that a participant has disclosed to the researcher in a relationship of trust and with the expectation that it will not be revealed to others in ways that violate the original consent agreement, unless permission is granted by the participant.
Confirmability Objectivity -- the findings of the study could be confirmed by another person conducting the same study.
Construct -- refers to any of the following: something that exists theoretically but is not directly observable; a concept developed [constructed] for describing relations among phenomena or for other research purposes; or, a theoretical definition in which concepts are defined in terms of other concepts. For example, intelligence cannot be directly observed or measured; it is a construct.
Construct Validity -- seeks an agreement between a theoretical concept and a specific measuring device, such as observation.
Constructivism -- the idea that reality is socially constructed. It is the view that reality cannot be understood outside of the way humans interact and that the idea that knowledge is constructed, not discovered. Constructivists believe that learning is more active and self-directed than either behaviorism or cognitive theory would postulate.
Content Analysis -- the systematic, objective, and quantitative description of the manifest or latent content of print or nonprint communications.
Context Sensitivity -- awareness by a qualitative researcher of factors such as values and beliefs that influence cultural behaviors.
Control Group -- the group in an experimental design that receives either no treatment or a different treatment from the experimental group. This group can thus be compared to the experimental group.
Controlled Experiment -- an experimental design with two or more randomly selected groups [an experimental group and control group] in which the researcher controls or introduces the independent variable and measures the dependent variable at least two times [pre- and post-test measurements].
Correlation -- a common statistical analysis, usually abbreviated as r, that measures the degree of relationship between pairs of interval variables in a sample. The range of correlation is from -1.00 to zero to +1.00. Also, a non-cause and effect relationship between two variables.
Covariate -- a product of the correlation of two related variables times their standard deviations. Used in true experiments to measure the difference of treatment between them.
Credibility -- a researcher's ability to demonstrate that the object of a study is accurately identified and described based on the way in which the study was conducted.
Critical Theory -- an evaluative approach to social science research, associated with Germany's neo-Marxist “Frankfurt School,” that aims to criticize as well as analyze society, opposing the political orthodoxy of modern communism. Its goal is to promote human emancipatory forces and to expose ideas and systems that impede them.
Data -- factual information [as measurements or statistics] used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation.
Data Mining -- the process of analyzing data from different perspectives and summarizing it into useful information, often to discover patterns and/or systematic relationships among variables.
Data Quality -- this is the degree to which the collected data [results of measurement or observation] meet the standards of quality to be considered valid [trustworthy] and reliable [dependable].
Deductive -- a form of reasoning in which conclusions are formulated about particulars from general or universal premises.
Dependability -- being able to account for changes in the design of the study and the changing conditions surrounding what was studied.
Dependent Variable -- a variable that varies due, at least in part, to the impact of the independent variable. In other words, its value “depends” on the value of the independent variable. For example, in the variables “gender” and “academic major,” academic major is the dependent variable, meaning that your major cannot determine whether you are male or female, but your gender might indirectly lead you to favor one major over another.
Deviation -- the distance between the mean and a particular data point in a given distribution.
Discourse Community -- a community of scholars and researchers in a given field who respond to and communicate to each other through published articles in the community's journals and presentations at conventions. All members of the discourse community adhere to certain conventions for the presentation of their theories and research.
Discrete Variable -- a variable that is measured solely in whole units, such as, gender and number of siblings.
Distribution -- the range of values of a particular variable.
Effect Size -- the amount of change in a dependent variable that can be attributed to manipulations of the independent variable. A large effect size exists when the value of the dependent variable is strongly influenced by the independent variable. It is the mean difference on a variable between experimental and control groups divided by the standard deviation on that variable of the pooled groups or of the control group alone.
Emancipatory Research -- research is conducted on and with people from marginalized groups or communities. It is led by a researcher or research team who is either an indigenous or external insider; is interpreted within intellectual frameworks of that group; and, is conducted largely for the purpose of empowering members of that community and improving services for them. It also engages members of the community as co-constructors or validators of knowledge.
Empirical Research -- the process of developing systematized knowledge gained from observations that are formulated to support insights and generalizations about the phenomena being researched.
Epistemology -- concerns knowledge construction; asks what constitutes knowledge and how knowledge is validated.
Ethnography -- method to study groups and/or cultures over a period of time. The goal of this type of research is to comprehend the particular group/culture through immersion into the culture or group. Research is completed through various methods but, since the researcher is immersed within the group for an extended period of time, more detailed information is usually collected during the research.
Expectancy Effect -- any unconscious or conscious cues that convey to the participant in a study how the researcher wants them to respond. Expecting someone to behave in a particular way has been shown to promote the expected behavior. Expectancy effects can be minimized by using standardized interactions with subjects, automated data-gathering methods, and double blind protocols.
External Validity -- the extent to which the results of a study are generalizable or transferable.
Factor Analysis -- a statistical test that explores relationships among data. The test explores which variables in a data set are most related to each other. In a carefully constructed survey, for example, factor analysis can yield information on patterns of responses, not simply data on a single response. Larger tendencies may then be interpreted, indicating behavior trends rather than simply responses to specific questions.
Field Studies -- academic or other investigative studies undertaken in a natural setting, rather than in laboratories, classrooms, or other structured environments.
Focus Groups -- small, roundtable discussion groups charged with examining specific topics or problems, including possible options or solutions. Focus groups usually consist of 4-12 participants, guided by moderators to keep the discussion flowing and to collect and report the results.
Framework -- the structure and support that may be used as both the launching point and the on-going guidelines for investigating a research problem.
Generalizability -- the extent to which research findings and conclusions conducted on a specific study to groups or situations can be applied to the population at large.
Grey Literature -- research produced by organizations outside of commercial and academic publishing that publish materials, such as, working papers, research reports, and briefing papers.
Grounded Theory -- practice of developing other theories that emerge from observing a group. Theories are grounded in the group's observable experiences, but researchers add their own insight into why those experiences exist.
Group Behavior -- behaviors of a group as a whole, as well as the behavior of an individual as influenced by his or her membership in a group.
Hypothesis -- a tentative explanation based on theory to predict a causal relationship between variables.
Independent Variable -- the conditions of an experiment that are systematically manipulated by the researcher. A variable that is not impacted by the dependent variable, and that itself impacts the dependent variable. In the earlier example of "gender" and "academic major," (see Dependent Variable) gender is the independent variable.
Individualism -- a theory or policy having primary regard for the liberty, rights, or independent actions of individuals.
Inductive -- a form of reasoning in which a generalized conclusion is formulated from particular instances.
Inductive Analysis -- a form of analysis based on inductive reasoning; a researcher using inductive analysis starts with answers, but formulates questions throughout the research process.
Insiderness -- a concept in qualitative research that refers to the degree to which a researcher has access to and an understanding of persons, places, or things within a group or community based on being a member of that group or community.
Internal Consistency -- the extent to which all questions or items assess the same characteristic, skill, or quality.
Internal Validity -- the rigor with which the study was conducted [e.g., the study's design, the care taken to conduct measurements, and decisions concerning what was and was not measured]. It is also the extent to which the designers of a study have taken into account alternative explanations for any causal relationships they explore. In studies that do not explore causal relationships, only the first of these definitions should be considered when assessing internal validity.
Life History -- a record of an event/events in a respondent's life told [written down, but increasingly audio or video recorded] by the respondent from his/her own perspective in his/her own words. A life history is different from a "research story" in that it covers a longer time span, perhaps a complete life, or a significant period in a life.
Margin of Error -- the permittable or acceptable deviation from the target or a specific value. The allowance for slight error or miscalculation or changing circumstances in a study.
Measurement -- process of obtaining a numerical description of the extent to which persons, organizations, or things possess specified characteristics.
Meta-Analysis -- an analysis combining the results of several studies that address a set of related hypotheses.
Methodology -- a theory or analysis of how research does and should proceed.
Methods -- systematic approaches to the conduct of an operation or process. It includes steps of procedure, application of techniques, systems of reasoning or analysis, and the modes of inquiry employed by a discipline.
Mixed-Methods -- a research approach that uses two or more methods from both the quantitative and qualitative research categories. It is also referred to as blended methods, combined methods, or methodological triangulation.
Modeling -- the creation of a physical or computer analogy to understand a particular phenomenon. Modeling helps in estimating the relative magnitude of various factors involved in a phenomenon. A successful model can be shown to account for unexpected behavior that has been observed, to predict certain behaviors, which can then be tested experimentally, and to demonstrate that a given theory cannot account for certain phenomenon.
Models -- representations of objects, principles, processes, or ideas often used for imitation or emulation.
Naturalistic Observation -- observation of behaviors and events in natural settings without experimental manipulation or other forms of interference.
Norm -- the norm in statistics is the average or usual performance. For example, students usually complete their high school graduation requirements when they are 18 years old. Even though some students graduate when they are younger or older, the norm is that any given student will graduate when he or she is 18 years old.
Null Hypothesis -- the proposition, to be tested statistically, that the experimental intervention has "no effect," meaning that the treatment and control groups will not differ as a result of the intervention. Investigators usually hope that the data will demonstrate some effect from the intervention, thus allowing the investigator to reject the null hypothesis.
Ontology -- a discipline of philosophy that explores the science of what is, the kinds and structures of objects, properties, events, processes, and relations in every area of reality.
Panel Study -- a longitudinal study in which a group of individuals is interviewed at intervals over a period of time.
Participant -- individuals whose physiological and/or behavioral characteristics and responses are the object of study in a research project.
Peer-Review -- the process in which the author of a book, article, or other type of publication submits his or her work to experts in the field for critical evaluation, usually prior to publication. This is standard procedure in publishing scholarly research.
Phenomenology -- a qualitative research approach concerned with understanding certain group behaviors from that group's point of view.
Philosophy -- critical examination of the grounds for fundamental beliefs and analysis of the basic concepts, doctrines, or practices that express such beliefs.
Phonology -- the study of the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in language.
Policy -- governing principles that serve as guidelines or rules for decision making and action in a given area.
Policy Analysis -- systematic study of the nature, rationale, cost, impact, effectiveness, implications, etc., of existing or alternative policies, using the theories and methodologies of relevant social science disciplines.
Population -- the target group under investigation. The population is the entire set under consideration. Samples are drawn from populations.
Position Papers -- statements of official or organizational viewpoints, often recommending a particular course of action or response to a situation.
Positivism -- a doctrine in the philosophy of science, positivism argues that science can only deal with observable entities known directly to experience. The positivist aims to construct general laws, or theories, which express relationships between phenomena. Observation and experiment is used to show whether the phenomena fit the theory.
Predictive Measurement -- use of tests, inventories, or other measures to determine or estimate future events, conditions, outcomes, or trends.
Principal Investigator -- the scientist or scholar with primary responsibility for the design and conduct of a research project.
Probability -- the chance that a phenomenon will occur randomly. As a statistical measure, it is shown as p [the "p" factor].
Questionnaire -- structured sets of questions on specified subjects that are used to gather information, attitudes, or opinions.
Random Sampling -- a process used in research to draw a sample of a population strictly by chance, yielding no discernible pattern beyond chance. Random sampling can be accomplished by first numbering the population, then selecting the sample according to a table of random numbers or using a random-number computer generator. The sample is said to be random because there is no regular or discernible pattern or order. Random sample selection is used under the assumption that sufficiently large samples assigned randomly will exhibit a distribution comparable to that of the population from which the sample is drawn. The random assignment of participants increases the probability that differences observed between participant groups are the result of the experimental intervention.
Reliability -- the degree to which a measure yields consistent results. If the measuring instrument [e.g., survey] is reliable, then administering it to similar groups would yield similar results. Reliability is a prerequisite for validity. An unreliable indicator cannot produce trustworthy results.
Representative Sample -- sample in which the participants closely match the characteristics of the population, and thus, all segments of the population are represented in the sample. A representative sample allows results to be generalized from the sample to the population.
Rigor -- degree to which research methods are scrupulously and meticulously carried out in order to recognize important influences occurring in an experimental study.
Sample -- the population researched in a particular study. Usually, attempts are made to select a "sample population" that is considered representative of groups of people to whom results will be generalized or transferred. In studies that use inferential statistics to analyze results or which are designed to be generalizable, sample size is critical, generally the larger the number in the sample, the higher the likelihood of a representative distribution of the population.
Sampling Error -- the degree to which the results from the sample deviate from those that would be obtained from the entire population, because of random error in the selection of respondent and the corresponding reduction in reliability.
Saturation -- a situation in which data analysis begins to reveal repetition and redundancy and when new data tend to confirm existing findings rather than expand upon them.
Semantics -- the relationship between symbols and meaning in a linguistic system. Also, the cuing system that connects what is written in the text to what is stored in the reader's prior knowledge.
Social Theories -- theories about the structure, organization, and functioning of human societies.
Sociolinguistics -- the study of language in society and, more specifically, the study of language varieties, their functions, and their speakers.
Standard Deviation -- a measure of variation that indicates the typical distance between the scores of a distribution and the mean; it is determined by taking the square root of the average of the squared deviations in a given distribution. It can be used to indicate the proportion of data within certain ranges of scale values when the distribution conforms closely to the normal curve.
Statistical Analysis -- application of statistical processes and theory to the compilation, presentation, discussion, and interpretation of numerical data.
Statistical Bias -- characteristics of an experimental or sampling design, or the mathematical treatment of data, that systematically affects the results of a study so as to produce incorrect, unjustified, or inappropriate inferences or conclusions.
Statistical Significance -- the probability that the difference between the outcomes of the control and experimental group are great enough that it is unlikely due solely to chance. The probability that the null hypothesis can be rejected at a predetermined significance level [0.05 or 0.01].
Statistical Tests -- researchers use statistical tests to make quantitative decisions about whether a study's data indicate a significant effect from the intervention and allow the researcher to reject the null hypothesis. That is, statistical tests show whether the differences between the outcomes of the control and experimental groups are great enough to be statistically significant. If differences are found to be statistically significant, it means that the probability [likelihood] that these differences occurred solely due to chance is relatively low. Most researchers agree that a significance value of .05 or less [i.e., there is a 95% probability that the differences are real] sufficiently determines significance.
Subcultures -- ethnic, regional, economic, or social groups exhibiting characteristic patterns of behavior sufficient to distinguish them from the larger society to which they belong.
Testing -- the act of gathering and processing information about individuals' ability, skill, understanding, or knowledge under controlled conditions.
Theory -- a general explanation about a specific behavior or set of events that is based on known principles and serves to organize related events in a meaningful way. A theory is not as specific as a hypothesis.
Treatment -- the stimulus given to a dependent variable.
Trend Samples -- method of sampling different groups of people at different points in time from the same population.
Triangulation -- a multi-method or pluralistic approach, using different methods in order to focus on the research topic from different viewpoints and to produce a multi-faceted set of data. Also used to check the validity of findings from any one method.
Unit of Analysis -- the basic observable entity or phenomenon being analyzed by a study and for which data are collected in the form of variables.
Validity -- the degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept that the researcher is attempting to measure. A method can be reliable, consistently measuring the same thing, but not valid.
Variable -- any characteristic or trait that can vary from one person to another [race, gender, academic major] or for one person over time [age, political beliefs].
Weighted Scores -- scores in which the components are modified by different multipliers to reflect their relative importance.
White Paper -- an authoritative report that often states the position or philosophy about a social, political, or other subject, or a general explanation of an architecture, framework, or product technology written by a group of researchers. A white paper seeks to contain unbiased information and analysis regarding a business or policy problem that the researchers may be facing.

Elliot, Mark, Fairweather, Ian, Olsen, Wendy Kay, and Pampaka, Maria. A Dictionary of Social Research Methods. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2016; Free Social Science Dictionary. Socialsciencedictionary.com [2008]. Glossary. Institutional Review Board. Colorado College; Glossary of Key Terms. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Glossary A-Z. Education.com; Glossary of Research Terms. Research Mindedness Virtual Learning Resource. Centre for Human Servive Technology. University of Southampton; Miller, Robert L. and Brewer, John D. The A-Z of Social Research: A Dictionary of Key Social Science Research Concepts London: SAGE, 2003; Jupp, Victor. The SAGE Dictionary of Social and Cultural Research Methods . London: Sage, 2006.

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School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies Te Kura Tātari Reo

Vocabulary research topics, vocabulary research topics for assignment, project, or thesis work.

These suggestions are organised according to the chapters and sections of the chapters in Learning Vocabulary in another Language .

Chapter 1: The goals of vocabulary learning

Analyse a technical dictionary to see how many words it contains, and what types of words it contains. Compare the results with a corpus study.
Examine the vocabulary load of your learners' textbooks.
Develop a procedure for quickly assessing the coverage of high frequency words in text books.
Make a replacement for the GSL.
Prepare a low frequency word list taking account of range.
Prepare a standardised graded reader list dividing the most frequent 3,000 word families into levels.
Use the Range program to develop a high frequency word list for spoken language.

Chapter 2: Knowing a word

Design a test to investigate the degree to which learners of English have control of important spelling rules.
Investigate the qualitative differences between receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge.
Classify and test proper nouns to see what categories can be assumed to provide minimal learning burden when looking at the vocabulary load of texts.

Chapter 3: Teaching and explaining vocabulary

Thoroughly examine learners using a particular type of activity to see if the process examination (goals, conditions, signs and features) is confirmed by a product examination (measured learning outcomes).
Experimentally test the differing effects of noticing, retrieving, and generating.
Replicate Joe's (1998) study of the differing effects of differing degrees of generating.
What unique information do different techniques add to word knowledge? What common information do they add?
When is the best time for direct teaching to occur in the learning of a word - before or after gaining meaning focused experience?
The forms and occurrences of definitions. The work on the different kinds of definition seems to have been thoroughly done, but it has focused only on limited areas of academic discourse. Bramki and Williams (1984) only looked at one writer's use of lexical familiarisation devices. Flowerdew (1992) looked at Biology and Chemistry lectures. There is scope for widening the data base.
The effects of definition types on comprehension and learning. Is there a relationship between the different types of definitions as revealed in the corpus studies of Bramki and Williams (1984) and Flowerdew (1992) and learners' understanding of these definitions and learning from them? There are no studies of second language learners' skill in recognising these definitions let alone the understanding that comes from them.
As well as looking at the effect of definitions, it would be useful to examine learners' skill. What range of skill do learners show in dealing with definitions? What aspects of the skill need attention? What diagnostic tests are most effective in showing degree of control of the skill? What kinds of training are effective in developing the skill?
Write a comparative review of several CAVL programs.
Use a CAVL program to evaluate the effect on learning of meeting the same item in different contexts.
Determine the factors influencing incidental vocabulary learning by using a message focused computer game.

Chapter 4: Vocabulary and listening and speaking

Compare the effects of types of defining (L1 or L2) on vocabulary learning while listening to a story.
Look at the incidence of academic vocabulary in university lectures. Is it as common as in written academic texts? Do lectures contain other sources of vocabulary difficulty, for example through the use of examples?
How does learners' focus of attention change as a text is listened to several times? Where does vocabulary fit in this range of focuses of attention?
Does adding a role play feature to a task result in more generative use? That is, does it cause more changes to the written input?
Analyse examples of semantic mapping to show the ways teachers use to encourage dialogue and participation. Make an observation checklist to grade semantic mapping performances.
Do a corpus study to find the vocabulary which is much more frequent in certain spoken registers than it is in written registers.

Chapter 5: Vocabulary and reading and writing

Do different kinds of learning occur from reading compared with learning from different kinds of exercises?
Is the Lexical Frequency Profile of a text an effective measure of the readability of the text for ESL learners?
Evaluate and investigate a reading based vocabulary activity for its effect on vocabulary learning and use.
Honeyfield (1977) claims that simplified reading texts distort normal language use. Research this claim looking at a range of language use features including collocation and information density.
Do simplified, elaborated and easified texts have similar effects on comprehension and vocabulary learning?
How can vocabulary learning from graded readers be optimized?
Experimentally test writing tasks to see what needs to occur to quickly enrich learners' written productive vocabulary.
Test the effect of richness of vocabulary use on teachers' assessment of ESL learners' writing.
Design and trial a checklist to guide teachers' response to vocabulary use in writing.

Chapter 6: Specialised uses of vocabulary

What are the general discourse functions of academic vocabulary. For example, it may be interesting to take an academic function, like defining or referring to previous research, and see what role academic vocabulary plays in this.
Do particular academic words behave differently in different subject areas? That is, does their meaning change? Do they have different collocates? This research would confirm or question the value of courses for academic purposes for students from a variety of disciplines, and would suggest how attention could be most usefully directed towards academic vocabulary.
How much is the academic vocabulary parallelled by high frequency words. That is, is the academic vocabulary just a more formal version of part of the most frequent 2,000 words, or does it add new meanings?
Compare several experimental reports to see if the same academic vocabulary occurs in the same parts of the reports. For example, do the method sections use a similar set of vocabulary which is different from the results section?
Look at learners' written work to see what vocabulary discourse features are not properly used.

Chapter 7: Vocabulary learning strategies and guessing from context

Are some vocabulary learning strategies superior to others?
Develop a taxonomy for evaluating strategy use that considers both type of strategies used and the quality of their use.
Evaluate the validity of a questionnaire approach to investigating strategy use.
Experimentally check Haastrup's idea that bottom up guessing results in more vocabulary learning than top down guessing which works from a lot of background knowledge.
What aspects of word knowledge are learned by guessing from context?
What difficulties do homographs cause for guessing from context.? That is, is it harder to guess a new meaning for a familiar form that already has a different associated meaning?

Chapter 8: Word study strategies

Devise a test of receptive knowledge of important derivational affixes for non-native speakers of English. Carroll's (1940) format could be a useful model. Make sure the test is reliable, valid and practical and would have a positive washback effect.
Examine learners' written work to determine if complex words are deliberately avoided.
Design an experiment to see what aspects of vocabulary knowledge are learned by dictionary use.
Design and check a diagnostic test of learners' dictionary use skills.
What additional information is provided by a sentence context?
How well does direct learning transfer to normal language use?
What is the effect of training on improving learning from word cards?

Chapter 9: Chunking and collocation

Develop a list of frequent collocations using well defined and carefully described criteria.
Look for evidence of unanalysed chunks in the language production of native speakers and non-native speakers.

Chapter 10: Testing

Get learners to sit a yes/no test and then go through their wrong answers on non-words to examine the reasons why they said they knew the non-words (Paul, Stallman and O'Rourke, 1990).
Compare multiple choice items containing L1 choices with items containing L2 choices.
Devise a well based measure of total vocabulary size for non-native speakers.
Measure the pattern of native speaker and ESL non-native speaker vocabulary growth.

Chapter 11: Designing the vocabulary component of a language course

Design a needs analysis questionnaire to determine vocabulary needs outside the high frequency general service vocabulary.
Design an evaluation form for evaluating the vocabulary component of a course.
Develop a program for helping learners become autonomous vocabulary learners. Justify your decisions.
Develop means of investigating the degree to which learners are autonomous in their vocabulary learning.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

Learning english vocabulary from word cards: a research synthesis.

$\nYuanying Lei$

1 Faculty of Education, University of Macau, Taipa, Macao SAR, China
2 Centre for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macao SAR, China

Researchers' interest in the learning of vocabulary from word cards has grown alongside the increasing number of studies published on this topic. While meta-analyses or systematic reviews have been previously performed, the types of word cards investigated, and the number of word card studies analyzed were limited. To address these issues, a research synthesis was conducted to provide an inclusive and comprehensive picture of how the use of word cards by learners results in vocabulary learning. A search of the Web of Science and Scopus databases resulted in 803 potential studies, of which 32 aligned with the inclusion criteria. Coding of these studies based on an extensive coding scheme found most studies assessed receptive vocabulary knowledge more often than productive vocabulary knowledge, and knowledge of vocabulary form and meaning were assessed more often than knowledge of vocabulary use. Results of effect size plots showed that more of the reviewed studies showed larger effects for the use of paper word cards than digital word cards, and for the use of ready-made word cards than self-constructed word cards. Results also indicated more studies showed larger effects for using word cards in an intentional learning condition compared with an incidental learning condition, and for using word cards in a massed learning condition compared with a spaced learning condition. Although a correlation was found between time spent using word cards and vocabulary learning outcomes, this correlation was not statistically significant. Learners that were more proficient in English learned more words from using word cards than those less proficient. These results suggest that future researchers should report learner proficiency, adopt reliable tests to assess vocabulary learning outcomes, compare the effectiveness of ready-made word cards and self-constructed word cards, and investigate the learning of different aspects of word knowledge. Teachers should provide learners guidance in how to use word cards and target word selection for self-construction of word cards. In addition, teachers should encourage learners to create word cards for incidentally encountered unknown words and use massed learning when initially working with these new words before using spaced learning for later retrieval practice.

Introduction

Vocabulary knowledge is essential in second language (L2) learning ( Barkat and Aminafshar, 2015 ; Reynolds and Shih, 2019 ). When learning English as a second language, acquiring vocabulary is “more important than mastering other language skills,” such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing ( Lukas et al., 2020 , p. 305). This is because vocabulary “acts as the foundation for learners to communicate” using the language ( Lukas et al., 2020 , p. 305). Learning a second language (L2) involves the learning of thousands of words ( Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001 ; Nation, 2013a ). In order to understand novels, newspapers, and spoken English, a vocabulary size of “3,000 to 4,000 word families” is needed ( Nation, 2013a , p. 14). Researchers, teachers, and learners are interested in knowing the most direct route to learn so many words to be able to use language for these and other purposes.

Learners often engage in different activities and use different strategies to learn vocabulary. Vocabulary-learning activities are often compared to determine which activity is most effective. It is advantageous to learn vocabulary from word cards. For example, Webb et al. (2020 , p. 16) suggested that word cards lead to “relatively large gains” in vocabulary knowledge compared to studying word lists. The strength of learning vocabulary from word cards comes from the fact that this activity is focused, efficient, and effective ( Nation, 2013a ). It is focused because “more attention can easily be paid to unknown words with the use of word cards” ( Reynolds et al., 2020 , p. 3). It is efficient because a large number of words “can be learned in a short time” using word cards ( Nation, 2013a , p. 439). It is effective because word cards can be used for both “receptive and productive learning” ( Nation and Webb, 2011 , p. 41). Moreover, learners have been shown to prefer learning vocabulary from word cards compared to other vocabulary learning activities (e.g., Kuo and Ho, 2012 ). Therefore, word cards were chosen as the focus of the synthesis among a variety of vocabulary learning activities available to learners.

Although there is generally a consensus that learning vocabulary from word cards is advantageous, one must acknowledge other variables could enhance or reduce their effectiveness. Previous researchers have indicated that many variables affect vocabulary learning outcomes regardless of the vocabulary learning strategy employed by learners. For most intentional vocabulary learning strategies—including the use of word cards—these include how the strategy is employed (e.g., Uchihara et al., 2019 ) and language learner proficiency (e.g., Webb et al., 2020 ). More specifically for word card use, these include aspects of word knowledge (e.g., Nation, 2013a , Ch. 11) and types of word cards (e.g., Chen and Chan, 2019 ; Reynolds et al., 2020 ). Furthermore, word cards can only be effective when learners have been trained and understand how to use them ( Reynolds et al., 2020 ). Therefore, these variables should be taken into consideration to understand whether word cards are effective for vocabulary learning.

It is worthwhile to conduct a synthesis of the word card literature to allow for generalization of the results reported in primary studies. A synthesis can help us to systematically review the word card literature, thereby providing a clearer picture of the overall effectiveness of word cards. Such a result can be useful for teachers, learners, and researchers, as a research synthesis can provide clear implications for research and teaching. Compared to meta-analysis, which “requires strict inclusion criteria for calculating effect sizes (ESs),” a research synthesis allows for “more varieties of relevant studies to be included” ( Yang et al., 2021 , p. 472). Therefore, this study gives a systematic and comprehensive review on the past research regarding vocabulary learning from word cards using a research synthesis methodology.

The current synthesis of primary empirical studies brings significance to the field of vocabulary learning from word cards for two main reasons. Firstly, there is growing interest in the effects that word cards have on vocabulary learning, evident through the large number of studies published on this topic. With this large body of research, it is not surprising that some existing meta-analyses and syntheses also touch on this topic. For example, Webb et al. (2020) conducted a meta-analysis to examine the effectiveness of many vocabulary learning activities including the use of word cards. As a meta-analysis requires some strict inclusion criteria, many relevant word card studies had to be eliminated. Similarly, several researchers have synthesized the word card literature. Unfortunately, their focus was on synthesizing the literature on one specific type of word cards rather than all types of word cards ( Nakata, 2011 ; Lin and Lin, 2019 ; Ji and Aziz, 2021 ). Therefore, the previous meta-analyses and syntheses have not given an exclusive picture of how word cards lead to vocabulary learning. To fill this gap, this study adopts an inclusive synthesis approach to examine how the learners' use of word cards can lead to vocabulary learning.

Secondly, there are several potential variables that may affect vocabulary learning from word card use. For example, the effect of the use of digital word cards has been compared to paper word cards (e.g., Azabdaftari and Mozaheb, 2012 ; Chen and Chan, 2019 ). Some studies asked learners to self-construct word cards (e.g., Reynolds et al., 2020 ), while other studies provided word cards to learners (e.g., Oberg, 2011 ). However, it appears in the previous literature that researchers have not considered whether this could influence the effectiveness of word card use. The use of word cards is most often assumed to be an intentional vocabulary learning strategy. However, some researchers have reported to use word cards as an incidental learning strategy as well (e.g., Reynolds et al., 2020 ). Researchers have not considered whether the use of word cards is suitable for incidental learning. The literature usually suggests that learners use word cards in a spaced learning condition. However, some researchers have suggested learners to use massed learning as a large number of repeated encounters with the words will occur ( Uchihara et al., 2019 ). Word cards were also reported to have been used for different amounts of time in previous studies (e.g., Webb et al., 2020 ). The amount of time spent learning from word cards might influence vocabulary learning. Moreover, most of the previous research involved learners at different levels of proficiency (e.g., Tan and Nicholson, 1997 ; Nakata, 2008 ). Different levels of language proficiency might result in varied amounts of vocabulary learning from word card use. In this regard, this study extends the discussion of learning L2 vocabulary through the use of word cards and includes potential variables that may affect the reported effects in the published word card literature.

Practically, the findings of this synthesis have the potential to benefit two stakeholders. Firstly, this study provides some suggestions for researchers who have been investigating vocabulary learning from word card use. The results can provide suggestions for a future research trajectory. Secondly, this study has the potential to provide teachers with advice on how they can incorporate the use of word cards into their classroom teaching and skill training for learners.

Literature review

In this section, we review relevant vocabulary, word card, and theory literature before summarizing existing findings about the variables of interest to the present synthesis. Doing this helps to situate the research questions that follow. The results of this research synthesis builds on the literature that is covered in this section.

Previous research syntheses on vocabulary learning from word cards

Previous meta-analysists and synthesists have conducted research related to English vocabulary learning activities and examined this field from different perspectives. For example, Webb et al. (2020) conducted a meta-analysis which focused on studies investigating “four types of intentional vocabulary learning activities, including flashcards, word lists, writing and fill-in-the-blanks” ( Webb et al., 2020 , p. 1). In their meta-analysis of 22 studies, Webb et al. (2020) found that “both flashcards and word lists led to relatively large gains in vocabulary knowledge while writing and fill-in-the-blanks lead to relatively small gains” ( Webb et al., 2020 , p. 19). However, their meta-analysis only included studies with treatments that lasted up to 1 day, i.e., studies with treatments that lasted longer than 1 day were excluded ( Webb et al., 2020 ). Uchihara et al. (2019) conducted a meta-analysis which focused on the effects of repetition on incidental vocabulary learning. In their meta-analysis of 26 studies, Uchihara et al. (2019 , p. 559) found that “there was a medium effect of repetition on incidental vocabulary learning.” However, their meta-analysis only included studies that adopted within participants design, i.e., studies that adopted between participants design were excluded. Various research designs deserve investigation, as there are an increasing number of empirical studies that have included separate groups with different interventions ( Kose and Mede, 2018 ; Reynolds and Shih, 2019 ; Wulandari and Musfiroh, 2020 ). Both Webb et al.'s (2020) and Uchihara et al.'s (2019) meta-analyses focused on the form and meaning aspects of word knowledge. Other aspects of word knowledge should also be given attention by meta-analysists and synthesists. Other aspects of word knowledge require more rigid attention in vocabulary learning from word cards research ( Uchihara et al., 2019 ), as vocabulary learning involves more than “associating the new words with their meaning” ( Nakata, 2011 , p. 20).

Nakata (2011) conducted a systematic review on digital word card programs for vocabulary learning. In this systematic review of 9 digital word card programs, Nakata (2011 , p. 17) found that most digital word card programs “have been developed in a way that maximize vocabulary learning.” Lin and Lin (2019) conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis on vocabulary learning from digital word card use. In their systematic review and meta-analysis of 33 studies, Lin and Lin (2019) found that there was a positive and large effect of engagement in activities using digital word cards on vocabulary learning. Later, Ji and Aziz (2021) also conducted a systematic review of vocabulary learning from digital word card use. In their systematic review of 18 studies, Ji and Aziz (2021) also found that the use of digital word cards enhanced learners' vocabulary knowledge. These previous syntheses and meta-analyses gave insights on the effects of digital word card use but did not report on paper word card use or compare digital word cards to paper word cards. It is necessary to synthesize the studies that used digital word cards and paper word cards as it is important to see which type of word cards can result in better vocabulary learning outcomes.

Although previous syntheses have been investigating English language learning activities, few comprehensive syntheses have been conducted that focus on the use of word cards for vocabulary learning. Studies that utilized different research designs and assessed different aspects of word knowledge should be included for analysis, as the existing word card research was implemented in various research designs and assessed various aspects of word knowledge. In addition, various variables that might affect the vocabulary learning from word cards should be extracted from the studies for analysis.

It is evident that there is a growing interest in the effects that word cards have on vocabulary learning. This is shown from the number of different syntheses and meta-analyses that have been conducted on this topic ( Nakata, 2011 ; Elgort, 2017 ; Lin and Lin, 2019 ; Kim and Webb, 2022 ). There is also a growing body of studies on word card use ( Chen and Chan, 2019 ; Reynolds and Shih, 2019 ; Reynolds et al., 2020 ). However, the syntheses and the meta-analyses have not been very comprehensive in terms of the aspects of word knowledge assessed and the types of word cards used. The current synthesis is an attempt to give a systematic and comprehensive review on the past vocabulary learning research with a focus on word card use, hoping to provide some teaching implications and suggestions for future research.

Theoretical perspectives of vocabulary learning from word cards

There are several theoretical perspectives that have been used to frame previous studies. However, the majority of studies have used the Involvement Load Hypothesis ( Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001 ), the Pimsleur's Memory Schedule ( Pimsleur, 1967 ), or the Dual-Coding Theory ( Paivio, 1979 ). The word card studies included in the current synthesis relied on these theories for their research designs and interpretations of their results.

Involvement load hypothesis

The use of word cards is regarded as a task that has high involvement. The Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH) is a “task-induced involvement” theory that consists of “three motivational and cognitive dimensions,” i.e., need, search, and evaluation ( Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001 , p. 2). Need is the “motivational, non-cognitive dimension of involvement” and refers to “whether unknown words are needed to complete a task” ( Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001 , p. 14; Yanagisawa and Webb, 2021 , p. 489). Need is absent when an unknown word is not required (need is 0) ( Yanagisawa and Webb, 2021 ). Need is moderate when it is “imposed by an external agent” (e.g., the learners are required to create word cards for teacher selected words) (need is 1), and it is strong when it is “imposed by the learners themselves” (e.g., the learners wish to create word cards for the incidentally encountered unknown words) (need is 2) ( Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001 , p. 14; Reynolds et al., 2020 ; Yanagisawa and Webb, 2021 , p. 489). Search and evaluation are the “two cognitive dimensions of involvement” ( Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001 , p. 14). Search refers to the attempt to find an unknown L2 word's form or its meaning ( Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001 ). Search is absent when the L2 word's form and its meaning are provided in a task (e.g., a reading comprehension task where new words are glossed) (search is 0) ( Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001 ; Yanagisawa and Webb, 2021 ). Search is moderate when the learners need to find an unknown L2 word's form or its meaning using external resources (e.g., dictionaries or teachers) (search is 1), and it is strong when the learners need to engage in both receptive learning and productive learning (e.g., looking at the L2 word forms and trying to recall the L1 translations, and looking at the L1 translations and trying to recall the L2 word forms on word cards) (search is 2) ( Reynolds et al., 2020 ; Yanagisawa and Webb, 2021 ). Evaluation involves “the comparison of a given word with other words” ( Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001 , p. 14). Evaluation is absent when the learners do not need to decide which word to use (evaluation is 0) ( Yanagisawa and Webb, 2021 ). Evaluation is moderate when it entails recognizing differences between words with a context provided (e.g., a fill-in-the-blanks task with given words) (evaluation is 1), and it is strong when a word must be used in an authentic context (evaluation is 2) (e.g., a composition writing task using target words) ( Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001 ; Yanagisawa and Webb, 2021 ). The strength of the involvement load can occur in any combination. ILH predicts that “higher involvement in a word induced by the task will result in better retention” ( Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001 , p. 20).

Some researchers used the ILH as a framework for designing their studies. For studies that used word cards, the involvement load was calculated as 6 out of a possible 6. For example, in Reynolds et al.'s (2020 , p. 5) study, learners were required to “construct word cards for unknown words encountered while reading a class textbook.” In Reynolds et al.'s (2020 , pp. 5–6) study, need was 2 (as the learners initiated the need to understand “the unknown words incidentally encountered during reading class texts”), search was 2 (as word cards were used for both receptive learning, i.e., the learners recalled the L1 translations by looking at the L2 word forms, and productive learning, i.e., the learners recalled the L2 word forms by looking at the L1 translations), and evaluation was 2 (as the learners compared “multiple meanings of the words” and used the chosen word to write a sentence on the word card). However, the ILH can only suggest the predictability of a task being useful or not for vocabulary learning. To address the issue of how memory works in the learning of vocabulary from word cards, the Pimsleur's Memory Schedule ( Pimsleur, 1967 ) is more suitable.

Pimsleur's memory schedule

Previous researchers have suggested that the traditional way of memorizing words lacks scheduled repetition, which would lead to forgetting ( Mondria and Mondria-De Vries, 1994 ). Repetition is “essential for vocabulary learning” in a foreign language ( Nation, 2013a , p. 451). Pimsleur (1967) recommended “a memory schedule” which can be regarded as a guide “for determining the length of time that should occur between repetitions” ( Kose and Mede, 2018 , p. 5). Teachers can follow this schedule to space the recall of words previously learned by students. In this schedule, the rationale for determining the amount of time before recalling previously learned words is that most of the forgetting occurs after the initial learning of a word ( Kose and Mede, 2018 ). This forgetting will slow down as time passes by if the words are periodically encountered ( Kose and Mede, 2018 ). Pimsleur (1967) suggested how often new words should be repeated in order to keep them in a person's memory. It should be “5 s, 25 s (5 2 = 25 s), 2 min (5 3 = 125 s), 10 min (5 4 = 625 s), and so on” ( Nation, 2013a , p. 454). If learners are provided with opportunities for repetition of new words at the right time, their memories will be refreshed, and the retrieval of the words can improve retention.

Some researchers used the Pimsleur's Memory Schedule (PMS) ( Pimsleur, 1967 ) as a framework for designing their studies. For example, Kose and Mede (2018 ) investigated the effects of vocabulary learning using digital word cards with a spaced repetition system following the PMS. By enabling learners to repeatedly be exposed to the target words at the right time, the learners in their study demonstrated a high level of vocabulary acquisition. This is because after the initial learning of a target word, the forgetting is very fast, but the forgetting on the second repetition will be slower ( Nation, 2013a ). Knowledge of vocabulary decreases less rapidly after each repetition of target words if the spacing has been increased ( Mondria and Mondria-De Vries, 1994 ). However, most of the included studies used increased spacing rather than strictly following the PMS. However, if studies do not strictly use words cards only with printed text and instead opt for word cards containing pictorial elements, then the Dual-Coding Theory ( Paivio, 1979 ) should be considered to understand how this added multimedia element affects learning.

Dual-coding theory

It is possible for the use of word cards to “combine visual and verbal information” to optimize “memorization of words” ( Lavoie, 2016 , p. 22). The Dual-Coding Theory (DCT) ( Paivio, 1979 ) proposed that cognition occurs in two distinct codes, i.e., a verbal code for language, and a non-verbal code for mental imagery ( Sadoski, 2006 ). When information is processed through two channels (verbal and non-verbal) instead of one, learners can “benefit from an additional or compensatory scaffold that supports L2 vocabulary learning” ( Wong and Samudra, 2019 , p. 1187). Visual representations of word meanings, such as pictures or multimedia, play an important role in vocabulary learning. In addition, written word forms must also be processed visually and learned as visible units ( Sadoski, 2006 ). Therefore, dual coding of word cards might enhance memory recall of vocabulary.

Previous researchers have used the DCT as a framework for designing their studies. For example, in Lavoie's (2016 ) study, the experimental group that used word cards was compared to a control group. The word cards were presented with words and pictures to ensure the verbal and non-verbal information was processed at the same time. The results showed learners progressing in the learning of new words, demonstrating the additive effects of the two sources of input on vocabulary learning ( Lavoie, 2016 ).

Aspects of word knowledge

Vocabulary learning is not all or nothing. There are different aspects of word knowledge. At the most general level, vocabulary knowledge can be divided into three main categories, i.e., “form, meaning, and use” ( Nation, 2013a , p. 48). Form refers to the “spoken form, written form and word parts”; meaning refers to “the connection between form and meaning, concepts, references and associations of a word”; and use refers to the “grammatical functions, collocations and constraints on use of a word” ( Nation, 2013a , p. 539). Each of these aspects of word knowledge can be assessed productively or receptively. Receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge refers to the “learning direction” of vocabulary ( Nation, 2013a , pp. 51–52). Productive knowledge of a word is what a learner “needs to know in order to use the word while speaking or writing,” while receptive knowledge is what a learner “needs to know to understand a word while reading or listening” ( Crow, 1986 , p. 242).

Table 1 ( Nation, 2013a ) lists these aspects of word knowledge, indicating which ones are well dealt with by learning form word cards, and which ones are partly dealt with by this strategy. Ideal learning occurs when vocabulary has been acquired both receptively and productively. Word cards “can be used for both receptive and productive learning” ( Nation, 2013a , p. 441). For example, if the learners are using bilingual word cards with the “L1 on one side and the L2 on the other,” “looking at the L1 and trying to recall the L2 form” involves productive knowledge of form ( Nation, 2013a , p. 446; Reynolds et al., 2020 , p. 5). If the learners are “looking at the L2 and trying to recall the L1 meaning with the word cards,” it involves receptive knowledge of meaning ( Reynolds et al., 2020 , p. 5).

Table 1 . Aspects of word knowledge dealt with by learning from word cards ( Nation, 2013a , p. 442).

Variables that affect learning from word cards

Several variables have the potential of moderating the effectiveness of learning vocabulary from using word cards. These include the type of word cards used (i.e., paper or digital, ready-made or self-constructed), word cards used in different learning conditions (i.e., incidental or intentional, spaced or massed), period of time they are used, or if they are used by learners with different language proficiencies.

Paper and digital word cards

Paper word cards are defined as word cards made from paper-based materials ( Nation, 2013a ). The emergence of digital word cards allows learners to learn vocabulary on computers ( Nakata, 2008 ) or mobile devices ( Lai et al., 2020 ). The use of digital word cards can arouse learners' interest in vocabulary learning ( Lin and Lin, 2019 ) and potentially lead to learning gains ( Başoglu and Akdemir, 2010 ; Azabdaftari and Mozaheb, 2012 ; Tsai, 2018 ; Chen and Chan, 2019 ; Xodabande et al., 2021 ).

Ready-made and self-constructed word cards

Ready-made word cards, which are prepared by teachers or bought in stores, are common in the language learning classroom. For example, McDonald and Reynolds (2021) presented ready-made cards based on words taken from storybooks for learners. In addition to using ready-made word cards, learners can also acquire vocabulary by self-constructing their own word cards. For example, Reynolds et al. (2020 ) required learners to construct 10 word cards for each of the 10 readings in a textbook. Previous researchers have indicated that learners might have a strong affective bond with self-constructed word cards ( Mondria and Mondria-De Vries, 1994 ). It is meaningful to know whether a learner should use self-constructed word cards or ready-made word cards. As learners may select the words by themselves for self-constructed word cards, this selection might affect their vocabulary learning.

Intentional and incidental learning conditions

The two broad approaches to vocabulary learning are intentional and incidental. Intentional vocabulary learning can be defined by whether learners know that “they will be tested on their vocabulary learning” ( Webb et al., 2020 , p. 2). If learners know of an “upcoming vocabulary test,” they may “pay special attention to vocabulary and engage in intentional learning” ( Uchihara et al., 2019 , p. 561). Incidental vocabulary learning is defined as “the learning that emerges through a meaning-focused comprehension task in which learners are not told of an upcoming vocabulary test” ( Uchihara et al., 2019 , p. 561). Thus, learners' awareness of a future assessment differentiates between incidental learning, where learners are “unaware of a subsequent vocabulary test,” and intentional learning, where “they know they will be tested” ( Webb et al., 2020 , p. 2).

Spaced and massed learning conditions

A massed learning condition refers to a learning condition in which words are repeated “during a single and continuous period of time,” while a spaced learning condition refers to a learning condition in which words are repeated “across a period of time at ever-increasing intervals” ( Kose and Mede, 2018 , p. 4). Spacing has often been operationalized “within a strictly controlled laboratory setting” in which learners study individual L2 words at different time intervals ( Uchihara et al., 2019 , p. 574). In this synthesis, the massed learning condition was operationalized as use of word cards within a single day, while the spaced learning condition was operationalized as use of word cards that lasted for more than 1 day ( Uchihara et al., 2019 ). Previous researchers have examined the effect of spacing on vocabulary development. For example, Kuo and Ho (2012 , p. 36) found a larger but non-significant effect on vocabulary learning when word cards were used in spaced learning conditions compared to massed learning conditions, because the effects of spaced learning might be reduced by retrieval activities in both learning conditions.

Time spent learning from word cards

Previous researchers were also interested in the amount of time that learners spent on learning from word cards ( Webb et al., 2020 ). In Webb et al.'s (2020) meta-analysis of vocabulary learning activities, results showed that the number of minutes learners spent per word did not significantly influence vocabulary learning. In the present research synthesis, time spent learning from word cards was operationalized as the number of minutes the learners spent learning vocabulary using the cards.

Proficiency level of learners

The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) ( Council of Europe, 2001 ) is “the most influential language framework in the field of second language teaching and assessment” ( Fleckenstein et al., 2020 , p. 2). “It describes foreign language competencies in three broad stages which can be divided into six proficiency levels,” i.e., A1/A2 for basic users, B1/B2 for independent users, and C1/C2 for proficient users ( Fleckenstein et al., 2020 , p. 2). Previous researchers have indicated that more advanced learners usually acquire more vocabulary than less proficient learners, as greater L2 knowledge should help learners to understand and use language ( Webb et al., 2020 ).

Testing vocabulary knowledge

In the previous research investigating the effects of word card use on vocabulary learning, researchers have used standardized tests and researcher-constructed tests. These tests have been used to assess different aspects of vocabulary knowledge (i.e., receptive and productive knowledge of form, meaning, and use). In this section, the standardized tests and the researcher-constructed tests used in these previous studies are introduced.

Standardized tests

Three main standardized tests have been used in the published literature. These include the Vocabulary Size Test (VST) ( Nation and Beglar, 2007 ), the Updated Vocabulary Levels Test (UVLT) ( Webb et al., 2017 ), and the New General Service Lists Test (NGSLT) ( Browne et al., 2013 ). Table 2 provides example items from these standardized tests.

Table 2 . Standardized tests of vocabulary knowledge.

The VST ( Nation and Beglar, 2007 ) was designed to measure a learner's overall English receptive vocabulary knowledge. It is one of the most popular tests used to measure vocabulary size. The VST consists of 140 multiple-choice items. It consists of “10 sampled target words from each of the 1,000-level word family” lists up to the 14,000 level extracted from the “100,000,000 token British National Corpus” ( Reynolds et al., 2020 , p. 4). Answering all items correctly indicates that the test taker knows the most frequent “14,000 word families” of English ( Reynolds et al., 2020 , pp. 4–5).

The UVLT ( Webb et al., 2017 ) allows one to measure the mastery of vocabulary at different frequency levels. Specifically, the “first 1,000 most frequent words” of English to the “fifth 1,000 most frequent words” of English are assessed ( Webb et al., 2017 , p. 35). A test taker is presented with 30 questions per level. A test taker that scores “at least 26/30 (87%) has achieved mastery of that level” and might then focus on learning words from the next level ( Webb et al., 2017 , p. 56). However, the stricter criterion of 29/30 is recommended for masterly of the first three (1,000–3,000 word families) levels as those are commonly accepted as the basis for future vocabulary learning.

The NGSLT ( Browne et al., 2013 ) is “a diagnostic instrument” designed to assess “written receptive knowledge” of the words on the New General Service List (NGSL) ( Stoeckel et al., 2018 , p. 5; Xodabande et al., 2021 , p. 100). The NGSL is comprised of “2,800 high frequency words” and is designed to “provide maximal coverage of texts for learners of English” ( Stoeckel et al., 2018 , p. 5). The test is “a multiple-choice test that consists of 5 levels, each assessing knowledge of 20 randomly sampled words from a 560-word frequency based level of the NGSL” ( Stoeckel et al., 2018 , p. 5). The first level represents the most frequent words, the second level represents slightly less frequent words, and so forth. Answering correctly 16 or 17 items out of 20 indicates mastery of that level ( Browne et al., 2013 ).

Researcher-constructed tests

Looking at “how well a particular word is known” is called measuring “depth of knowledge,” while looking at “how many words are known” is called measuring “breath of knowledge” ( Nation, 2013a , p. 549). Table 3 ( Nation, 2013a , p. 442) lists various aspects of what is involved in “knowing a word” and provides a corresponding example test item that has been used in previous research to assess that particular knowledge aspect.

Table 3 . Researcher-constructed tests of vocabulary knowledge.

Previous word card research has assessed both receptive form knowledge and productive form knowledge. Receptive knowledge of form refers to whether a learner can recognize the “spoken form of a word, written form of a word, or the parts in a word” ( Nation, 2013a , p. 538). Productive form refers to whether a learner can “pronounce a word correctly, spell and write a word, or produce appropriate inflected and derived forms of a word” ( Nation, 2013a , p. 538). For example, Lukas et al. (2020 ) assessed the productive knowledge of form by having learners complete a word dictation task after they were provided a picture of an animal. Samad and Makingkung (2020 ) assessed the productive knowledge of form by having learners read aloud a word and spell it out loud.

Previous word card research has also assessed both receptive and productive word meaning. Receptive meaning refers to whether a learner can “recall the appropriate meaning for a word form, understand a range of uses of a word and its central concept, or recall common associations for a word” ( Nation, 2013a , p. 538). Productive meaning refers to whether the learner can “produce an appropriate word form to express its meaning, use a word to refer to a range of items, or recall a word when presented with related ideas” ( Nation, 2013a , p. 538). For example, Oberg (2011 ) assessed the receptive knowledge of meaning by having learners take a sentence fill-in-the-blank test (see Table 3 ). Fukushima (2019 ) assessed the receptive knowledge of meaning by asking learners to complete a test that required them to provide L1 Japanese for displayed L2 English words. Productive knowledge of meaning was also assessed by asking the learners to provide L2 English words after L1 Japanese words were displayed ( Fukushima, 2019 ).

Previous word card research has assessed both receptive and productive knowledge of use. Receptive use refers to whether a learner can “recognize correct uses of a word in context, recognize appropriate collocations, or tell if a word is a common, formal, or infrequent word” ( Nation, 2013a , p. 538). Productive use refers to whether a learner can “use a word in correct grammatical patterns, produce a word with appropriate collocations, or use a word at appropriate times” ( Nation, 2013a , p. 538). For example, Alhuwaydi (2020 ) assessed the productive knowledge of use by asking learners to specify the part of speech for words.

Purpose of the study

With a view to broadening our understanding of English vocabulary learning from word cards, this study attempts to provide an overview of relevant empirical studies to identity potential variables that may affect learning from word cards. The synthesis was guided by the following research questions (RQs):

RQ 1: What aspects of word knowledge have been investigated in the published word card research literature?

RQ 2: Which type of word cards has a larger effect on vocabulary learning? Digital or paper? Self-constructed or ready-made?

RQ 3: Which condition has a larger effect on vocabulary learning? Incidental or intentional? Spaced or massed?

RQ 4: What is the strength of the correlation between the time spent using word cards and vocabulary learning?

RQ 5: Which language proficiency group (basic, independent, and proficient) can learn the most vocabulary from using word cards?

Methodology

Research synthesis in language learning research.

The primary goal of a research synthesis is to integrate empirical research findings by “drawing overall conclusions from many separate investigations that address identical or related hypotheses” ( Cooper, 2017 , pp. 170–171). The present study is a research synthesis of previous vocabulary learning studies which involve word card activities, attempting to provide generalizations of the practice of using word cards in L2 English learning and the effectiveness of word card usage in L2 English vocabulary development.

A well-designed research synthesis involves seven stages ( Cooper, 2017 , pp. 32–36): “(1) formulating the problem; (2) searching the literature; (3) gathering information from studies; (4) evaluating the quality of studies; (5) analyzing and integrating the outcomes of studies; (6) interpreting the evidence; and (7) presenting the results.” The seven stages for the current research synthesis are briefly summarized in this section and more detailed explanations are provided in the following sections. The first step is to formulate the problem. In this synthesis, after formulating the five research questions, the key concepts, constructs, and variables were clearly defined to distinguish relevant and irrelevant studies. The second step is searching the literature to identify relevant studies. To locate potential primary studies related to English vocabulary learning from word cards, a comprehensive literature search was conducted in the Web of Science (including SCI-Expanded, SSCI, AHCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, BKCI-S, BKCI-SSH, ESCI) and Scopus databases using search terms related to vocabulary and word cards. The third step is to gather information from studies. To identify the studies to include in the present research synthesis, a set of inclusion and exclusion criteria was applied to screen the retrieved studies after the literature search. Then, after applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, a systematic coding process was applied using a coding scheme that helped identify important data for analysis. The reliability of this coding process was checked before further data analysis. The fourth step is to evaluate the quality of studies. In this synthesis, the Study Design and Implementation Assessment Device (Study DIAD) was used to evaluate the studies ( Cooper, 2017 ). The fifth step is to analyze and integrate the outcomes of the primary studies. Results from the primary word card vocabulary learning studies were combined, identifying systematic data patterns regarding the practice of using word cards and its effects on vocabulary learning development (see Section Results). The sixth and seventh steps are to present and interpret the results. This was done through a discussion of this synthesis (see Section Discussion).

Literature search

To locate potentially relevant studies on English vocabulary learning from word cards, the following electronic databases were comprehensively searched: Scopus and Web of Science (WOS) (including Science Citation Index Expanded, Social Sciences Citation Index, Arts and Humanities Citation Index, Conference Proceedings Citation Index—Science, Conference Proceedings Citation Index—Social Science and Humanities, Book Citation Index—Science, Book Citation Index—Social Sciences and Humanities, Emerging Sources Citation Index). The search covered all document types including journal articles, conference papers, and book chapters. The literature search covered the period from 1945 to July 2021. There were no limits on the publication period for the included studies. All studies were searched and screened for inclusion within the databases, in order to be as inclusive as possible.

The key terms related to vocabulary and word cards were searched in the databases by title, yielding 803 results. A set of inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to determine the studies to be included in the synthesis (see Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria). Duplicated studies were removed. The combinations of search terms and Boolean operators (“AND” or “OR”) used in the database searches are presented in Table 4 .

Table 4 . The key terms used in the database searches.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

After the initially eligible studies for the synthesis were identified, they were carefully examined based on a set of inclusion and exclusion criteria. Studies that were based on empirical data were included. Besides quantitative empirical studies, qualitative empirical studies were also included in this synthesis. In addition, studies that were written in English were retrieved in this synthesis, as the published studies on international and English-language journals or conferences were generally regarded as quality studies. Studies with the following features were included:

1. The study was based on empirical data.

2. The study was written in English.

Studies with the following features were excluded:

1. The study was not related to language learning.

2. The study measured non-English language outcomes.

3. The study was not related to vocabulary.

4. The study participants were non-mainstream learners.

5. The study participants were native English speakers.

The 803 studies potentially eligible for the synthesis were then reviewed carefully to identify relevant studies based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The titles, abstracts, and full texts (when necessary) of all retrieved papers were reviewed. Seven hundred and forty four were excluded based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 26 duplicates were excluded, and 1 was removed due to an indexing error. Overall, the search yielded a sample of 32 studies that were included in the research synthesis. The corresponding full-text documents were obtained. The database search process is presented in a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) flow diagram ( Page et al., 2021 ) in Figure 1 .

Figure 1 . PRISMA flow diagram.

While the content of every research synthesis coding guide will be unique to the research questions asked, there are certain broad types of information that every synthesist will want to gather from primary research reports ( Cooper, 2017 ). The information to include on a coding guide is classified into eight categories: “(1) the report; (2) the predictor or independent variables; (3) the setting in which the study took place; (4) participant and sample characteristics; (5) the dependent or outcome variables and how they were measured; (6) the type of research design; (7) statistical outcomes and effect sizes; and (8) coder and coding process characteristics” ( Cooper, 2017 , p. 120). In addition, previous research syntheses on vocabulary learning from word cards coded various variables, including proficiency level and educational level of learners ( Webb et al., 2020 ), number of target words ( Wright and Cervetti, 2017 ; Webb et al., 2020 ), test timing ( Webb et al., 2020 ) and spacing ( Uchihara et al., 2019 ). Therefore, after the 32 studies that met the inclusion criteria were identified, Cooper's (2017) coding suggestions and the coded variables of previous research syntheses involving word cards were used to develop the coding scheme for this synthesis.

Specifically, this resulted in seven coding categories: (a) bibliographic information (e.g., author, year of publication), (b) learner characteristics (e.g., sample size, proficiency level), (c) word card characteristics (e.g., origin of word cards, digital integration), (d) methodological characteristics (e.g., study design, theoretical perspective), (e) learning conditions (e.g., spacing), (f) aspects of word knowledge (e.g., receptive form, productive form), and (g) results (e.g., mean of experimental group posttest scores). Supplementary Table 1 provides a detailed description of the coding scheme.

Some of the data was not available in the retrieved research, so the authors of the studies were contacted to request this information. Additional information was gratefully received from four authors ( Kose and Mede, 2018 ; Alhuwaydi, 2020 ; Hidayat and Yulianti, 2020 ; Xodabande et al., 2021 ).

To establish the reliability of the coding procedures, 5 studies (15.63%) were randomly selected and independently coded by a researcher familiar with the process of a research synthesis. Following Boulton and Cobb's (2017) approach, the inter rater reliability was assessed by counting the number of discrepancies between the two researchers' coding. The agreement was found to be 75%. Then, a discussion about the discrepancies was conducted with the researcher. Another 5 studies (15.63%) were randomly selected from the remaining 27 studies and independently coded, then the agreement was found to be 93%. Any remaining disagreements were satisfactorily resolved through discussion, and the coding book was refined where necessary.

Evaluation of included studies

The Study Design and Implementation Assessment Device (Study DIAD) ( Cooper, 2017 ) was applied to evaluate the included studies. Studies were evaluated with the following four global questions in the Study DIAD ( Cooper, 2017 , pp. 170–171):

1. Fit Between Concepts and Operations: Were the participants in the study treated and the outcomes measured in a way that is consistent with the definition of the intervention and its proposed effects?

2. Clarity of Casual Inference: Did the research design permit an unambiguous conclusion about the intervention's effectiveness?

3. Generality of Findings: Was the intervention tested on participants, settings, outcomes, and occasions representative of its intended beneficiaries?

4. Precision of Outcome Estimation: Could accurate estimates of the intervention's impact be derived from the study report?”

After detailed evaluation, all 32 included studies were verified to be quality studies.

Overview of primary studies

This section provides an overview of the 32 primary studies. Supplementary Table 2 presents the detailed information of these studies in chronological order. Bibliographic information, learner characteristics, word card characteristics, methodological characteristics and learning conditions are explained below.

Bibliographic information

In terms of the type of publication, 81% of the studies were journal articles ( k = 26), followed by conference papers ( k = 4) and a book chapter ( k = 1). In terms of the country or region, 25% of the studies were from Taiwan ( k = 8), 25% were from Iran ( k = 8), followed by Indonesia ( k = 4), Turkey ( k = 4), Japan ( k = 3), Malaysia ( k = 1), Macau ( k = 1), Canada ( k = 1), New Zealand ( k = 1), and Saudi Arabia ( k = 1).

The frequency of year of publication is reported in Figure 2 . Although the literature search covered the period from 1945 to July 2021, there was only one study ( Tan and Nicholson, 1997 ) from the 1990s that met the inclusion criteria for the synthesis. Thirty one out of the 32 studies were published from 2008 to 2021. As shown in Figure 2 , 9 studies were published between 2020 and 2021, 5 studies between 2018 and 2019, 4 studies between 2016 and 2017, 6 studies between 2014 and 2015, 4 studies between 2012 and 2013, 2 studies between 2010 and 2011, and 2 studies before 2010.

Figure 2 . Frequency of year of publication.

Learner characteristics

In terms of the proficiency level, 53% ( k = 17) of the studies reported the proficiency level of the learners. Among the 32 studies, 25% of the studies involved learners at the B1 level ( k = 8), 12.5% at the A1 level ( k = 4), followed by B2 ( k = 3), A2 ( k = 1), C1 ( k = 1), and none at the C2 level ( k = 0). 46.88% did not report this data ( k = 15). In terms of the educational level, 93.75% ( k = 30) of the studies reported the educational level of the learners. Among the 32 studies, 31.25% of the studies involved learners at the university level ( k = 10), 28.13% at the secondary level ( k = 9), 21.88% at the primary level ( k = 7), and 15.63% at the preprimary level ( k = 5). 6.25% did not report this data ( k = 2). With respect to L1 backgrounds, 88% ( k = 28) of the studies reported this data. Among these 32 studies, 25% recruited L1 Mandarin learners ( k = 8), followed by Turkish ( k = 5), Indonesian ( k = 4), Japanese ( k = 3), Farsi ( k = 3), Malaysian ( k = 1), Cantonese ( k = 1), French ( k = 1), Persian ( k = 1), and Arabic ( k = 1). 12.5% did not report this data ( k = 4).

Word card characteristics

In terms of the origin of word cards, 81.25% of the studies used ready-made word cards ( k = 26), and 18.75% used self-constructed word cards ( k = 6). In terms of the digital integration, 40.63% of the studies did not use digital word cards ( k = 13), 31.25% integrated used a computer program with word cards ( k = 10), and 28.13% used a mobile app with word cards ( k = 9). In terms of the semantic relatedness, 21.88% of the studies reported the data ( k = 7). Among the 32 studies, 18.75% of the studies used semantic clustering of words ( k = 6), 3.13% used thematic clustering of words ( k = 1), and 78.13% did not report this data ( k = 25). With respect to the type of assessed vocabulary, 69% of the studies reported the data. Among the 32 studies, 46.88% assessed specific vocabulary knowledge ( k = 15), 21.88% assessed general vocabulary knowledge ( k = 7), and 31.25% did not report this data ( k = 10). In terms of the type of vocabulary test used in previous studies, 90.63% used researcher-constructed tests ( k = 29), followed by VST ( k = 2), VLT ( k = 1), and NGSLT ( k = 1).

Methodological characteristics

In terms of the study design, 71.88% of the studies used an independent-group pretest-posttest design ( k = 23), 18.75% used a single-group pretest-posttest design ( k = 6), followed by other designs ( k = 3). In terms of the theoretical perspectives, only 9.38% of the studies reported the use of any theoretical perspective ( k = 3) for framing the studies. These perspectives included the Involvement Load Hypothesis ( k = 1) ( Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001 ), the Pimsleur's Memory Schedule ( k = 1) ( Pimsleur, 1967 ), and the Dual-Coding Theory ( k = 1) ( Paivio, 1979 ). With respect to a control group, 34.38% of the studies had a control group ( k = 11), and 66.63% did not have a control group ( k = 21). In terms of the pretest use, 87.5% conducted a pretest ( k = 28) and 12.5% did not ( k = 4). With respect to the test timing, 100% conducted an immediate posttest ( k = 32), 25% of the studies conducted a delayed posttest ( k = 8), and 25% conducted both ( k = 8).

Learning conditions

In terms of the approaches, 96.88% of the studies applied intentional learning ( k = 31), and 6.25% applied incidental learning ( k = 2). With respect to the spacing, 81.25% of the studies reported the data ( k = 26). Among the 32 studies, 75% asked learners to apply spaced learning ( k = 24), while 9.38% had learners apply massed learning ( k = 3), and 3.13% investigated both conditions ( k = 1). 18.75% did not report this data ( k = 6).

Calculation of effect sizes (ESs)

The studies included in the synthesis were not conducted with identical research designs, i.e., the included studies could be single-group pretest-posttest design or independent-groups pretest-posttest design. Due to the discrepancies in the designs, the guidelines suggested by Morris and DeShon (2002 , pp. 107–108) and Navarro (2013 , p. 382) were followed to calculate the ESs, as described below.

1. In the single-group pretest-posttest design (formula 1):

2. In the independent-groups pretest-posttest design (formula 2):

3. In the independent-groups pretest-posttest design (formula 3; when mean and standard deviation of pretest scores are not available in the published literature):

In the above formulas, post = posttest; pre = pretest; E = experimental group; C = control group; SD = standard deviation. In terms of formula 2 and 3, for independent-groups pretest-posttest studies that did not include a control group (e.g., only included two or more experimental groups), an experimental group, i.e., the least interfering experimental group, was treated as a control group. For example, Barkat and Aminafshar's (2015 ) study did not include a control group. In their study, learners were assigned into three experimental groups, i.e., paper word cards group, digital word cards group, as well as paper and digital word cards group. In this synthesis, only the first two experimental groups in their study were analyzed, and the second experimental group was treated as a control group.

It has been recommended by researchers that one study should ideally provide only one ES ( Light and Pillemer, 1984 ). As all included studies conducted an immediate posttest, only immediate posttest scores rather than delayed posttest scores were extracted for ES calculation in each study. It should also be mentioned that the included studies did not assess identical aspects of word knowledge. However, the word knowledge was assessed sequentially in most studies. To calculate the ESs, the data of the first receptive knowledge assessment was extracted from each study to prevent practice effects (i.e., the previous test could affect the subsequent test performance) and gather unified data.

Specifically, 78.13% of the studies ( k = 25) provided means and standard deviations needed for the computation of effect sizes in this synthesis. Conservative estimates of ESs were filled in for the remaining studies ( k = 7) that had missing data, i.e., assigning ESs of zero, as minimum treatment effect was assumed ( Light and Pillemer, 1984 ).

When the ESs were calculated, an effect direction plot, i.e., a visual display of non-standardized effects across included studies, was then generated ( Thomson and Thomas, 2013 ). In addition, an effect size plot was constructed, i.e., ESs were categorized by their size and visually presented. This synthesis method was utilized to answer RQ 2, 3, and 5, which, respectively, concern the type of word cards used, word cards used in different learning conditions, and word cards used by learners with different language proficiencies.

Research question 1: What aspects of word knowledge have been investigated in the published word card research literature?

The first research question concerns the aspects of word knowledge investigated in the previous studies. To examine what aspects of word knowledge were investigated by researchers, 29 out of the 32 studies (91%) which indicated the aspect of word knowledge assessed were included for analysis ( Tan and Nicholson, 1997 ; Nakata, 2008 ; Başoglu and Akdemir, 2010 ; Oberg, 2011 ; Azabdaftari and Mozaheb, 2012 ; Komachali and Khodareza, 2012 ; Kuo and Ho, 2012 ; Chien, 2013 , 2015 ; Nikoopour and Kazemi, 2014 ; Barkat and Aminafshar, 2015 ; Hamzehbagi and Bonyadi, 2015 ; Özer and Koçoglu, 2015 ; Galedari and Basiroo, 2016 ; Lavoie, 2016 ; Aminafshar, 2017 ; Saputri, 2017 ; Wu et al., 2017 ; Chen and Chan, 2019 ; Fukushima, 2019 ; Reynolds and Shih, 2019 ; Alhuwaydi, 2020 ; Hidayat and Yulianti, 2020 ; Lukas et al., 2020 ; Samad and Makingkung, 2020 ; Wulandari and Musfiroh, 2020 ; Yüksel et al., 2020 ; Xodabande et al., 2021 ).

Firstly, the aspects of word knowledge assessed in each of the 29 studies were coded. Secondly, the frequency of studies that assessed each aspect of word knowledge (i.e., how many studies out of the 29 studies investigated the different types of word knowledge) was calculated. Results are presented in Figure 3 . In these 29 studies, 72.41% assessed receptive knowledge of meaning (RM) ( k = 21), 41.38% assessed receptive knowledge of form (RF) ( k = 12), 27.59% assessed productive knowledge of form (PF) ( k = 8), 20.69% assessed productive knowledge of meaning (PM) ( k = 6), 13.79% assessed receptive knowledge of use (RU) ( k = 4), and 6.90% assessed productive knowledge of use (PU) ( k = 2).

Figure 3 . Frequency of word knowledge type ( k = 29). Max = 29 as only 29 of the 32 studies provided necessary data. RF, receptive knowledge of form; PF, productive knowledge of form; RM, receptive knowledge of meaning; PM, productive knowledge of meaning; RU, receptive knowledge of use; PU, productive knowledge of use. As more than one aspect of word knowledge might have been assessed within a single study, the total is higher than 29.

Based on the frequency of studies that assessed each aspect of word knowledge, most studies assessed receptive vocabulary knowledge more often than productive vocabulary knowledge. In addition, knowledge of vocabulary form and meaning were assessed more often than knowledge of vocabulary use.

Research question 2: Which type of word cards has a larger effect on vocabulary learning? Digital or paper? Self-constructed or ready-made?

The second research question concerns the types of word cards that were used in the previous studies. To examine the effects of word card type on vocabulary learning, all 32 studies that provided the necessary data were analyzed. The digital integration and the origin of word cards for each of the 32 studies were coded and their ESs were calculated.

Firstly, results concerning the digital integration showed that among the studies, 50% of the studies used paper word cards that did not contain digital integration ( k = 16), 31.25% used digital word cards in a computer program ( k = 10), and 28.13% used digital word cards in a mobile app ( k = 9). Digital word cards (59.38%, k = 19) were used more often by researchers than paper word cards (50%, k = 16). Specifically, digital word cards in a computer program (31.25%, k = 10) were used more often than digital word cards in a mobile app (28.13%, k = 9).

Secondly, results concerning the origin of the word cards showed that among the studies, 81.25% used ready-made word cards ( k = 26), and 18.75% used self-constructed word cards ( k = 6). Among the two word card types, ready-made word cards were used more often by researchers than self-constructed word cards.

Thirdly, the effect direction plot was constructed and visually presented in Table 5 . Arrows were used to indicate reported effect direction (positive effect ▲, negative effect ▼, or no change ◀▶) ( Thomson and Thomas, 2013 ). Arrows were also used to indicate sample size (large arrow=sample size equals or >50, small arrow=sample size smaller than 50) ( Thomson and Thomas, 2013 ). Among the 32 studies, 75% reported a positive effect ( k = 24) and 25% reported no change ( k = 8). There was a trend showing most studies that applied the word cards, either digital or paper, ready-made or self-constructed, showed a positive effect on vocabulary learning.

Table 5 . Effect direction plot for type of word cards ( k = 32).

Lastly, the effect size plot was constructed, i.e., ESs were categorized by their size and visually presented in Figure 4 . ESs for these studies were interpreted according to Cohen's guidelines, i.e., < .2 is negligible, .2 is small, .5 is medium, and .8 is large ( Larson-Hall, 2010 ). In terms of digital integration, studies that used digital word cards showed varied effects, i.e., small (17%), medium (11%) and large effects (33%). Studies that used paper word cards also showed small (17%), medium (11%) and large effects (50%). In terms of the origin of the word cards, studies that used self-constructed word cards showed medium (20%) and large (20%) effects. Studies that used ready-made word cards showed small (15%), medium (11%) and large (44%) effects.

Figure 4 . Effect size plot for type of word cards ( k = 32).

Based on the results of the effect size plot, more of the reviewed studies showed a larger effect for the use of paper word cards compared to digital word cards. In addition, more of the reviewed studies showed a larger effect for the use of ready-made word cards than self-constructed word cards.

Research question 3: Which condition has a larger effect on vocabulary learning? Incidental or intentional? Spaced or massed?

The third research question concerns the learning conditions that were applied in the previous studies. To examine the effects of learning conditions on vocabulary learning, all 32 studies that provided the data on the approach (i.e., incidental or intentional learning condition) were analyzed, then 26 studies (81%) that provided the data on spacing (i.e., spaced or massed learning condition) were analyzed ( Nakata, 2008 ; Başoglu and Akdemir, 2010 ; Azabdaftari and Mozaheb, 2012 ; Komachali and Khodareza, 2012 ; Kuo and Ho, 2012 ; Chien, 2013 , 2015 ; Nikoopour and Kazemi, 2014 ; Barkat and Aminafshar, 2015 ; Özer and Koçoglu, 2015 ; Galedari and Basiroo, 2016 ; Lavoie, 2016 ; Aminafshar, 2017 ; Saputri, 2017 ; Wu et al., 2017 ; Kose and Mede, 2018 ; Tsai, 2018 ; Chen and Chan, 2019 ; Fukushima, 2019 ; Reynolds and Shih, 2019 ; Hidayat and Yulianti, 2020 ; Lai et al., 2020 ; Lukas et al., 2020 ; Reynolds et al., 2020 ; Yüksel et al., 2020 ; Xodabande et al., 2021 ). The learning approach (i.e., incidental learning or intentional learning) and spacing (i.e., spaced or massed learning condition) for each of the studies was coded and their ESs were calculated.

Firstly, the approach results showed that among the 32 studies, 93.75% of the studies was conducted in an intentional learning condition ( k = 30), and 9.38% in an incidental learning condition ( k = 3). An intentional learning condition was used much more often than an incidental learning condition.

Secondly, the spacing results showed that among the 26 studies, 92.31% of the studies used a spaced learning condition ( k = 24), and 11.54% used a massed learning condition ( k = 3), and 3.85% used both learning conditions ( k = 1). More studies used a spaced learning condition than a massed learning condition or both conditions.

Thirdly, the effect direction plot was constructed and visually presented in Table 6 . Among the 32 studies, 75% reported a positive effect ( k = 24) and 25% reported no change ( k = 8). There was a trend showing most studies that applied these learning conditions showed a positive effect on vocabulary learning.

Table 6 . Effect direction plot for learning conditions ( k = 32).

Lastly, the effect size plot was constructed, i.e., ESs were categorized by their size and visually presented in Figure 5 . In terms of the approach, the only two studies that used an incidental learning condition showed negligible effects. Studies that used an intentional learning condition showed small (13%), medium (13%) and large (42%) effects. In terms of spacing, studies that used a spaced learning condition showed small (8%), medium (17%), and large (42%) effects. All studies that used a massed learning condition showed large (100%) effects.

Figure 5 . Effect size plot for learning conditions ( k = 32).

Based on the results of the effect size plot, more of the reviewed studies showed a larger effect for using word cards in an intentional learning condition compared with an incidental learning condition. In addition, more of the reviewed studies showed a larger effect for using word cards in a massed learning condition compared with a spaced learning condition.

Research question 4: What is the strength of the correlation between time spent using word cards and vocabulary learning?

The fourth research question concerns the word card usage time. To examine how time spent using word cards correlates with vocabulary learning, 14 out of the 32 studies (43.75%) that provided the data on time spent using word cards by the learners and the posttest mean scores on vocabulary learning were included for analysis ( Tan and Nicholson, 1997 ; Oberg, 2011 ; Kuo and Ho, 2012 ; Galedari and Basiroo, 2016 ; Wu et al., 2017 ; Kose and Mede, 2018 ; Tsai, 2018 ; Chen and Chan, 2019 ; Fukushima, 2019 ; Reynolds and Shih, 2019 ; Hidayat and Yulianti, 2020 ; Lukas et al., 2020 ; Reynolds et al., 2020 ; Xodabande et al., 2021 ).

Firstly, the time spent using word cards by the learners and the posttest mean scores on vocabulary learning were extracted from the 14 studies. Secondly, the assumptions for Spearman's Rho correlation were checked. The first assumption is that the data has to be ordinal, interval or ratio, and the second assumption is that the data has to be monotonically related, i.e., one variable increases (or decreases), the other variable also increase (or decreases) ( Prion and Haerling, 2014 ). The extracted data is ratio, i.e., has a true or meaningful zero. In addition, the variables have a monotonic increasing relationship.

Thirdly, a Spearman's Rho correlation was run to determine the relationship between the time spent using word cards and the posttest mean scores on vocabulary learning. Spearman's rho, r s , for these studies were interpreted according to the following guidelines: 0 to .2 is negligible, .21 to .4 is weak, .41 to .6 is moderate, .61 to .80 is strong, and .81 to 1 is very strong ( Prion and Haerling, 2014 ). There was a positive and weak correlation between the time spent using word cards and the vocabulary learning outcomes ( r s =.396, p =.161, and n =14). The correlation coefficient value of .396 confirmed there was a positive and weak correlation between the two variables, meaning that both variables moved in the same direction. The p -value of .161 showed that there was not enough evidence to show the correlation was significant.

Based on the results of the Spearman's Rho correlation, a weak relationship was shown between time spent using word cards and vocabulary learning outcomes; however, this relationship was not found to be statistically significant.

Research question 5: Which language proficiency group (basic, independent, or proficient) can learn the most vocabulary from using word cards?

The fifth research question concerns the proficiency level of learners that were assessed in the previous studies. To examine which proficiency group learned the most vocabulary from using word cards, 17 out of the 32 studies (53.13%) were included for analysis ( Tan and Nicholson, 1997 ; Nakata, 2008 ; Başoglu and Akdemir, 2010 ; Oberg, 2011 ; Azabdaftari and Mozaheb, 2012 ; Komachali and Khodareza, 2012 ; Chien, 2013 , 2015 ; Hamzehbagi and Bonyadi, 2015 ; Özer and Koçoglu, 2015 ; Kose and Mede, 2018 ; Fukushima, 2019 ; Reynolds and Shih, 2019 ; Alhuwaydi, 2020 ; Hidayat and Yulianti, 2020 ; Reynolds et al., 2020 ; Yüksel et al., 2020 ).

Firstly, the proficiency level in each of the 17 studies was coded and their ESs were calculated. Secondly, the frequency of the studies that assessed proficiency level (i.e., how many studies out of the 17 studies investigated the proficiency level) was calculated. Results showed that among the 17 studies, 47.06% involved learners at the B1 level ( k = 8), 23.53% at the A1 level ( k = 4), followed by B2 ( k = 3), A2 ( k = 1), C1 ( k = 1), and none in the C2 ( k = 0). Learners at the B1 level were involved more often than learners at any other proficiency level.

Thirdly, the effect direction plot was constructed and visually presented in Table 7 . Among the 17 studies, 70.59% reported a positive effect ( k = 12) and 29.41% reported no change ( k = 5). There was a trend showing most studies that assessed the proficiency level of learners showed a positive effect on vocabulary learning. Lastly, the effect size plot was constructed, i.e., ESs were categorized by their size in terms of basic (i.e., A1 or A2 level), independent (i.e., B1 or B2 level) and proficient (i.e., C1 or C2 level) level group and visually presented in Figure 6 . In terms of proficiency level of learners, all studies that assessed basic learners showed negligible effects. Studies that assessed independent learners showed varied effects, i.e., small (20%), medium (20%) and large (30%) effects. The 1 study that assessed proficient learners showed a large (100%) effect.

Table 7 . Effect direction plot for proficiency level of learners ( k = 17).

Figure 6 . Effect size plot for proficiency level of learners ( k = 17).

Based on the results of the effect size plot, learners that were more proficient in English learned more words from using word cards than those less proficient in English. More specifically, learners at the proficient level (i.e., C1 or C2 level) learned the most vocabulary from using word cards, followed by independent (i.e., B1 or B2 level) learners and finally basic (i.e., A1 or A2 level) learners.

The vocabulary assessments used in the reviewed studies should have assessed the aspects of word knowledge learned by the learners. As the studies included in this synthesis were related to the use of word cards, there should have been a relationship between the assessments in these studies and the use of the word cards. More specifically, Nation (1982 , 2013a) suggested a simultaneous presentation of the L1 form of a target word and its meaning for the first encounter, and then a delayed presentation when using word cards. This is because a retrieval of a target word's form or meaning is necessary for learning to take place. If word cards were used to learn productive knowledge of form, i.e., learners looking at the L1 meaning and trying to recall the L2 written form, it is assumed that the productive knowledge of form would have been assessed by the researchers. Alternatively, if word cards were used to learn productive knowledge of meaning, i.e., learners looking at the L2 written form and trying to recall the L1 meaning, it is assumed that the productive knowledge of meaning would have been assessed by the researchers.

Surprisingly, researchers assessed receptive knowledge more often than productive knowledge in the reviewed studies. This might be due to two reasons. Firstly, the extent that the learners engaged in productive learning when using word cards were limited. Researchers might not have assessed productive knowledge due to learners not often using the word cards for productive learning. If word cards were used properly by the learners, the learning of productive knowledge would occur, as a retrieval of target words' forms or meanings would take place. In many of the reviewed studies, it is less certain if the learners used the word cards in this way, which could be the reason that researchers did not assess productive knowledge. Only some of the studies clearly indicated the learners used the word cards for the learning of productive knowledge ( Alhuwaydi, 2020 ; Lukas et al., 2020 ; Yüksel et al., 2020 ).

In contrast, some other studies simply asked the learners to create word cards but gave limited instruction to the learners on how to use those word cards. For example, in Kuo and Ho's (2012 ) study, learners were presented with the L2 forms of the target words and were required to write the L1 meanings on the other side of the word cards. The learners were then required to share their experience of using the word card strategy in class. However, it might have been possible that the learners did not know how to use the word cards properly to do the retrievals. It should be mentioned that word card creation is not the end of the learning process. Instead, the key to word card use is for learners to look at the L2 word or L1 meaning on one side, and test themselves to see if they can recall the L1 meaning or L2 word on the other side ( Komachali and Khodareza, 2012 ).

There were also studies that engaged learners in picture-word matching activities, but the number of retrievals were limited. For example, in Samad and Makingkung's (2020 ) study, learners were required to read the target words on the word cards, and then match the pictures with the target words by pasting them in task books. From what was reported in the article, it seemed the learners did not work any further with the target words. Likewise, in Oberg's (2011 ) study, learners were presented with L2 forms of the target words and were required to draw pictures to represent the target words on the other side of the word cards. Then they required learners to recall the L1 forms of the target words by looking at the pictures. From what was reported in the article, it appeared that was where the practice with the target words ended. However, previous research has suggested that learners should check their answers rapidly in an easy way by turning over the cards ( Özer and Koçoglu, 2015 ). The learners should come back to the word cards repeatedly, as this process will provide them with opportunities to encounter the vocabulary ( Nation, 2008 ; Komachali and Khodareza, 2012 ).

Many of the studies also seemed to indicate learners only used the word cards while they were in class. Learners should also “engage in retrieval activities” outside the classroom in their spare time ( Kuo and Ho, 2012 , p. 35), as word cards are convenient to carry around.

The second reason for productive knowledge being assessed less often than receptive knowledge is that productive knowledge is more difficult to assess. Although the creation of a productive knowledge test is simple, the marking of the test is potentially difficult. Usually, productive knowledge is assessed through translation ( Kuo and Ho, 2012 ; Fukushima, 2019 ). However, there may be multiple possible translations for a single target word. Unlike multiple-choice tests, productive knowledge translation tests do not necessarily have a single answer. However, even with multiple possible answers, there are still reliable ways to mark a productive knowledge translation test. Nation (2013b) suggested setting a way of marking any test, i.e., the use of an answer key and a set of rules for dealing with unusual or unexpected answers should be prepared before the marking begins. The key and rules for marking could be used by anyone that is asked to mark such a test. This can provide an easy way to mark a productive knowledge test. However, if the target words are selected by the learners, which often occurs when the learners are creating their own word cards for the words selected by themselves, it may be difficult for researchers to anticipate the words selected by learners. This would prevent the researchers from being able to create a single key for marking all learners' assessment outcomes. Therefore, under the circumstances of learners constructing their own word cards, it may not be possible to create a productive knowledge test.

Vocabulary form, meaning, and use did not receive an equal amount of attention from researchers. Most researchers were interested in assessing form and meaning, possibly because the initial learning of vocabulary occurs when a form-meaning connection is made ( Nation, 2013a ). On the other hand, vocabulary knowledge of use is a more advanced and complex aspect of vocabulary knowledge, and many learners may “lack the opportunities or motivation to use target words” in a short term study ( Yang et al., 2021 , p. 479). It is less likely that vocabulary knowledge of use would have been mastered by learners and able to be assessed by researchers, that is unless the study is longitudinal ( Nation, 2013a ).

Researchers used standardized tests or researcher-constructed tests as vocabulary measurements. If learners' general vocabulary knowledge was to be assessed, standardized tests were used by the researchers. Alternatively, if learners' knowledge of specific lexical items were to be assessed, researchers constructed special tests for this purpose. It should be mentioned that most standardized tests used in the previous studies measured the breadth of vocabulary knowledge, i.e., “the vocabulary size of learners” ( Azabdaftari and Mozaheb, 2012 , p. 48). It is not surprising that the main standardized tests that were used in the reviewed studies, i.e., VST ( Nation and Beglar, 2007 ), UVLT ( Webb et al., 2017 ) and NGSLT ( Browne et al., 2013 ), were all designed to assess learners' receptive knowledge of meaning.

These tests were found to possess the characteristics of reliability, validity and practicality, which are the three major characteristics of a good test ( Nation, 2013b ). These tests were a reliable measure of vocabulary size due to their adequate sampling of vocabulary items. These tests were valid because they were measuring what they were supposed to measure, i.e., a vocabulary size test should measure learners' vocabulary size. These tests were practical because they were easy to administer (a computer program can be used), easy to mark (layout of the tests facilitates marking) and easy to interpret (tested words represent the whole population of words from which they were chosen) ( Nation, 2013b ).

Considering the characteristics of reliability, validity and practicality can also help to explain the researcher-constructed tests used in the reviewed studies. More specifically, receptive knowledge multiple-choice tests are often very practical in terms of marking but could reduce validity, as it should be more valid for a learner to provide an answer than to choose from a range of choices ( Nation, 2013b ). For example, Oberg (2011 ) assessed receptive knowledge by having learners take a sentence fill-in-the-blank test with multiple-choice items given. On the other hand, productive tests are often valid but somehow not practical, as this test format might be challenging to mark. For example, Özer and Koçoglu (2015 ) assessed productive knowledge by having learners write a composition using target words. Even with the reduction of practicality, it is necessary to assess learners' productive knowledge gains from the use of word cards. This is because practicality is not as important as reliability and validity in a test ( Nation, 2013b ). However, this lack of practicality could also be the reason that less productive knowledge tests were used in previous research on word card use.

Types of word cards

Interestingly, more of the reviewed studies showed a larger effect for the use of paper word cards compared to digital word cards. It should be mentioned that the comparison between paper word cards and digital word cards was an indirect comparison by looking at the ESs of the particular word card type used in the studies. More studies showed a larger effect for the use of paper word cards compared to digital word cards for two reasons. Firstly, the use of paper word cards might be more suitable for young learners ( Azabdaftari and Mozaheb, 2012 ). Paper word cards allow for easier interaction between learners ( Komachali and Khodareza, 2012 ) and do not necessitate the learning of a computer program to use them ( Reynolds et al., 2020 ). The familiarization with digital word cards requires time and energy, so teachers or technical staff may be needed to assist the learners to use digital word cards ( Azabdaftari and Mozaheb, 2012 ). Secondly, most studies compared the use of paper word cards to other vocabulary learning activities, i.e., gesture-based systems ( Wu et al., 2017 ), wordlists ( Kuo and Ho, 2012 ) or a control group without any intervention ( Komachali and Khodareza, 2012 ), rather than comparing the two types of word cards. As the use of paper word cards and other activities mentioned above were quite different, it is not surprising that paper word cards were found to be more effective than these other activities. Therefore, the results of this synthesis which indicated paper word cards were more effective than digital word cards should be considered with caution.

Certain studies compared the use of digital word cards and paper word cards. They showed no significant difference in the effectiveness of these two types of word cards ( Oberg, 2011 ; Nikoopour and Kazemi, 2014 ; Chen and Chan, 2019 ). However, some studies showed digital word cards had a larger effect than paper word cards on vocabulary learning ( Başoglu and Akdemir, 2010 ; Azabdaftari and Mozaheb, 2012 ). Unlike the studies that investigated paper word cards in comparison to other activities, these studies compared digital word cards to paper word cards. Under this circumstance, the use of paper word cards and digital word cards were two similar types of activities. Therefore, it is not surprising that there was a non-significant difference between the use of paper word cards and digital word cards. However, there still were some studies that showed a larger effect with the use of digital word cards. For these studies, the additional affordances of digital media such as incorporating sounds ( Başoglu and Akdemir, 2010 ; Barkat and Aminafshar, 2015 ; Fukushima, 2019 ), animations ( Barkat and Aminafshar, 2015 ; Chen and Chan, 2019 ) and videos ( Chen and Chan, 2019 ) could have been the reason for the better learning outcome, even though previous researchers have suggested that these could be distractions for learners ( Chen and Chan, 2019 ).

More of the reviewed studies showed a larger effect for the use of ready-made cards than self-constructed word cards. Teachers are usually aware of their learners' proficiencies and could select target words at an appropriate level of difficulty for their learners. It is important for learners to focus on learning vocabulary that is at the right level of difficulty. Learners should focus on learning the most frequent words in a language first ( Nation, 2013a ). In other words, the first 1,000 words should be learned before the second 1,000 words, and the second 1,000 words should be learned before the third 1,000 words, and so on ( Nation, 2013a ). In this regard, if a learner had not mastered the first 1,000 most frequent words of English, the learner should not try to learn words from the third 1,000 most frequent words of English.

Teachers are usually aware of the proficiency level of their learners, so they may have been in a better situation to select the most appropriate target words for learners ( Read, 2000 ). On the other hand, the self-constructed word cards that were created by the learners on their own may have contained target words that were not at the appropriate level, i.e., the words could have been too easy or too difficult for learners. It could have been that the learners in the previous studies were not well-equipped at target word selection. Teachers should give guidance and training on how to select target words that are appropriate for learners, because the most frequent words of English need to be mastered first ( Nation, 2013a ). It is difficult to know exactly how the learners used the word cards in the previous research, as some studies only explained the steps involved in word card construction (e.g., Chien, 2013 ) or how the word cards were used (e.g., Kose and Mede, 2018 ), but not both. Overall, it is difficult to determine the difference in the effectiveness of ready-made word cards and self-constructed word cards, as none of the included studies compared these two types of word cards.

Use of word cards

More of the reviewed studies showed a larger effect for using word cards in an intentional learning condition compared with an incidental learning condition. However, only 2 of the 32 studies used an incidental learning condition ( Özer and Koçoglu, 2015 ; Reynolds et al., 2020 ). Therefore, it is premature to conclude that the intentional learning condition would benefit vocabulary learning more than the incidental learning condition when using word cards. It is not surprising that most of the studies used an intentional learning condition as the use of word cards is an intentional learning strategy ( Nation, 2013a ). Unless the use of the word cards was manipulated by the researchers to create an experiment in incidental learning, it was less likely that use of word card could result in incidental learning.

Although word cards are usually an intentional learning strategy, they can be used for incidental learning purposes. This is important because intentional and incidental learning should complement each other ( Nation, 2013a ). For example, a learner who reads an article incidentally could come across an unknown word and then record that word on a word card for later review ( Reynolds et al., 2020 ). Except for the first few thousand most common words of English, most vocabulary should be learned incidentally ( Lin and Lin, 2019 ). After a mastery of these most frequent words using intentional learning strategies, the learner can work on increasing their vocabulary size with incidental vocabulary learning strategies ( Lin and Lin, 2019 ).

Interestingly, more of the reviewed studies showed a larger effect for using word cards in a massed learning condition compared with a spaced learning condition. A teacher who trains learners on how to use word cards usually tells the learners to use the word cards in a spaced learning condition ( Kuo and Ho, 2012 ). However, previous research has suggested that when new words are first introduced to learners, a massed learning condition may be more effective ( Uchihara et al., 2019 ). During this initial learning, learners should work with the word cards in a massed learning condition because that will result in a large number of repeated encounters with the words ( Uchihara et al., 2019 ).

There were still certain studies that found spaced learning led to better but non-significant differences than massed learning ( Kuo and Ho, 2012 ). Thus, spaced learning could still potentially be more effective than massed learning. However, it could be that learners should use massed learning initially and then follow up with spaced learning. Moreover, previous researchers have suggested to increasingly spread out the meetings with newly learned words using a distribution schedule where the repetitions become increasingly further apart ( Nation, 2008 ). Revisiting of previously learned words can strengthen retention of vocabulary knowledge ( Nation, 2008 ).

Time spent learning form word cards

A positive non-significant weak correlation was found between the time that learners spent using word cards and their posttest vocabulary scores. The positive relationship suggested that the more time learners spent on vocabulary learning from word cards, the more vocabulary they learned. There might be two reasons for the statistically insignificant result. Firstly, there were only 14 studies that provided necessary data that could be extracted for analysis in this synthesis. The relatively small sample size might increase variability, which resulted in a statistically non-significant correlation. Secondly, the lack of a meaningful relationship between the learning time and vocabulary learning may be due to the “limited ability of certain learners to learn effectively” from word cards ( Nakata, 2008 , p. 3). Even though certain learners spent more time, if they did not use the time efficiently, they might not learn no matter how much time they spent.

Although the correlation was not statistically significant, there is research that has indicated more time spent on using word cards results in more vocabulary learning ( Webb et al., 2020 ). It should be mentioned that what is more important than the overall amount of time that learners spend using the word cards is probably how they use those word cards. For example, learners should be repeatedly coming back to words instead of meeting them all at once, which is often referred to as spaced learning ( Nation and Webb, 2011 ; Nation, 2013a ).

Another issue that was unclear in the previous studies was whether the words that the learners worked on were semantically related or not. Previous researchers showed that when learners worked with a new group of words that are semantically related to each other, it could be more difficult to acquire them rather than if these words were not semantically related to each other ( Tinkham, 1997 ; Nation and Webb, 2011 ). When learners are trying to learn a set of semantically related words, they will confuse words that are too similar, which could increase the learning difficulty ( McDonald and Reynolds, 2021 ). In contrast, if the words are not related to each other or organized thematically, it may lead to a better learning outcome. This is because differences between lexical items facilitates learning ( McDonald and Reynolds, 2021 ).

Learner proficiency

Learners at the proficient level (i.e., C1 or C2 level) learned the most vocabulary from using word cards, followed by independent (i.e., B1 or B2 level) learners and finally basic (i.e., A1 or A2 level) learners. In other words, learners that were more proficient in English learned more words from using word cards than those less proficient in English. There is a possibility that learner proficiency has a moderating effect on vocabulary learning. Previous researchers have indicated that vocabulary development progresses differently for learners at different proficiency levels ( Elgort, 2017 ). However, it is a relatively under-researched area in the word card literature, as only one of the included studies involved learners at different proficiency levels in a single study ( Tsai, 2018 ). Tsai (2018 ) found that the learners at the higher proficiency level had more effective learning outcomes than learners at the lower proficiency level.

Language proficiency could be related to the amount of effort needed to invest in the learning task. Learners with lower proficiencies might have to work very hard to learn, which they might consider as a time-consuming task ( Elgort, 2017 ). However, it might be easier for learners with higher proficiencies to gain more vocabulary knowledge, so they might be more willing to invest more time in learning. More proficient learners have more autonomy to take better charge of their learning ( Lin and Lin, 2019 ), and therefore may be more skillful in vocabulary learning using word cards ( de Vos et al., 2018 ). For example, in a study conducted by Azabdaftari and Mozaheb (2012 ), proficient learners used the word cards both inside and outside the classroom. This may have allowed them to devote more attention to unknown words and may have increased the potential for vocabulary learning. Learners with lower proficiency might stop using the word cards when class is over, even if they are encouraged to use word cards outside of class.

Limitations

Although this synthesis uncovered some interesting findings, some limitations must be discussed. Firstly, a literature search was only conducted in Scopus and WOS (including SCI-Expanded, SSCI, AHCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, BKCI-S, BKCI-SSH, ESCI). Thus, the coverage of the synthesis is limited to these databases.

Secondly, this synthesis only included published research. Peer-reviewed studies were selected for review to ensure quality, but this opens up the possibility of publication bias.

Thirdly, a synthesis method was adopted to visually present the effect sizes. The studies included in the synthesis were not implemented with totally identical research designs and did not assess the same aspect of word knowledge. Although ESs were calculated for each included study, we did not look at the significant differences between moderating variables. Instead, the effect direction plots and effect size plots (ESs were categorized by their size) were presented. We took this approach which was different from what would be done with meta-analyses in order to be able to include more primary studies in this synthesis.

Finally, only the immediate posttest data was used for ESs analysis. We only looked at the immediate posttest data because all primary studies provided this data. Therefore, the long-term effects of vocabulary learning from word cards were not investigated in this synthesis. With these limitations in mind, the research implications and teaching implications of the current study results are reported below.

Research implications

One suggestion for future research is that learner proficiency should be reported. Fifteen of the 32 included studies (46.88%) did not report the proficiency level of the learners. It is difficult to interpret the results of studies that do not clearly describe learner proficiency. Due to the uncertainty of learner proficiency, it is also difficult to conclude whether the vocabulary learning reported in such studies can be generalized to certain learner populations. In addition, learners at different proficiency levels can be recruited for future studies. These studies could compare the effects of word card use on basic, independent, and proficient learners' vocabulary learning.

Another suggestion for future research is that appropriate tests should be adopted to test vocabulary learning performance. For example, future researchers can adopt more standardized tests or report the reliability for researcher-constructed tests. Since most of the included studies that used researcher-constructed tests did not provide any reliability measures for the tests, the effects of the word card intervention reported in the studies is questionable. In addition, productive tests should be used for testing learners' vocabulary knowledge gained from the use of word cards, as productive knowledge production should have taken place during word card use.

Future researchers can also compare the effectiveness of ready-made word cards and self-constructed word cards, as none of the reviewed studies compared the effect of these two types of word cards. In other words, the effects of both types of word cards had been studied separately but were not compared in a single study.

Another interesting area for future research may be to investigate the learning of different aspects of word knowledge. In this synthesis, most studies started with receptive knowledge in their vocabulary assessments. To prevent practice effects, i.e., previous tests could affect subsequent test performance, so the scores of the first receptive knowledge assessment in each study were extracted for analysis. This synthesis provides a certain understanding of how receptive knowledge of form and meaning can be acquired through the use of word cards. However, we are less certain of the effects of the variables in the current synthesis have on other aspects of word knowledge acquired through the use of word cards. As more time may be needed to develop vocabulary knowledge of use, future longitudinal studies can be conducted to address this gap in the literature.

Teaching implications

A teacher that decides to incorporate the use of word cards inside or outside their language classroom should take the following into consideration. Whether using digital or paper word cards, teachers should spend adequate time providing guidance to learners on how to use word cards properly ( Chen and Chan, 2019 ). Some digital programs could offer teachers some affordances such as ready-made word banks and streamlined use of the word cards. If a teacher chooses to use digital word cards, large screen tablets or computer should be used, because they can provide a better learning experience. While the synthesis did not aim to investigate how to use digital word cards for better learning outcomes, teachers who plan to use digital word cards should consider the screen size in a computer program or a mobile app. This is because previous researchers ( Ji and Aziz, 2021 ) indicated that learners might have difficulty leaning vocabulary on devices with limited screen sizes.

For some learners, self-constructed word cards can save teacher planning time ( Reynolds et al., 2020 ), but require proper guidance before learners begin constructing the word cards ( Reynolds and Shih, 2019 ) and additional checks afterwards by teachers ( Reynolds et al., 2020 ). For self-constructed word cards, teachers should guide the learners in target word selection, especially for those who have just received training on how to use word cards.

A teacher should consider encouraging different learning conditions when learners are using word cards. Intentional learning of vocabulary using word cards is very effective, but teachers can also consider asking learners to use word cards for new words they have incidentally encountered through engagement in other non-language learning tasks, such as reading, watching videos ( Lin and Lin, 2019 ), or classroom discussion ( Uchihara et al., 2019 ). Teachers should stress the importance of when spaced and massed learning should be applied to word card use. Teachers can encourage learners to use massed learning when they work with new words at the beginning, and use spaced learning later on. Learners also need to be reminded to use the word cards frequently throughout the day. Many of these guidelines for using word cards have also been incorporated into certain digital apps. However, if a teacher suggests digital apps to learners, the teacher should make sure the digital apps possess these qualities before recommending them to learners.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/ Supplementary material , further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

Author contributions

BR contributed to the conception and design of the study and revised the paper. YL collected, organized, analyzed the data, and drafted the paper. BR and YL interpreted the results, approved the submitted version of the paper, responded to the reviewer comments, and revised the submitted version of the paper. Both authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This research was supported by the University of Macau under Grant Number MYRG2019-00030-FED.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.984211/full#supplementary-material

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* Yüksel, H. G., Mercanoglu, H. G., and Yilmaz, M. B. (2020). Digital flashcards vs. wordlists for learning technical vocabulary. Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn. 1–17. doi: 10.1080/09588221.2020.1854312

* ^ Studies included in this synthesis are marked with an asterisk.

Keywords: word cards, flashcards, vocabulary, receptive knowledge, productive knowledge

Citation: Lei Y and Reynolds BL (2022) Learning English vocabulary from word cards: A research synthesis. Front. Psychol. 13:984211. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.984211

Received: 01 July 2022; Accepted: 09 August 2022; Published: 06 September 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Lei and Reynolds. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Barry Lee Reynolds, barryreynolds@um.edu.mo

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

How to Write a Research Paper Introduction (with Examples)

The research paper introduction section, along with the Title and Abstract, can be considered the face of any research paper. The following article is intended to guide you in organizing and writing the research paper introduction for a quality academic article or dissertation.

The research paper introduction aims to present the topic to the reader. A study will only be accepted for publishing if you can ascertain that the available literature cannot answer your research question. So it is important to ensure that you have read important studies on that particular topic, especially those within the last five to ten years, and that they are properly referenced in this section. 1 What should be included in the research paper introduction is decided by what you want to tell readers about the reason behind the research and how you plan to fill the knowledge gap. The best research paper introduction provides a systemic review of existing work and demonstrates additional work that needs to be done. It needs to be brief, captivating, and well-referenced; a well-drafted research paper introduction will help the researcher win half the battle.

The introduction for a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

Present your research topic
Capture reader interest
Summarize existing research
Position your own approach
Define your specific research problem and problem statement
Highlight the novelty and contributions of the study
Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The research paper introduction can vary in size and structure depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or is a review paper. Some research paper introduction examples are only half a page while others are a few pages long. In many cases, the introduction will be shorter than all of the other sections of your paper; its length depends on the size of your paper as a whole.

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The introduction in a research paper is placed at the beginning to guide the reader from a broad subject area to the specific topic that your research addresses. They present the following information to the reader

Scope: The topic covered in the research paper
Context: Background of your topic
Importance: Why your research matters in that particular area of research and the industry problem that can be targeted

The research paper introduction conveys a lot of information and can be considered an essential roadmap for the rest of your paper. A good introduction for a research paper is important for the following reasons:

It stimulates your reader’s interest: A good introduction section can make your readers want to read your paper by capturing their interest. It informs the reader what they are going to learn and helps determine if the topic is of interest to them.
It helps the reader understand the research background: Without a clear introduction, your readers may feel confused and even struggle when reading your paper. A good research paper introduction will prepare them for the in-depth research to come. It provides you the opportunity to engage with the readers and demonstrate your knowledge and authority on the specific topic.
It explains why your research paper is worth reading: Your introduction can convey a lot of information to your readers. It introduces the topic, why the topic is important, and how you plan to proceed with your research.
It helps guide the reader through the rest of the paper: The research paper introduction gives the reader a sense of the nature of the information that will support your arguments and the general organization of the paragraphs that will follow. It offers an overview of what to expect when reading the main body of your paper.

What are the parts of introduction in the research?

A good research paper introduction section should comprise three main elements: 2

What is known: This sets the stage for your research. It informs the readers of what is known on the subject.
What is lacking: This is aimed at justifying the reason for carrying out your research. This could involve investigating a new concept or method or building upon previous research.
What you aim to do: This part briefly states the objectives of your research and its major contributions. Your detailed hypothesis will also form a part of this section.

How to write a research paper introduction?

The first step in writing the research paper introduction is to inform the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening statement. The second step involves establishing the kinds of research that have been done and ending with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to address. Finally, the research paper introduction clarifies how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses. If your research involved testing hypotheses, these should be stated along with your research question. The hypothesis should be presented in the past tense since it will have been tested by the time you are writing the research paper introduction.

The following key points, with examples, can guide you when writing the research paper introduction section:

Highlight the importance of the research field or topic
Describe the background of the topic
Present an overview of current research on the topic

Example: The inclusion of experiential and competency-based learning has benefitted electronics engineering education. Industry partnerships provide an excellent alternative for students wanting to engage in solving real-world challenges. Industry-academia participation has grown in recent years due to the need for skilled engineers with practical training and specialized expertise. However, from the educational perspective, many activities are needed to incorporate sustainable development goals into the university curricula and consolidate learning innovation in universities.

Reveal a gap in existing research or oppose an existing assumption
Formulate the research question

Example: There have been plausible efforts to integrate educational activities in higher education electronics engineering programs. However, very few studies have considered using educational research methods for performance evaluation of competency-based higher engineering education, with a focus on technical and or transversal skills. To remedy the current need for evaluating competencies in STEM fields and providing sustainable development goals in engineering education, in this study, a comparison was drawn between study groups without and with industry partners.

State the purpose of your study
Highlight the key characteristics of your study
Describe important results
Highlight the novelty of the study.
Offer a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

Example: The study evaluates the main competency needed in the applied electronics course, which is a fundamental core subject for many electronics engineering undergraduate programs. We compared two groups, without and with an industrial partner, that offered real-world projects to solve during the semester. This comparison can help determine significant differences in both groups in terms of developing subject competency and achieving sustainable development goals.

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With Paperpal Copilot, create a research paper introduction effortlessly. In this step-by-step guide, we’ll walk you through how Paperpal transforms your initial ideas into a polished and publication-ready introduction.

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You can use the same process to develop each section of your article, and finally your research paper in half the time and without any of the stress.

The purpose of the research paper introduction is to introduce the reader to the problem definition, justify the need for the study, and describe the main theme of the study. The aim is to gain the reader’s attention by providing them with necessary background information and establishing the main purpose and direction of the research.

The length of the research paper introduction can vary across journals and disciplines. While there are no strict word limits for writing the research paper introduction, an ideal length would be one page, with a maximum of 400 words over 1-4 paragraphs. Generally, it is one of the shorter sections of the paper as the reader is assumed to have at least a reasonable knowledge about the topic. 2 For example, for a study evaluating the role of building design in ensuring fire safety, there is no need to discuss definitions and nature of fire in the introduction; you could start by commenting upon the existing practices for fire safety and how your study will add to the existing knowledge and practice.

When deciding what to include in the research paper introduction, the rest of the paper should also be considered. The aim is to introduce the reader smoothly to the topic and facilitate an easy read without much dependency on external sources. 3 Below is a list of elements you can include to prepare a research paper introduction outline and follow it when you are writing the research paper introduction. Topic introduction: This can include key definitions and a brief history of the topic. Research context and background: Offer the readers some general information and then narrow it down to specific aspects. Details of the research you conducted: A brief literature review can be included to support your arguments or line of thought. Rationale for the study: This establishes the relevance of your study and establishes its importance. Importance of your research: The main contributions are highlighted to help establish the novelty of your study Research hypothesis: Introduce your research question and propose an expected outcome. Organization of the paper: Include a short paragraph of 3-4 sentences that highlights your plan for the entire paper

Cite only works that are most relevant to your topic; as a general rule, you can include one to three. Note that readers want to see evidence of original thinking. So it is better to avoid using too many references as it does not leave much room for your personal standpoint to shine through. Citations in your research paper introduction support the key points, and the number of citations depend on the subject matter and the point discussed. If the research paper introduction is too long or overflowing with citations, it is better to cite a few review articles rather than the individual articles summarized in the review. A good point to remember when citing research papers in the introduction section is to include at least one-third of the references in the introduction.

The literature review plays a significant role in the research paper introduction section. A good literature review accomplishes the following: Introduces the topic – Establishes the study’s significance – Provides an overview of the relevant literature – Provides context for the study using literature – Identifies knowledge gaps However, remember to avoid making the following mistakes when writing a research paper introduction: Do not use studies from the literature review to aggressively support your research Avoid direct quoting Do not allow literature review to be the focus of this section. Instead, the literature review should only aid in setting a foundation for the manuscript.

Remember the following key points for writing a good research paper introduction: 4

Avoid stuffing too much general information: Avoid including what an average reader would know and include only that information related to the problem being addressed in the research paper introduction. For example, when describing a comparative study of non-traditional methods for mechanical design optimization, information related to the traditional methods and differences between traditional and non-traditional methods would not be relevant. In this case, the introduction for the research paper should begin with the state-of-the-art non-traditional methods and methods to evaluate the efficiency of newly developed algorithms.
Avoid packing too many references: Cite only the required works in your research paper introduction. The other works can be included in the discussion section to strengthen your findings.
Avoid extensive criticism of previous studies: Avoid being overly critical of earlier studies while setting the rationale for your study. A better place for this would be the Discussion section, where you can highlight the advantages of your method.
Avoid describing conclusions of the study: When writing a research paper introduction remember not to include the findings of your study. The aim is to let the readers know what question is being answered. The actual answer should only be given in the Results and Discussion section.

To summarize, the research paper introduction section should be brief yet informative. It should convince the reader the need to conduct the study and motivate him to read further. If you’re feeling stuck or unsure, choose trusted AI academic writing assistants like Paperpal to effortlessly craft your research paper introduction and other sections of your research article.

1. Jawaid, S. A., & Jawaid, M. (2019). How to write introduction and discussion. Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia, 13(Suppl 1), S18.

2. Dewan, P., & Gupta, P. (2016). Writing the title, abstract and introduction: Looks matter!. Indian pediatrics, 53, 235-241.

3. Cetin, S., & Hackam, D. J. (2005). An approach to the writing of a scientific Manuscript1. Journal of Surgical Research, 128(2), 165-167.

4. Bavdekar, S. B. (2015). Writing introduction: Laying the foundations of a research paper. Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 63(7), 44-6.

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Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.

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Practice vs. Practise: Learn the Difference

Academic paraphrasing: why paperpal’s rewrite should be your first choice , you may also like, what are journal guidelines on using generative ai..., quillbot review: features, pricing, and free alternatives, what is an academic paper types and elements , should you use ai tools like chatgpt for..., publish research papers: 9 steps for successful publications , what are the different types of research papers, how to make translating academic papers less challenging, self-plagiarism in research: what it is and how..., 6 tips for post-doc researchers to take their..., presenting research data effectively through tables and figures.

Child Care and Early Education Research Connections

Research glossary.

The research glossary defines terms used in conducting social science and policy research, for example those describing methods, measurements, statistical procedures, and other aspects of research; the child care glossary defines terms used to describe aspects of child care and early education practice and policy.

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Doctors can do more to help prevent gun violence, USF paper says

Sam Ogozalek Times staff

Doctors can do more to help prevent gun violence and offer counseling on firearms safety, according to a review by University of South Florida researchers, including a medical student who survived the 2018 mass shooting at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland.

The review, published in February in the journal Advances in Pediatrics, noted that many doctors believe they should talk to patients about firearms, but often don’t because of time constraints, a lack of training and discomfort with the topic.

In Florida, a law passed in 2011 limited what questions doctors could ask patients about guns. But a federal appeals court found the restrictions to be unconstitutional and struck them down six years later.

The law “had a very chilling effect I think for a lot of providers,” said Cameron Nereim, one of the review’s authors and an assistant professor of pediatrics at USF who focuses on patients ages 12 to 25 in Tampa.

The review noted that the American Medical Association calls gun violence a public health crisis and firearm-related injuries were the leading cause of death for U.S. children in 2020, surpassing motor vehicle crashes.

Doctors can ask patients about whether guns are kept at home and if they are locked, unloaded and separated from ammunition, according to the review.

USF medical student Nikhita Nookala, who survived the shooting at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School and covered it as a reporter at The Eagle Eye, the school’s student newspaper, contributed to the review.

The Tampa Bay Times spoke with Nereim and Nookala about their work, which was published with two other authors from North Carolina and Texas medical centers.

The interviews have been edited for clarity and length.

What are the major takeaways you hope physicians get from this paper?

Nookala: It’s important to assess patients’ risks and to see if you can do some harm reduction in terms of encouraging safe storage or just telling kids to be careful around guns.

It doesn’t have to be super political. It’s just about children’s safety at the end of the day.

The paper noted some of the major barriers to physicians counseling on firearms safety are the lack of formal training, lack of confidence that patients will follow their recommendations and low perceived self-efficacy. Are there any ways to address that?

Nereim: I think there are. ... One of the things is how do we do a better job of incorporating this into our training, whether that’s while you’re going through your residency program, while you’re going through your medical school, making sure these things are actually being plugged into our curricula.

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Is there a particular stage of education where you think this would be best emphasized?

Nereim: I think medical school, before students have even differentiated in terms of what specialty or subspecialty they’ll be choosing, that’s a great opportunity to make sure we’re relaying this information.

In school so far, have people talked about gun violence as a public health issue?

Nookala: Everyone acknowledges that it’s become a problem and it’s getting worse. I think a lot of people feel very helpless because it’s something that is hard to bring up.

You’re not accusing someone of “You don’t store your gun safely, you’re putting your child in danger.” ... You want to (tread) the line of “Oh, you have guns in the home, that’s fine, are you storing them safely, are (you) using gun locks?”

It’s just small things that you can remind people, nicely, without discouraging them from coming back.

During routine visits, do you ask patients or patients’ parents whether there are guns in the home, if they are locked, securely unloaded (and) separated from ammunition?

Nereim: Yes, we do.

With the ongoing mental health crisis that’s involving young people ... I think it becomes even more critical that we do our due diligence and we ask those questions about things like firearm ownership ... how ammunition is being stored, what level of training the family members or the kids themselves have in terms of actually using these objects.

How do those conversations normally go for you? Are they difficult?

Nereim: When you’re able to successfully create that nonjudgemental space ... the vast majority of patients and families are really receptive to the questions we’re asking.

Do you ask patients more often than not? Or do you ask their parents?

Nereim: I tend to do both.

Do you ask firearm-related questions in every visit with a patient, or do you only ask them with someone who would be considered high risk?

Nereim: I wouldn’t say we ask it at every visit. I think we’re getting better at making this more a universal thing that we’re screening for, in the same way that 15, 20 years ago we would make sure at every visit we’re asking “Are you wearing your safety helmet if you’re riding your bike? Are you buckling your seat belt if you’re riding in a car?” We’re moving in that direction.

It happens a lot more consistently in these higher-risk situations, so if you have a patient who’s experiencing mood symptoms, depression or maybe even anger, irritability, impulsive behaviors.

(The paper suggested) that physicians can link those at risk of gun violence to other programs that offer support in the community. Do you do that regularly? How common is that?

Nereim: It’s extremely common. ... In the space where I work, probably anywhere from 50 to 70% of patients may have some significant social need. ... A lot of young people confide in me that they’re fearful just to be outside and to be walking in the place where they live because there have been times where they’ve heard gunshots. Or they know there was a shooting that occurred in that same square, that same block.

As you can imagine, when you have these kinds of social needs that manifest over time, there can be pretty major health consequences.

Why is this research important to you?

Nookala: In the aftermath of the (Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School) shooting, the focus was on Parkland, and Parkland became this beacon of gun violence prevention. But the reality is that outside of that one incident, which was horrible, gun violence doesn’t really occur in cities like Parkland every day. It occurs in cities like Tampa every day in marginalized communities. … The focus needs to be shifted back to that.

Training to be a doctor, I wanted to know more about ways you could make changes on an interpersonal level with your patients without being involved in these really political movements that oftentimes (are) just kind of doing nothing or (do) a little something and it gets reversed a few years later. It’s frustrating to watch that.

Nereim: Violence leads to more violence. The only really, truly effective way for us to move forward as a society is we just have to realize that prevention is incredibly important. … I just don’t think we can ignore the role this is playing in the lives of our patients and their families.

Sam Ogozalek is a reporter covering the healthcare system and mental health. He can be reached at [email protected].

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New Research Reveals Full Diversity of Killer Whales as Two Species Come into View on Pacific Coast

March 27, 2024

Long viewed as one worldwide species, killer whale diversity now merits more. Southern Resident Connections - Post 35

Side-by-side comparison of Bigg's killer on left and resident killer whale on right.

Scientists have resolved one of the outstanding questions about one of the world’s most recognizable creatures, identifying two well-known killer whales in the North Pacific Ocean as separate species.

Killer whales are one of the most widespread animals on Earth. They have long been considered one worldwide species known scientifically as Orcinus orca , with different forms in various regions known as “ecotypes.”

However, biologists have increasingly recognized the differences between resident and Bigg’s killer whales. Resident killer whales maintain tight-knit family pods and prey on salmon and other marine fish. Bigg’s killer whales roam in smaller groups, preying on other marine mammals such as seals and whales. (Killer whales actually belong to the dolphin family.) Bigg’s killer whales, sometimes called transients, are named for Canadian scientist Michael Bigg, the first to describe telltale differences between the two types.

He noted in the 1970s that the two animals did not mix with each other even when they occupied many of the same coastal waters. This is often a sign of different species.

The finding recognizes the accuracy of the listing of Southern Resident killer whales as a Distinct Population Segment warranting protection under the Endangered Species Act in 2005. At the time, NOAA described the distinct population segment as part of an unnamed subspecies of resident killer whales in the North Pacific.

Now a team of scientists from NOAA Fisheries and universities have assembled genetic, physical, and behavioral evidence. The data distinguish two of the killer whale ecotypes of the North Pacific Coast—residents and Bigg’s—as separate species.

“We started to ask this question 20 years ago, but we didn’t have much data, and we did not have the tools that we do now,” said Phil Morin, an evolutionary geneticist at NOAA Fisheries’ Southwest Fisheries Science Center and lead author of the new paper . “Now we have more of both, and the weight of the evidence says these are different species.”

Genetic data from previous studies revealed that the two species likely diverged more than 300,000 years ago and come from opposite ends of the killer whale family tree. That makes them about as genetically different as any killer whale ecotypes around the globe. Subsequent studies of genomic data confirm that they have evolved as genetically and culturally distinct groups, which occupy different niches in the same Northwest marine ecosystem.

“They’re the most different killer whales in the world, and they live right next to each other and see each other all the time,” said Barbara Taylor, a former NOAA Fisheries marine mammal biologist who was part of the science panel that assessed the status of Southern Residents. “They just do not mix.”

Recognizing New Species

Superior view of Bigg's killer whale skull (left) and resident killer whale skull (right)

The Taxonomy Committee of the Society of Marine Mammalogy will determine whether to recognize the new species in its official list of marine mammal species . The committee will likely determine whether to accept the new designations at its next annual review this summer.

The scientists proposed scientific names for the new species based on their earliest published descriptions in the 1800s. Neither will keep the ubiquitous worldwide moniker, orca . The team proposed to call resident killer whales Orcinus ater , a Latin reference to their dominant black coloring. Bigg’s killer whales would be called Orcinus rectipinnus , a combination of Latin words for erect wing, probably referring to their tall, sharp dorsal fin.

Both species names were originally published in 1869 by Edward Drinker Cope, a Pennsylvania scientist known more for unearthing dinosaurs than studying marine mammals. He was working from a manuscript that California whaling captain Charles Melville Scammon had sent to the Smithsonian Institution describing West Coast marine mammals, including the two killer whales. While Cope credited Scammon for the descriptions, Scammon took issue with Cope for editing and publishing Scammon’s work without telling him. (See accompanying story .)

The Smithsonian Institution had shared Scammon’s work with Cope, and a Smithsonian official later apologized to Scammon for what he called “Cope’s absurd blunder.”

Species Reflect Ecosystem

The contested question of whether Southern Residents were distinct enough to merit endangered species protections initially drove much of the research that helped differentiate the two species, said Eric Archer, who leads the Marine Mammal Genetics Program at the Southwest Fisheries Science Center and is a coauthor of the new research paper. The increasing processing power of computers has made it possible to examine killer whale DNA in ever finer detail. He said the findings not only validate protection for the animals themselves, but also help reveal different components of the marine ecosystems the whales depend on.

“As we better understand what makes these species special, we learn more about how they use the ecosystems they inhabit and what makes those environments special, too,” he said.

The new research synthesizes the earliest accounts of killer whales on the Pacific Coast with modern data on physical characteristics. The team also use aerial imaging (called photogrammetry ), and measurement and genetic testing of museum specimens at the Smithsonian and elsewhere. While the two species look similar to the untrained eye, the evidence demonstrates they are very different species. The two species use different ecological niches, such as specializing in different prey, said Kim Parsons, a geneticist at the NOAA Fisheries Northwest Fisheries Science Center in Seattle and coauthor of the new research.

Recent research with drones that collect precise aerial photos has helped differentiate Bigg’s killer whales as longer and larger. This might better equip them to go after large marine mammal prey. The smaller size of residents is likely better suited to deep dives after their salmon prey, said John Durban, an associate professor at Oregon State University’s Marine Mammal Institute. His killer whale drone research is done collaboratively with Holly Fearnbach, a researcher at SR³.

The different prey of the two species may also help explain their different trajectories. Southern Residents are listed as endangered in part because of the scarcity of their salmon prey. Bigg’s killer whales, by contrast, have multiplied while feeding on plentiful marine mammals, including California sea lions.

While killer whales represent some of the most efficient predators the world has ever seen, Durban said science is still unraveling the diversity among them. The identification of additional killer whale species is likely to follow. One leading candidate may be “Type D” killer whales identified in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica.

Other killer whales in Antarctic waters also look very different from the best-known black and white killer whales. This reflects a wider diversity within the species, said Durban, who has used drones to study killer whales around the world. “The more we learn,” he said, “the clearer it becomes to me that at least some of these types will be recognized as different species in due course.”

Southern Resident Connections

Southern Resident killer whales are icons of a vibrant but struggling marine ecosystem that is important to us all. Join us in exploring the ecological connections that tie this system together, and the ways we are protecting and working to recover the whales we all care so much about.

More Information

New Research Reveals Two Species of Killer Whale
How Scientists Chose Names for Newly Identified Killer Whale Species
Two Species of Killer Whale Infographic
Marine Mammal Genetics Research
2004 Status Review of Southern Resident Killer Whales
Saving the Southern Resident Killer Whales
Listing of Southern Resident Killer Whale Under the ESA
Killer Whale Ecotypes Poster

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