short answer questions on fungi

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Free download in PDF Fungi Multiple Choice Questions & Answers for competitive exams. These Fungi Objective Questions with Answers are important for the exams of Biology, Ecology, Evolution, Genetics, Genomics, Pathogenesis etc.

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Answer: Amastigomycota 2 Fruiting bodies of slime moulds are called ______________ A acervulus B sori C apothecium D perithecium View Answer Answer: sori

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Answer: Are sensitive to SO2

Answer: Puccinia graminis tritici

Answer: Puccinia

Answer: Birds nest fungi and puffballs

Answer: Myxomycetes

Answer: Lichens

Answer: Green algae and ascomycetes

Answer: Mechanical pressure and enzymes

Answer: A symbiotic relationship with alga

Answer: A, D and E only

Answer: Claviceps

Answer: Oomycetes

Answer: Binary fission

Answer: Fungi

Answer: 1-3 months

Answer: Class

Answer: These grow very rapidly (2 cm per day)

Answer: Zygomycetes

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Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain why the study of fungi such as yeast and molds is within the discipline of microbiology
• Describe the unique characteristics of fungi
• Describe examples of asexual and sexual reproduction of fungi
• Compare the major groups of fungi in this chapter, and give examples of each
• Identify examples of the primary causes of infections due to yeasts and molds
• Identify examples of toxin-producing fungi
• Classify fungal organisms according to major groups

The fungi comprise a diverse group of organisms that are heterotrophic and typically saprozoic. In addition to the well-known macroscopic fungi (such as mushrooms and molds), many unicellular yeasts and spores of macroscopic fungi are microscopic. For this reason, fungi are included within the field of microbiology.

Fungi are important to humans in a variety of ways. Both microscopic and macroscopic fungi have medical relevance, with some pathogenic species that can cause mycoses (illnesses caused by fungi). Some pathogenic fungi are opportunistic, meaning that they mainly cause infections when the host’s immune defenses are compromised and do not normally cause illness in healthy individuals. Fungi are important in other ways. They act as decomposers in the environment, and they are critical for the production of certain foods such as cheeses. Fungi are also major sources of antibiotics, such as penicillin from the fungus Penicillium .

Characteristics of Fungi

Fungi have well-defined characteristics that set them apart from other organisms. Most multicellular fungal bodies, commonly called molds , are made up of filaments called hyphae . Hyphae can form a tangled network called a mycelium and form the thallus (body) of fleshy fungi. Hyphae that have walls between the cells are called septate hyphae ; hyphae that lack walls and cell membranes between the cells are called nonseptate or coenocytic hyphae ). ( Figure 5.25 ).

In contrast to molds, yeasts are unicellular fungi. The budding yeasts reproduce asexually by budding off a smaller daughter cell; the resulting cells may sometimes stick together as a short chain or pseudohypha ( Figure 5.25 ).

Some fungi are dimorphic, having more than one appearance during their life cycle. These dimorphic fungi may be able to appear as yeasts or molds, which can be important for infectivity. They are capable of changing their appearance in response to environmental changes such as nutrient availability or fluctuations in temperature, growing as a mold, for example, at 25 °C (77 °F), and as yeast cells at 37 °C (98.6 °F). This ability helps dimorphic fungi to survive in diverse environments. Two examples of dimorphic yeasts are the human pathogens Histoplasma capsulatum and Candida albicans. H. capsulatum causes the lung disease histoplasmosis, and C. albicans is associated with vaginal yeast infections, oral thrush, and candidiasis of the skin ( Figure 5.26 ).

There are notable unique features in fungal cell walls and membranes. Fungal cell walls contain chitin , as opposed to the cellulose found in the cell walls of plants and many protists. Additionally, whereas animals have cholesterol in their cell membranes, fungal cell membranes have different sterols called ergosterols . Ergosterols are often exploited as targets for antifungal drugs.

Fungal life cycles are unique and complex. Fungi reproduce sexually either through cross- or self-fertilization. Haploid fungi form hyphae that have gametes at the tips. Two different mating types (represented as “+ type” and “– type”) are involved. The cytoplasms of the + and – type gametes fuse (in an event called plasmogamy), producing a cell with two distinct nuclei (a dikaryotic cell). Later, the nuclei fuse (in an event called karyogamy ) to create a diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes meiosis to form spores that germinate to start the haploid stage, which eventually creates more haploid mycelia ( Figure 5.27 ). Depending on the taxonomic group, these sexually produced spores are known as zygospores (in Zygomycota), ascospores (in Ascomycota), or basidiospores (in Basidiomycota) ( Figure 5.28 ).

Fungi may also exhibit asexual reproduction by mitosis, mitosis with budding, fragmentation of hyphae, and formation of asexual spores by mitosis. These spores are specialized cells that, depending on the organism, may have unique characteristics for survival, reproduction, and dispersal. Fungi exhibit several types of asexual spores and these can be important in classification.

Check Your Understanding

• Is a dimorphic fungus a yeast or a mold? Explain.

Fungal Diversity

The fungi are very diverse, comprising seven major groups. Not all of the seven groups contain pathogens. Some of these groups are generally associated with plants and include plant pathogens. For example, Urediniomycetes and Ustilagomycetes include the plant rusts and smuts , respectively. These form reddish or dark masses, respectively, on plants as rusts (red) or smuts (dark). Some species have substantial economic impact because of their ability to reduce crop yields. Glomeromycota includes the mycorrhizal fungi , important symbionts with plant roots that can promote plant growth by acting like an extended root system. The Glomeromycota are obligate symbionts, meaning that they can only survive when associated with plant roots; the fungi receive carbohydrates from the plant and the plant benefits from the increased ability to take up nutrients and minerals from the soil. The Chytridiomycetes ( chytrids ) are small fungi, but are extremely ecologically important. Chytrids are generally aquatic and have flagellated, motile gametes; specific types are implicated in amphibian declines around the world. Because of their medical importance, we will focus on Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Microsporidia. Figure 5.33 summarizes the characteristics of these medically important groups of fungi.

The Zygomycota (zygomycetes) are mainly saprophytes with coenocytic hyphae and haploid nuclei. They use sporangiospores for asexual reproduction. The group name comes from the zygospores that they use for sexual reproduction ( Figure 5.27 ), which have hard walls formed from the fusion of reproductive cells from two individuals. Zygomycetes are important for food science and as crop pathogens. One example is Rhizopus stolonifer ( Figure 5.28 ), an important bread mold that also causes rice seedling blight. Mucor is a genus of fungi that can potentially cause necrotizing infections in humans, although most species are intolerant of temperatures found in mammalian bodies ( Figure 5.28 ).

The Ascomycota include fungi that are used as food (edible mushrooms, morels, and truffles), others that are common causes of food spoilage (bread molds and plant pathogens), and still others that are human pathogens. Ascomycota may have septate hyphae and cup-shaped fruiting bodies called ascocarps . Some genera of Ascomycota use sexually produced ascospores as well as asexual spores called conidia , but sexual phases have not been discovered or described for others. Some produce an ascus containing ascospores within an ascocarp ( Figure 5.29 ).

Examples of the Ascomycota include several bread molds and minor pathogens, as well as species capable of causing more serious mycoses. Species in the genus Aspergillus are important causes of allergy and infection, and are useful in research and in the production of certain fermented alcoholic beverages such as Japanese sake . The fungus Aspergillus flavus , a contaminant of nuts and stored grains, produces an aflatoxin that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen. Neurospora crassa is of particular use in genetics research because the spores produced by meiosis are kept inside the ascus in a row that reflects the cell divisions that produced them, giving a direct view of segregation and assortment of genes ( Figure 5.30 ). Penicillium produces the antibiotic penicillin ( Figure 5.29 ).

Many species of ascomycetes are medically important. A large number of species in the genera Trichophyton , Microsporum , and Epidermophyton are dermatophytes , pathogenic fungi capable of causing skin infections such as athlete’s foot, jock itch, and ringworm . Blastomyces dermatitidis is a dimorphic fungus that can cause blastomycosis , a respiratory infection that, if left untreated, can become disseminated to other body sites, sometimes leading to death. Another important respiratory pathogen is the dimorphic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum ( Figure 5.26 ) , which is associated with birds and bats in the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys. Coccidioides immitis causes the serious lung disease Valley fever . Candida albicans , the most common cause of vaginal and other yeast infections, is also an ascomycete fungus; it is a part of the normal microbiota of the skin, intestine, genital tract, and ear ( Figure 5.29 ). Ascomycetes also cause plant diseases, including ergot infections, Dutch elm disease, and powdery mildews.

Saccharomyces yeasts, including the baker’s yeast S. cerevisiae , are unicellular ascomycetes with haploid and diploid stages ( Figure 5.31 ). This and other Saccharomyces species are used for brewing beer.

The Basidiomycota (basidiomycetes) are fungi that have basidia (club-shaped structures) that produce basidiospores (spores produced through budding) within fruiting bodies called basidiocarps ( Figure 5.32 ). They are important as decomposers and as food. This group includes rusts, stinkhorns, puffballs, and mushrooms. Several species are of particular importance. Cryptococcus neoformans , a fungus commonly found as a yeast in the environment, can cause serious lung infections when inhaled by individuals with weakened immune systems. The edible meadow mushroom, Agricus campestris , is a basidiomycete, as is the poisonous mushroom Amanita phalloides , known as the death cap. The deadly toxins produced by A. phalloides have been used to study transcription.

Finally, the Microsporidia are unicellular fungi that are obligate intracellular parasites. They lack mitochondria, peroxisomes, and centrioles, but their spores release a unique polar tubule that pierces the host cell membrane to allow the fungus to gain entry into the cell. A number of microsporidia are human pathogens, and infections with microsporidia are called microsporidiosis . One pathogenic species is Enterocystozoan bieneusi , which can cause symptoms such as diarrhea, cholecystitis (inflammation of the gall bladder), and in rare cases, respiratory illness.

• Which group of fungi appears to be associated with the greatest number of human diseases?

Micro Connections

Eukaryotic pathogens in eukaryotic hosts.

When we think about antimicrobial medications, antibiotics such as penicillin often come to mind. Penicillin and related antibiotics interfere with the synthesis of peptidoglycan cell walls, which effectively targets bacterial cells. These antibiotics are useful because humans (like all eukaryotes) do not have peptidoglycan cell walls.

Developing medications that are effective against eukaryotic cells but not harmful to human cells is more difficult. Despite huge morphological differences, the cells of humans, fungi, and protists are similar in terms of their ribosomes, cytoskeletons, and cell membranes. As a result, it is more challenging to develop medications that target protozoans and fungi in the same way that antibiotics target prokaryotes.

Fungicides have relatively limited modes of action. Because fungi have ergosterols (instead of cholesterol) in their cell membranes, the different enzymes involved in sterol production can be a target of some medications. The azole and morpholine fungicides interfere with the synthesis of membrane sterols. These are used widely in agriculture (fenpropimorph) and clinically (e.g., miconazole). Some antifungal medications target the chitin cell walls of fungi. Despite the success of these compounds in targeting fungi, antifungal medications for systemic infections still tend to have more toxic side effects than antibiotics for bacteria.

Clinical Focus

Sarah is relieved the ringworm is not an actual worm, but wants to know what it really is. The physician explains that ringworm is a fungus. He tells her that she will not see mushrooms popping out of her skin, because this fungus is more like the invisible part of a mushroom that hides in the soil. He reassures her that they are going to get the fungus out of her too.

The doctor cleans and then carefully scrapes the lesion to place a specimen on a slide. By looking at it under a microscope, the physician is able to confirm that a fungal infection is responsible for Sarah’s lesion. In Figure 5.34 , it is possible to see macro- and microconidia in Trichophyton rubrum . Cell walls are also visible. Even if the pathogen resembled a helminth under the microscope, the presence of cell walls would rule out the possibility because animal cells lack cell walls.

The doctor prescribes an antifungal cream for Sarah’s mother to apply to the ringworm. Sarah’s mother asks, “What should we do if it doesn’t go away?”

• Can all forms of ringworm be treated with the same antifungal medication?

Jump to the next Clinical Focus box. Go back to the previous Clinical Focus box.

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Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/1-introduction

• Authors: Nina Parker, Mark Schneegurt, Anh-Hue Thi Tu, Philip Lister, Brian M. Forster
• Publisher/website: OpenStax
• Book title: Microbiology
• Publication date: Nov 1, 2016
• Location: Houston, Texas
• Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/1-introduction
• Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/5-3-fungi

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NOTIFICATIONS

• + Create new collection

Fungi are almost everywhere – in the air you breathe, in lots of the food you eat, in the soil you walk on, in the plants around you, in a stream’s foam bubbles and even on and inside you.

As neither plants nor animals, fungi as a topic can provide opportunities for classroom discussion on the characteristics of living things and learning around classification.

In this activity, students can test their knowledge of fungi online or in a paper-based quiz. The quiz can be used as an introductory tool to gauge students’ prior knowledge, as a summative assessment or as an engaging treasure hunt to introduce students to some of the different features, parts and uses of fungi.

By the end of this activity, students should be able to:

• answer specific questions about fungi
• check or revise their answers using related web resources
• identify some of New Zealand’s fungi and where they grow.

See the related Maori knowledge and uses of fungi quiz .

Download the Word file (see link below).

Acknowledgement

This resource has been adapted from Ngā Hekaheka o Aotearoa , a science/pūtaiao guide for teachers written by Dr Peter Buchanan, Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research; Dr Georgina Stewart, Te Kura Mātauranga School of Education, AUT University; and Hēni Jacob. These resources have been written from a Māori world view.

The Science Learning Hub would like to acknowledge Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research and the writers for their permission and help to adapt this publication for the web.

An electronic version of this teacher guidebook is available to download from Huia Publishers .

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How we organize life to study them? - Class 11

Course: how we organize life to study them - class 11   >   unit 2.

• Fungi: Death Becomes Them
• Reproduction in Fungi
• Characteristics of fungi
• Classification of Fungi

Classification of fungi

• (Choice A)   Basidiomycota A Basidiomycota
• (Choice B)   Ascomycota B Ascomycota
• (Choice C)   Chytridomycota C Chytridomycota
• (Choice D)   Zygomycota D Zygomycota

20 November 2020

Quiz: Are you a fungus geek?

Test your knowledge of fungi with these fun-gus questions..

By Katie Avis-Riordan

Do you know your lichens from your mycelium, and your stinkhorns from your zombie fungus?

Have a go at the following 15 questions to test your fungal knowledge. See the answers at the bottom of the page to find out if you're a fungi expert or amateur...

1. Name the fungus in the picture below.

A. Destroying angel ( Amanita verna )

B. Common puffball ( Lycoperdon perlatum )

C. Stinkhorn ( Phallus impudicus )

D. Penny bun ( Boletus edulis )

2. How many dried specimens does our Fungarium at Kew hold?

D. 1.25 million

3. What is a saprotrophic fungus?

A. One that feeds on dead and decaying matter

B. One that is native to South America

C. One that lives on living tree leaves

D. One that lives in the desert

4. Which of the following fungi is used to make beer?

A. Horse mushroom ( Agaricus arvensis )

B. Fission yeast ( Schizosaccharomyces pombe )

C. Velvet shank ( Flammulina velutipes )

D. Oakbug milkcap ( Lactarius quietus )

5. King Alfred’s cakes ( Daldinia concentrica ) can do what?

A. Act as a firelighter

B. Grow one metre tall

C. Glow in the dark

D. Turn transparent at night

6. In the world of fungi, what is mycelium?

A. The habitat in which a fungus grows

B. Another name for fungal spores

C. The underground part of a fungus, made up of a network of filaments (hyphae)

D. The collective term for winter-fruiting fungi

7. What is the common name of the fungus Xylaria polymorpha ?

A. Candlesnuff fungus

B. Wood blewit

C. Dead man’s fingers

D. Death cap

8. Name the fungus in the picture below.

A. Beefsteak fungus ( Fistulina hepatica)

B. Ash dieback fungus ( Hymenoscyphus fraxineus )

C. Leaf-cutting ant fungus ( Leucoagaricus gongylophorus )

D. Fly agaric ( Amanita muscaria )

9. The lichen Protoparmeliopsis muralis got its common name because it looks like what?

B. Chewing gum

10. Penicillin comes from fungi. When did Alexander Fleming first discover this antibiotic?

11. Auricularia auricula-judae in the picture below is also known as what?

A. Common bird’s nest

B. Yellow brain

C. Jelly ear

D. Scarlet elf cup

12. Where does the zombie fungus ( Ophiocordyceps unilateralis ) get its name?

A. It grows inside the bodies of insect hosts and takes over their behaviour

B. It oozes a substance that looks like blue blood

C. It smells like rotting flesh

D. It looks like a dead beetle

13. How does fairy ring champignon ( Marasmius oreades ) grow?

A. In dark caves

B. Surrounding bluebells on woodland floors

C. In circles in grassy areas

D. In rings on tree trunks

14. Chicken of the woods ( Laetiporus sulphureus ) is an example of which type of fungus?

A. Cup fungus

B. Bolete fungus

C. Jelly fungus

D. Bracket fungus

15. When mature, what does the octopus stinkhorn ( Clathrus archeri ) smell like?

A. Baking bread

B. Rotting flesh

C. Fried fish

Witness fungi season at Wakehurst

Learn more about our amazing Fungarium

Discover some saprotrophic fungi growing at Kew

Find out more about this fascinating fungus

Read more about this firestarting fungus

C.  The underground part of a fungus, made up of a network of filaments (hyphae)

Swot up on more fungal facts

Unearth more spooky fungi

Watch our film on how to spot fungi

Learn more about chewing gum lichen

Discover the secret fungi in everyday life

Watch our animation on why fungi matter to all of us

Geek out on more creepy plants and fungi

See fairy ring champignon at Kew

Find out the facts on this distinctive fungus

Learn about this plant that also smells of rotting flesh

Add up your score out of 15 to see if you're an expert or amateur...

11 or above:  You're a fungus geek!

6 to 10:  We're lichen your effort, you're full of fungal facts

1 to 5:  Mush-room for improvement

0: That's pretty s-pore

Let us know how you did on our Kew  Facebook ,  Twitter  or  Instagram , or Wakehurst Facebook , Twitter or Instagram . 

Support Kew

Coronavirus has created a significant financial challenge that threatens our future. We need your help to preserve our collections and continue our scientific research.

Read & watch

27 May 2020

Quiz: Are you a Kew history buff?

Katie Avis-Riordan

23 June 2020

Quiz: Are you a flower whizz?

21 August 2020

Quiz: Are you a tree genius?

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Biology: Fungi

Back to Science for Kids

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81 Introduction to Fungi

The word fungus comes from the Latin word for mushrooms. Indeed, the familiar mushroom is a reproductive structure used by many types of fungi. However, there are also many fungus species that don’t produce mushrooms at all. Being eukaryotes, a typical fungal cell contains a true nucleus and many membrane-bound organelles. The kingdom Fungi includes an enormous variety of living organisms collectively referred to as Eucomycota, or true Fungi. While scientists have identified about 100,000 species of fungi, this is only a fraction of the 1.5 million species of fungus likely present on Earth. Edible mushrooms, yeasts, black mold, and the producer of the antibiotic penicillin, Penicillium notatum , are all members of the kingdom Fungi, which belongs to the domain Eukarya.

Fungi, once considered plant-like organisms, are more closely related to animals than plants. Fungi are not capable of photosynthesis: they are heterotrophic because they use complex organic compounds as sources of energy and carbon. Fungi share a few other traits with animals. Their cell walls are composed of chitin, which is found in the exoskeletons of arthropods. Fungi produce a number of pigments, including melanin,also found in the hair and skin of animals. Like animals, fungi also store carbohydrates as glycogen. However, like bacteria, fungi absorb nutrients across the cell surface and act as decomposers, helping to recycle nutrients by breaking down organic materials to simple molecules.

Some fungal organisms multiply only asexually, whereas others undergo both asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction with alternation of generations. Most fungi produce a large number of spores , which are haploid cells that can undergo mitosis to form multicellular, haploid individuals.

Fungi often interact with other organisms, forming beneficial or mutualistic associations. For example, most terrestrial plants form symbiotic relationships with fungi. The roots of the plant connect with the underground parts of the fungus, which form mycorrhizae . Through mycorrhizae, the fungus and plant exchange nutrients and water, greatly aiding the survival of both species. Alternatively, lichens are an association between a fungus and its photosynthetic partner (usually an alga).

Fungi also cause serious infections in plants and animals. For example, Dutch elm disease, which is caused by the fungus Ophiostoma ulmi , is a particularly devastating type of fungal infestation that destroys many native species of elm ( Ulmus sp.) by infecting the tree’s vascular system. The elm bark beetle acts as a vector, transmitting the disease from tree to tree. Accidentally introduced in the 1900s, the fungus decimated elm trees across the continent. Many European and Asiatic elms are less susceptible to Dutch elm disease than American elms.

In humans, fungal infections are generally considered challenging to treat. Unlike bacteria, fungi do not respond to traditional antibiotic therapy, since they are eukaryotes. Fungal infections may prove deadly for individuals with compromised immune systems.

Fungi have many commercial applications. The food industry uses yeasts in baking, brewing, and cheese and wine making. Many industrial compounds are byproducts of fungal fermentation. Fungi are the source of many commercial enzymes and antibiotics.

Introduction to Fungi Copyright © by Various Authors - See Each Chapter Attribution. All Rights Reserved.

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Skills to Develop

• Explain why the study of fungi such as yeast and molds is within the discipline of microbiology
• Describe the unique characteristics of fungi
• Describe examples of asexual and sexual reproduction of fungi
• Compare the major groups of fungi in this chapter, and give examples of each
• Identify examples of the primary causes of infections due to yeasts and molds
• Identify examples of toxin-producing fungi
• Classify fungal organisms according to major groups

The fungi comprise a diverse group of organisms that are heterotrophic and typically saprozoic. In addition to the well-known macroscopic fungi (such as mushrooms and molds), many unicellular yeasts and spores of macroscopic fungi are microscopic. For this reason, fungi are included within the field of microbiology.

Fungi are important to humans in a variety of ways. Both microscopic and macroscopic fungi have medical relevance, with some pathogenic species that can cause mycoses (illnesses caused by fungi). Some pathogenic fungi are opportunistic, meaning that they mainly cause infections when the host’s immune defenses are compromised and do not normally cause illness in healthy individuals. Fungi are important in other ways. They act as decomposers in the environment, and they are critical for the production of certain foods such as cheeses. Fungi are also major sources of antibiotics, such as penicillin from the fungus Penicillium .

Characteristics of Fungi

Fungi have well-defined characteristics that set them apart from other organisms. Most multicellular fungal bodies, commonly called molds, are made up of filaments called hyphae. Hyphae can form a tangled network called a mycelium and form the thallus (body) of fleshy fungi. Hyphae that have walls between the cells are called septate hyphae; hyphae that lack walls and cell membranes between the cells are called nonseptate or coenocytic hyphae). (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Multicellular fungi (molds) form hyphae, which may be septate or nonseptate. Unicellular fungi (yeasts) cells form pseudohyphae from individual yeast cells.

In contrast to molds, yeasts are unicellular fungi. The budding yeasts reproduce asexually by budding off a smaller daughter cell; the resulting cells may sometimes stick together as a short chain or pseudohypha (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Candida albicans is a common yeast that forms pseudohyphae; it is associated with various infections in humans, including vaginal yeast infections, oral thrush, and candidiasis of the skin.

Some fungi are dimorphic, having more than one appearance during their life cycle. These dimorphic fungi may be able to appear as yeasts or molds, which can be important for infectivity. They are capable of changing their appearance in response to environmental changes such as nutrient availability or fluctuations in temperature, growing as a mold, for example, at 25 °C (77 °F), and as yeast cells at 37 °C (98.6 °F). This ability helps dimorphic fungi to survive in diverse environments. Histoplasma capsulatum , the pathogen that causes histoplasmosis, a lung infection, is an example of a dimorphic fungus (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)).

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Histoplasma capsulatum is a dimorphic fungus that grows in soil exposed to bird feces or bat feces (guano) (top left). It can change forms to survive at different temperatures. In the outdoors, it typically grows as a mycelium (as shown in the micrograph, bottom left), but when the spores are inhaled (right), it responds to the high internal temperature of the body (37 °C [98.6 °F]) by turning into a yeast that can multiply in the lungs, causing the chronic lung disease histoplasmosis. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)

There are notable unique features in fungal cell walls and membranes. Fungal cell walls contain chitin, as opposed to the cellulose found in the cell walls of plants and many protists. Additionally, whereas animals have cholesterol in their cell membranes, fungal cell membranes have different sterols called ergosterols. Ergosterols are often exploited as targets for antifungal drugs.

Fungal life cycles are unique and complex. Fungi reproduce sexually either through cross- or self-fertilization. Haploid fungi form hyphae that have gametes at the tips. Two different mating types (represented as “+ type” and “– type”) are involved. The cytoplasms of the + and – type gametes fuse (in an event called plasmogamy), producing a cell with two distinct nuclei (a dikaryotic cell). Later, the nuclei fuse (in an event called karyogamy) to create a diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes meiosis to form spores that germinate to start the haploid stage, which eventually creates more haploid mycelia (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). Depending on the taxonomic group, these sexually produced spores are known as zygospores (in Zygomycota), ascospores (in Ascomycota), or basidiospores (in Basidiomycota) (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)).

Fungi may also exhibit asexual reproduction by mitosis, mitosis with budding, fragmentation of hyphae, and formation of asexual spores by mitosis. These spores are specialized cells that, depending on the organism, may have unique characteristics for survival, reproduction, and dispersal. Fungi exhibit several types of asexual spores and these can be important in classification.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Zygomycetes have sexual and asexual life cycles. In the sexual life cycle, + and – mating types conjugate to form a zygosporangium.

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): These images show asexually produced spores. (a) This brightfield micrograph shows the release of spores from a sporangium at the end of a hypha called a sporangiophore. The organism is a Mucor sp. fungus, a mold often found indoors. (b) Sporangia grow at the ends of stalks, which appear as the white fuzz seen on this bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifer. The tips of bread mold are the dark, spore-containing sporangia. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b right: modification of work by “Andrew”/Flickr)

Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Is a dimorphic fungus a yeast or a mold? Explain.

Fungal Diversity

The fungi are very diverse, comprising seven major groups. Not all of the seven groups contain pathogens. Some of these groups are generally associated with plants and include plant pathogens. For example, Urediniomycetes and Ustilagomycetes include the plant rusts and smuts, respectively. These form reddish or dark masses, respectively, on plants as rusts (red) or smuts (dark). Some species have substantial economic impact because of their ability to reduce crop yields. Glomeromycota includes the mycorrhizal fungi, important symbionts with plant roots that can promote plant growth by acting like an extended root system. The Glomeromycota are obligate symbionts, meaning that they can only survive when associated with plant roots; the fungi receive carbohydrates from the plant and the plant benefits from the increased ability to take up nutrients and minerals from the soil. The Chytridiomycetes (chytrids) are small fungi, but are extremely ecologically important. Chytrids are generally aquatic and have flagellated, motile gametes; specific types are implicated in amphibian declines around the world. Because of their medical importance, we will focus on Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Microsporidia. Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\) summarizes the characteristics of these medically important groups of fungi.

The Zygomycota (zygomycetes) are mainly saprophytes with coenocytic hyphae and haploid nuclei. They use sporangiospores for asexual reproduction. The group name comes from the zygospores that they use for sexual reproduction (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)), which have hard walls formed from the fusion of reproductive cells from two individuals. Zygomycetes are important for food science and as crop pathogens. One example is Rhizopus stolonifer (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)), an important bread mold that also causes rice seedling blight. Mucor is a genus of fungi that can potentially cause necrotizing infections in humans, although most species are intolerant of temperatures found in mammalian bodies (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)).

The Ascomycota include fungi that are used as food (edible mushrooms, morels, and truffles), others that are common causes of food spoilage (bread molds and plant pathogens), and still others that are human pathogens. Ascomycota may have septate hyphae and cup-shaped fruiting bodies called ascocarps. Some genera of Ascomycota use sexually produced ascospores as well as asexual spores called conidia, but sexual phases have not been discovered or described for others. Some produce an ascus containing ascospores within an ascocarp (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)).

Examples of the Ascomycota include several bread molds and minor pathogens, as well as species capable of causing more serious mycoses. Species in the genus Aspergillus are important causes of allergy and infection, and are useful in research and in the production of certain fermented alcoholic beverages such as Japanese sake . The fungus Aspergillus flavus , a contaminant of nuts and stored grains, produces an aflatoxin that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen. Neurospora crassa is of particular use in genetics research because the spores produced by meiosis are kept inside the ascus in a row that reflects the cell divisions that produced them, giving a direct view of segregation and assortment of genes (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)). Penicillium produces the antibiotic penicillin (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)).

Many species of ascomycetes are medically important. A large number of species in the genera Trichophyton , Microsporum , and Epidermophyton are dermatophytes, pathogenic fungi capable of causing skin infections such as athlete’s foot, jock itch, and ringworm. Blastomyces dermatitidis is a dimorphic fungus that can cause blastomycosis, a respiratory infection that, if left untreated, can become disseminated to other body sites, sometimes leading to death. Another important respiratory pathogen is the dimorphic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)) , which is associated with birds and bats in the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys. Coccidioides immitis causes the serious lung disease Valley fever. Candida albicans , the most common cause of vaginal and other yeast infections, is also an ascomycete fungus; it is a part of the normal microbiota of the skin, intestine, genital tract, and ear (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)). Ascomycetes also cause plant diseases, including ergot infections, Dutch elm disease, and powdery mildews.

Saccharomyces yeasts, including the baker’s yeast S. cerevisiae , are unicellular ascomycetes with haploid and diploid stages (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)). This and other Saccharomyces species are used for brewing beer.

Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): (a) This brightfield micrograph shows ascospores being released from asci in the fungus Talaromyces flavus var. flavus. (b) This electron micrograph shows the conidia (spores) borne on the conidiophore of Aspergillus, a type of toxic fungus found mostly in soil and plants. (c) This brightfield micrograph shows the yeast Candida albicans, the causative agent of candidiasis and thrush. (credit a, b, c: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)

Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\): These ascospores, lined up within an ascus, are produced sexually. (credit: Peter G. Werner)

Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\): The life cycle of an ascomycete is characterized by the production of asci during the sexual phase. The haploid phase is the predominant phase of the life cycle.

The Basidiomycota (basidiomycetes) are fungi that have basidia (club-shaped structures) that produce basidiospores(spores produced through budding) within fruiting bodies called basidiocarps (Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\)). They are important as decomposers and as food. This group includes rusts, stinkhorns, puffballs, and mushrooms. Several species are of particular importance. Cryptococcus neoformans , a fungus commonly found as a yeast in the environment, can cause serious lung infections when inhaled by individuals with weakened immune systems. The edible meadow mushroom, Agricus campestris , is a basidiomycete, as is the poisonous mushroom Amanita phalloides , known as the death cap. The deadly toxins produced by A. phalloides have been used to study transcription.

Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\): The life cycle of a basidiomycete alternates a haploid generation with a prolonged stage in which two nuclei (dikaryon) are present in the hyphae.

Finally, the Microsporidia are unicellular fungi that are obligate intracellular parasites. They lack mitochondria, peroxisomes, and centrioles, but their spores release a unique polar tubule that pierces the host cell membrane to allow the fungus to gain entry into the cell. A number of microsporidia are human pathogens, and infections with microsporidia are called microsporidiosis. One pathogenic species is Enterocystozoan bieneusi , which can cause symptoms such as diarrhea, cholecystitis (inflammation of the gall bladder), and in rare cases, respiratory illness.

Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\): (credit “Ascomycota”: modification of work by Dr. Lucille Georg, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit “Microsporidia”: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)

Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)

Which group of fungi appears to be associated with the greatest number of human diseases?

EUKARYOTIC PATHOGENS IN EUKARYOTIC HOSTS

When we think about antimicrobial medications, antibiotics such as penicillin often come to mind. Penicillin and related antibiotics interfere with the synthesis of peptidoglycan cell walls, which effectively targets bacterial cells. These antibiotics are useful because humans (like all eukaryotes) do not have peptidoglycan cell walls.

Developing medications that are effective against eukaryotic cells but not harmful to human cells is more difficult. Despite huge morphological differences, the cells of humans, fungi, and protists are similar in terms of their ribosomes, cytoskeletons, and cell membranes. As a result, it is more challenging to develop medications that target protozoans and fungi in the same way that antibiotics target prokaryotes.

Fungicides have relatively limited modes of action. Because fungi have ergosterols(instead of cholesterol) in their cell membranes, the different enzymes involved in sterol production can be a target of some medications. The azole and morpholine fungicidesinterfere with the synthesis of membrane sterols. These are used widely in agriculture (fenpropimorph) and clinically (e.g., miconazole). Some antifungal medications target the chitin cell walls of fungi. Despite the success of these compounds in targeting fungi, antifungal medications for systemic infections still tend to have more toxic side effects than antibiotics for bacteria.

Sarah is relieved the ringworm is not an actual worm, but wants to know what it really is. The physician explains that ringworm is a fungus. He tells her that she will not see mushrooms popping out of her skin, because this fungus is more like the invisible part of a mushroom that hides in the soil. He reassures her that they are going to get the fungus out of her too.

The doctor cleans and then carefully scrapes the lesion to place a specimen on a slide. By looking at it under a microscope, the physician is able to confirm that a fungal infection is responsible for Sarah’s lesion. In Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\), it is possible to see macro- and microconidia in Trichophyton rubrum . Cell walls are also visible. Even if the pathogen resembled a helminth under the microscope, the presence of cell walls would rule out the possibility because animal cells lack cell walls.

The doctor prescribes an antifungal cream for Sarah’s mother to apply to the ringworm. Sarah’s mother asks, “What should we do if it doesn’t go away?”

Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\)

Can all forms of ringworm be treated with the same antifungal medication?

Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\): This micrograph shows hyphae (macroconidium) and microconidia of Trichophyton rubrum, a dermatophyte responsible for fungal infections of the skin. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)

Key Concepts and Summary

• The fungi include diverse saprotrophic eukaryotic organisms with chitin cell walls
• Fungi can be unicellular or multicellular; some (like yeast) and fungal spores are microscopic, whereas some are large and conspicuous
• Reproductive types are important in distinguishing fungal groups
• Medically important species exist in the four fungal groups Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Microsporidia
• Members of Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota produce deadly toxins
• Important differences in fungal cells, such as ergosterols in fungal membranes, can be targets for antifungal medications, but similarities between human and fungal cells make it difficult to find targets for medications and these medications often have toxic adverse effects

Multiple Choice

Mushrooms are a type of which of the following?

A. conidia B. ascus C. polar tubule D. basidiocarp

Which of the following is the most common cause of human yeast infections?

A. Candida albicans B. Blastomyces dermatitidis C. Cryptococcus neoformans D. Aspergillus fumigatus

Which of the following is an ascomycete fungus associated with bat droppings that can cause a respiratory infection if inhaled?

A. Candida albicans B. Histoplasma capsulatum C. Rhizopus stolonifera D. Trichophyton rubrum

Fill in the Blank

Nonseptate hyphae are also called _________.

Unicellular fungi are called _________.

Some fungi have proven medically useful because they can be used to produce _________.

antibiotics

Short Answer

Which genera of fungi are common dermatophytes (fungi that cause skin infections)?

What is a dikaryotic cell?

Critical Thinking

Which of the drawings shows septate hyphae?

Explain the benefit of research into the pathways involved in the synthesis of chitin in fungi.

Contributor

Nina Parker, (Shenandoah University), Mark Schneegurt (Wichita State University), Anh-Hue Thi Tu (Georgia Southwestern State University), Philip Lister (Central New Mexico Community College), and Brian M. Forster (Saint Joseph’s University) with many contributing authors. Original content via Openstax (CC BY 4.0; Access for free at  https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/1-introduction )

Kingdom Fungi - Fungus Quiz 1

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• NEET Biology Mcq
• Kingdom Fungi

Kingdom Fungi MCQs for NEET

Fungi are eukaryotic, non-motile and non-vascular entities and are ubiquitous. Though fungi resemble plants, they are not plants. Instead, they are more closely related to animals. Fungi for a matter of fact are of huge economic importance showing diversity in habitat and morphology. Some of these are rusts, puffballs, truffles, morels, moulds, yeasts etc.

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1. This fungi division includes ‘Club fungi’

(a) Zygomycota

(b) Deuteromycota

(c) Basidiomycota

(d) Ascomycota

Answer: (c)

2. This group is used to represent pathological fungi

(a) Penicillium

(b) Truffles, mushrooms and morels

(c) Smuts, rusts and moulds

(d) All of the above

3. The fungi which derive their food directly from dead organic matter are known as

(a) Predators

(b) Decomposers

(c) Mutualists

(d) Parasitic fungi

Answer: (b)

4. What is the name of the special hyphal tips through which parasitic fungi absorb nutrients directly from the cytoplasm of the living host?

(a) Haustoria

(c) Constricting ring

Answer: (a)

5. Which of these entities is an indicator of the SO 2 pollution of air?

(a) Puffballs

(b) Mushrooms

(d) Lichens

Answer: (d)

6. The fungal disease – the black rust of wheat is caused by

(a) Melampsora lini

(b) Claviceps purpurea

(c) Puccinia graminis tritici

(d) Albugo candida

7. What does ‘Perfect stage’ of a fungus indicate?

(a) indicates that it can reproduce asexually

(b) indicates that it is perfectly healthy

(c) indicates that it is able to form perfect sexual spores

8. Death angel/death cap (amanita) and Jack O Lantern mushroom are all examples of

(a) Poisonous mushrooms

(b) Edible mushrooms

(c) None of the above

(d) Both (a) and (b)

9. Covered smut of Sorghum is caused by

(a) Sphacelotheca sorghi

(b) Sphacelotheca cruenta

(c) Sphacelotheca reiliana

(d) Tolyposporium ehrenbergii

10. Oyster mushroom is an example of predator fungi that attacks

(a) Tapeworms

(b) Pinworms

(c) Platyhelminthes

(d) Roundworms

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Short / Long answer type questions. Why are some fungi grouped under fungi imperfecti?

Some fungi such as deuteromycota are fallen under fungi imperfecti because these fungi do not fit into the commonly established taxonomic classifications of fungi that are based on biological species concepts or morphological characteristics of sexual structures because their sexual form of reproduction has never been observed only their asexual form of reproduction is known, which is by sporogenesis..

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2025 Offensive Lineman Mason Short Announces Commitment

2025 four-star offensive lineman Mason Short has announced his commitment between Clemson, Kentucky, Ohio State and Georgia.

• Author: Jonathan Williams

The Georgia Bulldogs have landed another commitment for the 2025 recruiting class as four-star offensive lineman Mason Short has committed to the Bulldogs over Clemson, Ohio State and Kentucky.

Short is rated as the eighth-best interior lineman, the 25th-best player in the state of Georgia and 183rd overall in the class, according to 247 sports composite rankings. He has narrowed his decision down to Georgia, Kentucky, Clemson and Ohio State. 

He recently took a visit to Clemson the weekend of March 14th, but was also on campus at Georgia just a couple of days later, according to Shorts’ social media. Short initially committed to Alabama back in April of last year but later decommitted following the news of Nick Saban’s retirement . The Crimson Tide were not included in Short’s top four schools. Georgia head coach Kirby Smart also took a visit to Short's high school the day he decommitted from Alabama.

Offensive line coach Stacy Searels helped the program land a very solid class in 2024 at the position. Short, who plays high school football at Evans High School in Evans, Georgia, will be a great addition to the class.

Georgia 2025 recruiting class:

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• Stephon Shivers, DL
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• Mason Short, OL

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