rhetorical situations in essay writing

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• How to write a rhetorical analysis | Key concepts & examples

How to Write a Rhetorical Analysis | Key Concepts & Examples

Published on August 28, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A rhetorical analysis is a type of essay  that looks at a text in terms of rhetoric. This means it is less concerned with what the author is saying than with how they say it: their goals, techniques, and appeals to the audience.

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Table of contents

Key concepts in rhetoric, analyzing the text, introducing your rhetorical analysis, the body: doing the analysis, concluding a rhetorical analysis, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about rhetorical analysis.

Rhetoric, the art of effective speaking and writing, is a subject that trains you to look at texts, arguments and speeches in terms of how they are designed to persuade the audience. This section introduces a few of the key concepts of this field.

Appeals: Logos, ethos, pathos

Appeals are how the author convinces their audience. Three central appeals are discussed in rhetoric, established by the philosopher Aristotle and sometimes called the rhetorical triangle: logos, ethos, and pathos.

Logos , or the logical appeal, refers to the use of reasoned argument to persuade. This is the dominant approach in academic writing , where arguments are built up using reasoning and evidence.

Ethos , or the ethical appeal, involves the author presenting themselves as an authority on their subject. For example, someone making a moral argument might highlight their own morally admirable behavior; someone speaking about a technical subject might present themselves as an expert by mentioning their qualifications.

Pathos , or the pathetic appeal, evokes the audience’s emotions. This might involve speaking in a passionate way, employing vivid imagery, or trying to provoke anger, sympathy, or any other emotional response in the audience.

These three appeals are all treated as integral parts of rhetoric, and a given author may combine all three of them to convince their audience.

Text and context

In rhetoric, a text is not necessarily a piece of writing (though it may be this). A text is whatever piece of communication you are analyzing. This could be, for example, a speech, an advertisement, or a satirical image.

In these cases, your analysis would focus on more than just language—you might look at visual or sonic elements of the text too.

The context is everything surrounding the text: Who is the author (or speaker, designer, etc.)? Who is their (intended or actual) audience? When and where was the text produced, and for what purpose?

Looking at the context can help to inform your rhetorical analysis. For example, Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech has universal power, but the context of the civil rights movement is an important part of understanding why.

Claims, supports, and warrants

A piece of rhetoric is always making some sort of argument, whether it’s a very clearly defined and logical one (e.g. in a philosophy essay) or one that the reader has to infer (e.g. in a satirical article). These arguments are built up with claims, supports, and warrants.

A claim is the fact or idea the author wants to convince the reader of. An argument might center on a single claim, or be built up out of many. Claims are usually explicitly stated, but they may also just be implied in some kinds of text.

The author uses supports to back up each claim they make. These might range from hard evidence to emotional appeals—anything that is used to convince the reader to accept a claim.

The warrant is the logic or assumption that connects a support with a claim. Outside of quite formal argumentation, the warrant is often unstated—the author assumes their audience will understand the connection without it. But that doesn’t mean you can’t still explore the implicit warrant in these cases.

For example, look at the following statement:

We can see a claim and a support here, but the warrant is implicit. Here, the warrant is the assumption that more likeable candidates would have inspired greater turnout. We might be more or less convinced by the argument depending on whether we think this is a fair assumption.

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Rhetorical analysis isn’t a matter of choosing concepts in advance and applying them to a text. Instead, it starts with looking at the text in detail and asking the appropriate questions about how it works:

• What is the author’s purpose?
• Do they focus closely on their key claims, or do they discuss various topics?
• What tone do they take—angry or sympathetic? Personal or authoritative? Formal or informal?
• Who seems to be the intended audience? Is this audience likely to be successfully reached and convinced?
• What kinds of evidence are presented?

By asking these questions, you’ll discover the various rhetorical devices the text uses. Don’t feel that you have to cram in every rhetorical term you know—focus on those that are most important to the text.

The following sections show how to write the different parts of a rhetorical analysis.

Like all essays, a rhetorical analysis begins with an introduction . The introduction tells readers what text you’ll be discussing, provides relevant background information, and presents your thesis statement .

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how an introduction works.

Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech is widely regarded as one of the most important pieces of oratory in American history. Delivered in 1963 to thousands of civil rights activists outside the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., the speech has come to symbolize the spirit of the civil rights movement and even to function as a major part of the American national myth. This rhetorical analysis argues that King’s assumption of the prophetic voice, amplified by the historic size of his audience, creates a powerful sense of ethos that has retained its inspirational power over the years.

The body of your rhetorical analysis is where you’ll tackle the text directly. It’s often divided into three paragraphs, although it may be more in a longer essay.

Each paragraph should focus on a different element of the text, and they should all contribute to your overall argument for your thesis statement.

Hover over the example to explore how a typical body paragraph is constructed.

King’s speech is infused with prophetic language throughout. Even before the famous “dream” part of the speech, King’s language consistently strikes a prophetic tone. He refers to the Lincoln Memorial as a “hallowed spot” and speaks of rising “from the dark and desolate valley of segregation” to “make justice a reality for all of God’s children.” The assumption of this prophetic voice constitutes the text’s strongest ethical appeal; after linking himself with political figures like Lincoln and the Founding Fathers, King’s ethos adopts a distinctly religious tone, recalling Biblical prophets and preachers of change from across history. This adds significant force to his words; standing before an audience of hundreds of thousands, he states not just what the future should be, but what it will be: “The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.” This warning is almost apocalyptic in tone, though it concludes with the positive image of the “bright day of justice.” The power of King’s rhetoric thus stems not only from the pathos of his vision of a brighter future, but from the ethos of the prophetic voice he adopts in expressing this vision.

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The conclusion of a rhetorical analysis wraps up the essay by restating the main argument and showing how it has been developed by your analysis. It may also try to link the text, and your analysis of it, with broader concerns.

Explore the example below to get a sense of the conclusion.

It is clear from this analysis that the effectiveness of King’s rhetoric stems less from the pathetic appeal of his utopian “dream” than it does from the ethos he carefully constructs to give force to his statements. By framing contemporary upheavals as part of a prophecy whose fulfillment will result in the better future he imagines, King ensures not only the effectiveness of his words in the moment but their continuing resonance today. Even if we have not yet achieved King’s dream, we cannot deny the role his words played in setting us on the path toward it.

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The goal of a rhetorical analysis is to explain the effect a piece of writing or oratory has on its audience, how successful it is, and the devices and appeals it uses to achieve its goals.

Unlike a standard argumentative essay , it’s less about taking a position on the arguments presented, and more about exploring how they are constructed.

The term “text” in a rhetorical analysis essay refers to whatever object you’re analyzing. It’s frequently a piece of writing or a speech, but it doesn’t have to be. For example, you could also treat an advertisement or political cartoon as a text.

Logos appeals to the audience’s reason, building up logical arguments . Ethos appeals to the speaker’s status or authority, making the audience more likely to trust them. Pathos appeals to the emotions, trying to make the audience feel angry or sympathetic, for example.

Collectively, these three appeals are sometimes called the rhetorical triangle . They are central to rhetorical analysis , though a piece of rhetoric might not necessarily use all of them.

In rhetorical analysis , a claim is something the author wants the audience to believe. A support is the evidence or appeal they use to convince the reader to believe the claim. A warrant is the (often implicit) assumption that links the support with the claim.

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Rhetorical Situations

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This presentation is designed to introduce your students to a variety of factors that contribute to strong, well-organized writing. This presentation is suitable for the beginning of a composition course or the assignment of a writing project in any class.

This resource is enhanced by a PowerPoint file. If you have a Microsoft Account, you can view this file with   PowerPoint Online .

Understanding and being able to analyze rhetorical situations can help contribute to strong, audience-focused, and organized writing. The PowerPoint presentation in the Media box above is suitable for any classroom and any writing task. The resource below explains in more detail how to analyze rhetorical situations.

Understanding Rhetoric

Writing instructors and many other professionals who study language use the phrase “rhetorical situation.” This term refers to any set of circumstances that involves at least one person using some sort of communication to modify the perspective of at least one other person. But many people are unfamiliar with the word “rhetoric.” For many people, “rhetoric” may imply speech that is simply persuasive. For others, “rhetoric” may imply something more negative like “trickery” or even “lying.” So to appreciate the benefits of understanding what rhetorical situations are, we must first have a more complete understanding of what rhetoric itself is.

In brief, “rhetoric” is any communication used to modify the perspectives of others. But this is a very broad definition that calls for more explanation.

The OWL’s “ Introduction to Rhetoric ” vidcast explains more what rhetoric is and how rhetoric relates to writing. This vidcast defines rhetoric as “primarily an awareness of the language choices we make.” It gives a brief history of the origins of rhetoric in ancient Greece. And it briefly discusses the benefits of how understanding rhetoric can help people write more convincingly. The vidcast provides an excellent primer to some basic ideas of rhetoric.

A more in-depth primer to rhetoric can be found in the online video “In Defense of Rhetoric: No Longer Just for Liars.” This video dispels some widely held misconceptions about rhetoric and emphasizes that, “An education of rhetoric enables communicators in any facet of any field to create and assess messages effectively.” This video should be particularly helpful to anyone who is unaware of how crucial rhetoric is to effective communication.

“ In Defense of Rhetoric: No Longer Just for Liars ” is a 14-minunte video created by graduate students in the MA in Professional Communication program at Clemson University, and you are free to copy, distribute, and transmit the video with the understanding: 1) that you will attribute the work to its authors; 2) that you will not use the work for commercial purposes; and 3) that you may not alter, transform, or build upon this work.

Listening to the above podcast and watching the above video should help anyone using this resource to better understand the basics of rhetoric and rhetorical situations.

A Review of Rhetoric: From “Persuasion” to “Identification”

Just as the vidcast and video above imply, rhetoric can refer to just the persuasive qualities of language. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle strongly influenced how people have traditionally viewed rhetoric. Aristotle defined rhetoric as “an ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion” (Aristotle Rhetoric I.1.2, Kennedy 37). Since then, Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric has been reduced in many situations to mean simply “persuasion.” At its best, this simplification of rhetoric has led to a long tradition of people associating rhetoric with politicians, lawyers, or other occupations noted for persuasive speaking. At its worst, the simplification of rhetoric has led people to assume that rhetoric is merely something that manipulative people use to get what they want (usually regardless of moral or ethical concerns).

However, over the last century or so, the academic definition and use of “rhetoric” has evolved to include any situation in which people consciously communicate with each other. In brief, individual people tend to perceive and understand just about everything differently from one another (this difference varies to a lesser or greater degree depending on the situation, of course). This expanded perception has led a number of more contemporary rhetorical philosophers to suggest that rhetoric deals with more than just persuasion. Instead of just persuasion, rhetoric is the set of methods people use to identify with each other—to encourage each other to understand things from one another’s perspectives (see Burke 25). From interpersonal relationships to international peace treaties, the capacity to understand or modify another’s perspective is one of the most vital abilities that humans have. Hence, understanding rhetoric in terms of “identification” helps us better communicate and evaluate all such situations.

Works Cited

Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse . 2nd ed. Trans. George A. Kennedy. New York: Oxford UP, 2007.

Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives . Berkeley: U of California P, 1969.

Johnson-Sheehan, Richard and Charles Paine. Writing Today . New York: Pearson Education, 2010.

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What Is a Rhetorical Analysis and How to Write a Great One

Helly Douglas

Do you have to write a rhetorical analysis essay? Fear not! We’re here to explain exactly what rhetorical analysis means, how you should structure your essay, and give you some essential “dos and don’ts.”

What is a Rhetorical Analysis Essay?

How do you write a rhetorical analysis, what are the three rhetorical strategies, what are the five rhetorical situations, how to plan a rhetorical analysis essay, creating a rhetorical analysis essay, examples of great rhetorical analysis essays, final thoughts.

A rhetorical analysis essay studies how writers and speakers have used words to influence their audience. Think less about the words the author has used and more about the techniques they employ, their goals, and the effect this has on the audience.

In your analysis essay, you break a piece of text (including cartoons, adverts, and speeches) into sections and explain how each part works to persuade, inform, or entertain. You’ll explore the effectiveness of the techniques used, how the argument has been constructed, and give examples from the text.

A strong rhetorical analysis evaluates a text rather than just describes the techniques used. You don’t include whether you personally agree or disagree with the argument.

Structure a rhetorical analysis in the same way as most other types of academic essays . You’ll have an introduction to present your thesis, a main body where you analyze the text, which then leads to a conclusion.

Think about how the writer (also known as a rhetor) considers the situation that frames their communication:

• Topic: the overall purpose of the rhetoric
• Audience: this includes primary, secondary, and tertiary audiences
• Purpose: there are often more than one to consider
• Context and culture: the wider situation within which the rhetoric is placed

Back in the 4th century BC, Aristotle was talking about how language can be used as a means of persuasion. He described three principal forms —Ethos, Logos, and Pathos—often referred to as the Rhetorical Triangle . These persuasive techniques are still used today.

Rhetorical Strategy 1: Ethos

Are you more likely to buy a car from an established company that’s been an important part of your community for 50 years, or someone new who just started their business?

Reputation matters. Ethos explores how the character, disposition, and fundamental values of the author create appeal, along with their expertise and knowledge in the subject area.

Aristotle breaks ethos down into three further categories:

• Phronesis: skills and practical wisdom
• Arete: virtue
• Eunoia: goodwill towards the audience

Ethos-driven speeches and text rely on the reputation of the author. In your analysis, you can look at how the writer establishes ethos through both direct and indirect means.

Rhetorical Strategy 2: Pathos

Pathos-driven rhetoric hooks into our emotions. You’ll often see it used in advertisements, particularly by charities wanting you to donate money towards an appeal.

Common use of pathos includes:

• Vivid description so the reader can imagine themselves in the situation
• Personal stories to create feelings of empathy
• Emotional vocabulary that evokes a response

By using pathos to make the audience feel a particular emotion, the author can persuade them that the argument they’re making is compelling.

Rhetorical Strategy 3: Logos

Logos uses logic or reason. It’s commonly used in academic writing when arguments are created using evidence and reasoning rather than an emotional response. It’s constructed in a step-by-step approach that builds methodically to create a powerful effect upon the reader.

Rhetoric can use any one of these three techniques, but effective arguments often appeal to all three elements.

The rhetorical situation explains the circumstances behind and around a piece of rhetoric. It helps you think about why a text exists, its purpose, and how it’s carried out.

The rhetorical situations are:

• 1) Purpose: Why is this being written? (It could be trying to inform, persuade, instruct, or entertain.)
• 2) Audience: Which groups or individuals will read and take action (or have done so in the past)?
• 3) Genre: What type of writing is this?
• 4) Stance: What is the tone of the text? What position are they taking?
• 5) Media/Visuals: What means of communication are used?

Understanding and analyzing the rhetorical situation is essential for building a strong essay. Also think about any rhetoric restraints on the text, such as beliefs, attitudes, and traditions that could affect the author's decisions.

Before leaping into your essay, it’s worth taking time to explore the text at a deeper level and considering the rhetorical situations we looked at before. Throw away your assumptions and use these simple questions to help you unpick how and why the text is having an effect on the audience.

1: What is the Rhetorical Situation?

• Why is there a need or opportunity for persuasion?
• How do words and references help you identify the time and location?
• What are the rhetoric restraints?
• What historical occasions would lead to this text being created?

2: Who is the Author?

• How do they position themselves as an expert worth listening to?
• What is their ethos?
• Do they have a reputation that gives them authority?
• What is their intention?
• What values or customs do they have?

3: Who is it Written For?

• Who is the intended audience?
• How is this appealing to this particular audience?
• Who are the possible secondary and tertiary audiences?

4: What is the Central Idea?

• Can you summarize the key point of this rhetoric?
• What arguments are used?
• How has it developed a line of reasoning?

5: How is it Structured?

• What structure is used?
• How is the content arranged within the structure?

6: What Form is Used?

• Does this follow a specific literary genre?
• What type of style and tone is used, and why is this?
• Does the form used complement the content?
• What effect could this form have on the audience?

7: Is the Rhetoric Effective?

• Does the content fulfil the author’s intentions?
• Does the message effectively fit the audience, location, and time period?

Once you’ve fully explored the text, you’ll have a better understanding of the impact it’s having on the audience and feel more confident about writing your essay outline.

A great essay starts with an interesting topic. Choose carefully so you’re personally invested in the subject and familiar with it rather than just following trending topics. There are lots of great ideas on this blog post by My Perfect Words if you need some inspiration. Take some time to do background research to ensure your topic offers good analysis opportunities.

Remember to check the information given to you by your professor so you follow their preferred style guidelines. This outline example gives you a general idea of a format to follow, but there will likely be specific requests about layout and content in your course handbook. It’s always worth asking your institution if you’re unsure.

Make notes for each section of your essay before you write. This makes it easy for you to write a well-structured text that flows naturally to a conclusion. You will develop each note into a paragraph. Look at this example by College Essay for useful ideas about the structure.

1: Introduction

This is a short, informative section that shows you understand the purpose of the text. It tempts the reader to find out more by mentioning what will come in the main body of your essay.

• Name the author of the text and the title of their work followed by the date in parentheses
• Use a verb to describe what the author does, e.g. “implies,” “asserts,” or “claims”
• Briefly summarize the text in your own words
• Mention the persuasive techniques used by the rhetor and its effect

Create a thesis statement to come at the end of your introduction.

After your introduction, move on to your critical analysis. This is the principal part of your essay.

• Explain the methods used by the author to inform, entertain, and/or persuade the audience using Aristotle's rhetorical triangle
• Use quotations to prove the statements you make
• Explain why the writer used this approach and how successful it is
• Consider how it makes the audience feel and react

Make each strategy a new paragraph rather than cramming them together, and always use proper citations. Check back to your course handbook if you’re unsure which citation style is preferred.

3: Conclusion

Your conclusion should summarize the points you’ve made in the main body of your essay. While you will draw the points together, this is not the place to introduce new information you’ve not previously mentioned.

Use your last sentence to share a powerful concluding statement that talks about the impact the text has on the audience(s) and wider society. How have its strategies helped to shape history?

Before You Submit

Poor spelling and grammatical errors ruin a great essay. Use ProWritingAid to check through your finished essay before you submit. It will pick up all the minor errors you’ve missed and help you give your essay a final polish. Look at this useful ProWritingAid webinar for further ideas to help you significantly improve your essays. Sign up for a free trial today and start editing your essays!

You’ll find countless examples of rhetorical analysis online, but they range widely in quality. Your institution may have example essays they can share with you to show you exactly what they’re looking for.

The following links should give you a good starting point if you’re looking for ideas:

Pearson Canada has a range of good examples. Look at how embedded quotations are used to prove the points being made. The end questions help you unpick how successful each essay is.

Excelsior College has an excellent sample essay complete with useful comments highlighting the techniques used.

Brighton Online has a selection of interesting essays to look at. In this specific example, consider how wider reading has deepened the exploration of the text.

Writing a rhetorical analysis essay can seem daunting, but spending significant time deeply analyzing the text before you write will make it far more achievable and result in a better-quality essay overall.

It can take some time to write a good essay. Aim to complete it well before the deadline so you don’t feel rushed. Use ProWritingAid’s comprehensive checks to find any errors and make changes to improve readability. Then you’ll be ready to submit your finished essay, knowing it’s as good as you can possibly make it.

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Helly Douglas is a UK writer and teacher, specialising in education, children, and parenting. She loves making the complex seem simple through blogs, articles, and curriculum content. You can check out her work at hellydouglas.com or connect on Twitter @hellydouglas. When she’s not writing, you will find her in a classroom, being a mum or battling against the wilderness of her garden—the garden is winning!

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Table of Contents

Collaboration, information literacy, writing process, rhetorical situation.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - University of South Florida

The rhetorical situation refers to the contextual variables (e.g. audience , purpose , and topic ) that influence composing and interpretation . Learn how to engage in rhetorical analysis of your rhetorical situation so you can create texts that your readers find to be clear and cogent, even if they don't necessarily agree with your argument , thesis , research question or hypothesis.

What is the Rhetorical Situation?

The rhetorical situation refers to

• Exigence  — the driving force behind the call to write or speak. It’s the  situation  that prompts the need for  communication , urging the  speaker or writer  to use discourse to respond to a particular matter
• Audience  — the specific individuals or groups (aka discourse communities) to whom the discourse is directed
• Constraints  — the effects of rhetorical affordances and constraints on communication, composing and style

The Rhetorical Situation may also be called occasion; rhetorical situation ; rhetorical occasion ; situational constraints; the spin room; the no-spin room, the communication situation.

Rhetorical Situations are sometimes described as formal, semi-formal, or informal. They may also be described as home-based, school-based, or work-based .

Related Concepts: Epistemology ; Rhetoric ; Rhetorical Analysis ; Rhetorical Stance

We are always situated, in situations, in the world, in a context, living in a certain way with others, trying to achieve this and avoid that. Eugene Gendlin, p.2

Why Does the Rhetorical Situation Matter?

Writers, speakers, and knowledge workers . . . need a robust understanding of the rhetorical situation in order to respond appropriately to an exigency , a call for discourse.

Having “rhetorical knowledge” and being able to In order to determine the available means of persuasion., successful communicators analyze their rhetorical situation .

Rhetorical Theory has been a major subject of study and conversation among writers and speakers since the 5th century BCE, when sophists taught persuasive techniques to young aristocrats who hoped to succeed in legal and political arenas. Rhetorical theories provide insights into ways writers and speakers can craft their messages so they are persuasive.

Rhetorical theory has had a profound impact on writing instruction in the U.S. The CWPA (Council of Writing Program Administrators) defines  rhetorical knowledge  as a foundational competency in college-level writing:

“The assertion that writing is “rhetorical” means that writing is always shaped by a combination of the purposes and expectations of writers and readers and the uses that writing serves in specific contexts. To be rhetorically sensitive, good writers must be flexible. They should be able to pursue their purposes by consciously adapting their writing both to the contexts in which it will be read and to the expectations, knowledge, experiences, values, and beliefs of their readers. They also must understand how to take advantage of the opportunities with which they are presented and to address the constraints they encounter as they write. In practice, this means that writers learn to identify what is possible and not possible in diverse writing situations. Writing an email to a friend holds different possibilities for language and form than does writing a lab report for submission to an instructor in a biology class. Instructors emphasize the rhetorical nature of writing by providing writers opportunities to study the expectations, values, and norms associated with writing in specific contexts. This principle is fundamental to the study of writing and writing instruction. It informs all other principles in this document” (Conference 2015).

What is Rhetorical Analysis?

Since antiquity, rhetoricians have exhorted writers and speakers to think deeply and carefully about their audience , purpose , and topic . In the rhetorical tradition, this process—this activity of considering what you want to say, your purpose , and then adjusting what you want to say based on your evaluation of your audience —is called rhetorical analysis .

Rhetorical Analysis begins with a careful consideration of the contextual variables that need to be considered to respond with clarity and persuasion to the communication situation.

Scholarly conversations about what those contextual variables are have evolved over time. 

Loyd Bitzer’s Rhetorical Model

In 1968, Loyd Bitzer, a rhetorician, articulated a theoretical model of the rhetorical situation.

Bitzer depicts the rhetorical situation as

• “a complex of persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an actual or potential exigence [emphasis added] which can be completely or partially removed if discourse, introduced into the situation, can so constrain human decision or action as to bring about the significant modification of the exigence” (p.9).

Thus, Bitzer imagines the rhetorical situation as a dynamic between three primary forces:

• Constraints

For Bitzer, the impetus for writing or speaking is the situation:

• “Rhetorical discourse is called into existence by situation” (p. 9).
• The situation gives rise to an exigency , which is “an imperfection marked by urgency; it is a defect, an obstacle, something waiting to be done, a thing that is other than it should be” (p. 6)

Moreover, Bitzer argues the situation presumes a response:

• “the situation dictates the sorts of observations to be made; it dictates the significant physical and verbal responses. . . .” (p. 5)

Bitzer’s theory of the rhetorical situation, published as the first article in a new academic journal ( Rhetoric and Philosophy ) initiated an academic conversation that is still ongoing. To this day, Bitzer is credited for introducing the concept of exigency and for questioning how constraints — persons, events, objects, and relations –impinge on composing.

Furthermore, Bitzer deserves credit for introducing the notion that writing occurs in a sociocultural context–i.e., that there are rhetorical constraints that exist in the material world that shape how writers and speakers should respond to exigencies, situations.

However, in contemporary Writing Studies (as well as other academic disciplines), Bitzer’s argument that “Rhetorical discourse is called into existence by situation” (p. 9) has been disputed on theoretical and empirical grounds :

• Empirical Grounds Bitzer’s model presumes that the writer or speaker lacks agency, that they are merely reactive to situations, that the situation determines whether or not something is translated to discourse/text or not. In contrast to this view, empirical research has found that writers and speakers bring their own agendas and desires to writing situations. When people enter a new rhetorical situation, they have aims/purposes, personalities, literacy histories, past experiences. All of those histories and more shape the their perception of the rhetorical situation, their invention, research, and reasoning processes. Rhetors experience an incessant flow of occasions and problems during their lives. And it is the rhetor who chooses to focus on any one particular rhetorical situation.
• linguistic constraints
• material constraints (e.g., timing, economics, governments, technology)
• ideological constraints (especially gender, class, and race).

The Ecological Model

From the 1980s to 2000s, scholars from across disciplines (e.g., Rhetoric, Writing Studies, Gender Studies, and Philosophy) further problematized models of the rhetorical situation that

• implied communication is a simple process of transmitting a message, information, from sender to receiver
• portrayed rhetorical situations as “unique, unconnected with other situations” (Cooper, p. 367).
• oversimplified ways interpretation is an act of imagination, a social construction.

By the close of the 20th century, thanks to postmodernism , constructivism , and feminism , the discipline of Writing Studies embraced a new theory of the rhetorical situation: the ecological model.

The ecological model conceptualizes the rhetorical situation as composed of a universe of variables that interact with one another, rhetors, and audiences. Thus, rather than conceptualizing the rhetorical situation as a one-to-one dialog between the writer and the writer’s audience, the ecological model attempts to conceptualize the rhetorical situation with greater complexity–i.e., as a milieu of rhetorical elements that occur in a multi-dimensional space.

First introduced to Writing Studies by Greg Myers (1985) and then developed by Marilyn Cooper (1986), the ecological model of the rhetorical situation assumes “writing is an activity through which a person is continually engaged with a variety of socially constituted systems” Cooper p. 367).

“The metaphor for writing suggested by the ecological model is that of a web, in which anything that affects one strand of the web vibrates throughout the whole” (Cooper p, 370).

Rather than debate either the situation invokes the rhetoric or the writer/speaker invokes the rhetoric, the ecological view assumes both the rhetor and the sociocultural context are in dialog, in co-creation with one another:

“all organisms–but especially human beings-are not simply the results but are also the causes of their own environments. . . . While it may be true that at some instant the environment poses a problem or challenge to the organism, in the process of response to that challenge the organism alters the terms of its relation to the outer world and recreates the relevant aspects of that world. The relation between organism and environment is not simply one of interaction of internal and external factors, but of a dialectical development of organism and milieu in response to each other. (Lewontin et al ., p. 275)

The Psychological Model

In psychology, the STEM community, and the learning sciences, investigators explore the role of mindset and personality on interpretation , creativity, and composing .

For example, research has found that people’s mindset about their competencies as writers and public speakers influence how they interact with rhetorical situations. People who hold a growth mindset about their potential as writers and communicators are more likely than people who hold a fixed mindset to engage in rhetorical analysis and rhetorical reasoning . Being preoccupied with negative thoughts when composing makes writing aversive.

Being intellectually open is crucial to putting aside one’s own perspective and living in the shoes of the Other . Being narrow minded about a topic undermines efforts at research, rhetorical analysis and rhetorical reasoning . Being able to engage in metacognition & self-regulation is crucial to successfully navigating rhetorical contexts. We all don’t know what we don’t know. That’s unavoidable, that’s human. However, openness , metacognition and regulation are needed to question how our own experiences and observations shape our interpretations, research methods , and knowledge claims.

So, on the Topic of the Rhetorical Situation, What’s Next?

Moving forward, as bots emerge, as Artificial Intelligence reaches consciousness, technorhetoricians are beginning to explore ways nonhuman elements enter the communication situation and assert agency.

Bitzer, Lloyd. (1968). “The Rhetorical Situation.” Philosophy and Rhetoric 1:1: 1-14.

Gendlin, Eugene T (1978).  “Befindlichkeit: Heidegger and the philosophy of psychology”   (PDF) .  Review of Existential Psychology and Psychiatry .  16  (1–3): 43–71. 

Lewontin, R. C., Steven Rose, and Leon J. Kamin. Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology, and Human Nature. New York: Pantheon Books, 1984.

Marilyn M. Cooper College English , Vol. 48, No. 4 (Apr., 1986), pp. 364-375

Myers, Greg. “The Social Construction of Two Biologists’ Proposals.” Written Communication 2 (1985): 219-45.

Vatz, Richard (1973). “The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation.” Philosophy & Rhetoric 6:3: 154-161.

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Audience - Audience Awareness

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Occasion, Exigency, Kairos - How to Decode Meaning-Making Practices

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If your text doesn’t appeal to your audience, then all is lost. Awareness of your audience (as well as purpose and context) is crucial to writing well. Learn how to...

Medium refer to the materials and tools Rhetors use to compose, archive, and convey messages. For 21st Century Writers, messages often have to be remediated in multiple media.

This article explores ‘perspective’ in interpretation, reasoning, and composition. It questions how a reader’s or writer’s background — personal experiences, cultural and academic influences, and their chosen viewpoint — shapes...

What is purpose? How does purpose shape the processes? When composing, how can I best identify and express my purpose?

Learn to analyze the register of a communication situation so you know when you need to code switch. Use register as a measure of audience awareness and clarity in communication....

“Text,” traditionally associated with printed materials, has evolved to encapsulate anything that conveys symbolic meaning – signifying that in the lens of modern semiotics, the world is a text. Texts...

Writers, Speakers, Knowledge Workers . . . are authors. They may also be called called actors, artists, creators, investigators, knowledge makers, researchers, rhetors, senders.

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What is the Rhetorical Situation?

A key component of rhetorical analysis involves thinking carefully about the “rhetorical situation” of a text. You can think of the rhetorical situation as the context or set of circumstances out of which a text arises. Any time anyone is trying to make an argument, one is doing so out of a particular context, one that influences and shapes the argument that is made. When we do a rhetorical analysis, we look carefully at how the rhetorical situation (context) shapes the rhetorical act (the text).

We can understand the concept of a rhetorical situation if we examine it piece by piece, by looking carefully at the rhetorical concepts from which it is built. The philosopher Aristotle organized these concepts as the author, audience, setting, purpose, and text. Answering the questions about these rhetorical concepts below will give you a good sense of your text’s rhetorical situation – the starting point for rhetorical analysis.

We will use the example of President Trump’s inaugural address (the text) to sift through these questions about the rhetorical situation (context).

The “author” of a text is the creator – the person who is communicating to try to effect a change in his or her audience. An author doesn’t have to be a single person or a person at all – an author could be an organization. To understand the rhetorical situation of a text, one must examine the identity of the author and his or her background.

• What kind of experience or authority does the author have in the subject he or she is speaking about?
• What values does the author have, either in general or about this particular subject?
• How invested is the author in the topic of the text? In other words, what affects the author’s perspective on the topic?

In any text, an author is attempting to engage an audience. Before we can analyze how effectively an author engages an audience, we must spend some time thinking about that audience. An audience is any person or group who is the intended recipient of the text and also the person/people the author is trying to influence. To understand the rhetorical situation of a text, one must examine who the intended audience is by thinking about these things:

• Sometimes this is the hardest question of all. We can get this information of “who is the author addressing” by looking at where an article is published. Pay attention to the newspaper, magazine, website, or journal title where the text is published. Often, you can research that publication to get a good sense of who reads that publication.
• What is the audience’s demographic information (age, gender, etc.)?
• What is/are the background, values, and interests of the intended audience?
• How open is this intended audience to the author?
• What assumptions might the audience make about the author?
• In what context is the audience receiving the text?

Thinking about the audience can be a bit tricky. Your audience is the person or group that you intend to reach with your writing. We sometimes call this the intended audience – the group of people to whom a text is intentionally directed. But any text likely also has an unintended audience, a reader (or readers) who read it even without being the intended recipient. The reader might be the person you have in mind as you write, the audience you’re trying to reach, but they might be some random person you’ve never thought of a day in your life. You can’t always know much about random readers, but you should have some understanding of who your audience is. It’s the audience that you want to focus on as you shape your message.

Nothing happens in a vacuum, and that includes the creation of any text. Essays, speeches, photos, political ads, etc. were written in a specific time and/or place, all of which can affect the way the text communicates its message. To understand the rhetorical situation of a text, we can identify the particular occasion or event that prompted the text’s creation at the particular time it was created.

• Was there a debate about the topic that the author of the text addresses? If so, what are (or were) the various perspectives within that debate?
• Did something specific occur that motivated the author to speak out?

The purpose of a text blend the author with the setting and the audience. Looking at a text’s purpose means looking at the author’s motivations for creating it. The author has decided to start a conversation or join one that is already underway. Why has he or she decided to join in? In any text, the author may be trying to inform, to convince, to define, to announce, or to activate. Can you tell which one of those general purposes your author has?

• What is the author hoping to achieve with this text?
• Why did the author decide to join the “conversation” about the topic?
• What does the author want from their audience? What does the author want the audience to do once the text is communicated?

In what format or medium is the text being made: image? written essay? speech? song? protest sign? meme? sculpture?

• What is gained by having a text composed in a particular format/medium?
• What limitations does that format/medium have?
• What opportunities for expression does that format/medium have (that perhaps other formats do not have?)

Attributions

A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing  by Melanie Gagich & Emilie Zickel is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

What is the Rhetorical Situation? Copyright © by James Charles Devlin is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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III. Rhetorical Situation

3.3 What is the Rhetorical Situation?

Robin Jeffrey; Emilie Zickel; and Terri Pantuso

A key component of rhetorical analysis involves thinking carefully about the rhetorical situation of a text. You can think of the rhetorical situation as the context or set of circumstances out of which a text arises. Any time anyone is trying to make an argument, one is doing so out of a particular context, one that influences and shapes the argument that is being made. When we do a rhetorical analysis, we look carefully at how the rhetorical situation (context) shapes the rhetorical act (the text).

We can understand the concept of a rhetorical situation if we examine it piece by piece, by looking carefully at the rhetorical concepts from which it is built. The philosopher Aristotle organized these concepts as author, audience, setting, purpose, and text. Answering the questions about these rhetorical concepts below will give you a good sense of your text’s rhetorical situation – the starting point for rhetorical analysis.

We will use the example of Kamala Harris’s vice presidential acceptance speech (the text) delivered November 7, 2020 to sift through these questions about the rhetorical situation (context). [1]

The author of a text is the creator – the person who is communicating in order to try to effect a change in their audience. An author doesn’t have to be a single person or a person at all – an author could be an organization. To understand the rhetorical situation of a text, one must examine the identity of the author and their background.

• What kind of experience or authority does the author have in the subject about which they are speaking?
• What values does the author have, either in general or with regard to this particular subject?
• How invested is the author in the topic of the text? In other words, what affects the author’s perspective on the topic?

Example of Author Analysis for the Rhetorical Situation (Kamala Harris’s VP Acceptance Speech)

At the time she delivered this speech, Kamala Harris was a first-term vice-presidential nominee, a former US Senator, former Attorney General of California, and the first woman ever elected to the second highest office in the country. Ethnically, Harris identifies as both African American and South Asian American. She became the first person of color, and first woman, to be elected to the office of Vice President. Her political affiliation is with the Democratic party – the liberal political party in America.

In any text, an author is attempting to engage an audience. Before we can analyze how effectively an author engages an audience, we must spend some time thinking about that audience. An audience is any person or group who is the intended recipient of the text and also the person/people the author is trying to influence. To understand the rhetorical situation of a text, one must examine who the intended audience is by thinking about these things:

• Who is the author addressing? Sometimes this is the hardest question of all. We can get this information of who the author is addressing by looking at where an article is published. Be sure to pay attention to the newspaper, magazine, website, or journal title where the text is published. Often, you can research that publication to get a good sense of who reads it.
• What is the audience’s demographic information (age, gender, etc.)?
• What is/are the background, values, interests of the intended audience?
• How open is this intended audience to the author?
• What assumptions might the audience make about the author?
• In what context is the audience receiving the text?

Example of Audience Analysis for the Rhetorical Situation (Kamala Harris’s VP Acceptance Speech)

Harris was addressing the American people (and the world) at-large; since her acceptance speech was broadcast on major news networks and the internet, she was speaking to people of all ethnicities, genders, religions, nationalities. Harris was the VP candidate for Joe Biden. Biden’s election was contested by the incumbent , Donald Trump, and this contributed to tension already present among the country that was enduring a global pandemic. Members of the intended audience included health care workers, first responders, poll workers, etc., as well as women of all ages and demographics. While much of the intended audience was receptive to Harris’s speech and the significance of her election, a portion of the audience was in disbelief and felt that the election was fraudulent . Given this tension, some audience members might assume that Harris was not legally elected and therefore would not represent them. Some audience members might assume that her gender would impact her ability to perform the duties of her office, while others might assume that Harris would be a conduit for change in the country.

Nothing happens in a vacuum, and that includes the creation of any text. Essays, speeches, photos, political ads – any text – was written in a specific time and/or place, all of which can affect the way the text communicates its message. To understand the rhetorical situation of a text, we can identify the particular occasion or event that prompted the text’s creation at the particular time it was created. When considering the setting in terms of rhetorical analysis, consider the following:

• Was there a debate about the topic that the author of the text addresses? If so, what are (or were) the various perspectives within that debate?
• Did something specific occur that motivated the author to speak out?

Example of Setting Analysis for the Rhetorical Situation (Kamala Harris’s VP Acceptance Speech)

The occasion of Kamala Harris giving this speech was the confirmation that Joe Biden had won enough electoral college votes to be considered the winner of the election. While it is customary for the President-elect to make an acceptance speech, it is less common for a Vice-President-elect to do so. However, given the historical significance of Harris’s election, millions of people wanted to hear from her.

The purpose of a text blends the author with the setting and the audience. Looking at a text’s purpose means looking at the author’s motivations for creating it. The author has decided to start a conversation or join one that is already underway. Why have they decided to join in? In any text, the author may be trying to inform, to convince, to define, to announce, or to activate a debate or discussion. When determining rhetorical purpose, consider the following in regard to the author:

• What is the author hoping to achieve with this text?
• Why did the author decide to join the conversation about the topic?
• What does the author want from their audience? What does the author want the audience to do once the text is communicated?

Harris’s purpose in this speech was to set the tone for the Biden presidency, to acknowledge the hardships many had been enduring, and to attempt to unite the country and prepare it for moving forward with peaceful acceptance.

When analyzing the rhetorical situation of a given text, it is important to consider the format, or medium, in which the text is being made. If you are analyzing an image for rhetorical context, elements such as shading, color, and placement are part of the argument being presented. Other forms of media that a text might take include a written essay, speech, song, protest sign, meme, or sculpture. When examining the rhetorical situation of a text’s medium, ask yourself the following:

• What is gained by having a text composed in a particular format/medium?
• What limitations does that format/medium have?
• What opportunities for expression does that format/medium have (that perhaps other formats do not have?)

Example of Text Analysis for the Rhetorical Situation (Kamala Harris’s VP Acceptance Speech)

Acceptance speeches are intended to celebrate victories while uniting across political lines. While the tone may be formal, oftentimes candidates use this opportunity to express gratitude. Given that they are broadcast internationally, there are two ways to examine the text: the written form and the spoken word.

A Note About Audience

What is the difference between an audience and a reader? Thinking about audience can be a bit tricky. Your audience is the person or group that you intend to reach with your writing. We sometimes call this the intended audience – the group of people to whom a text is intentionally directed. But any text likely also has an unintended audience, a reader (or readers) who read it even without being the intended recipient. The reader might be the person you have in mind as you write, the audience you’re trying to reach, but they might be some random person you’ve never thought of a day in your life. You can’t always know much about random readers, but you should have some understanding of who your audience is. It’s the audience that you want to focus on as you shape your message.

This section contains material from:

Jeffrey, Robin, and Emilie Zickel. “What is the Rhetorical Situation?” In A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing , by Melanie Gagich and Emilie Zickel. Cleveland: MSL Academic Endeavors. Accessed July 2019. https://pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/csu-fyw-rhetoric/chapter/rhetorical-situation-the-context/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

OER credited in the text above include:

Burnell, Carol, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear. The Word on College Reading and Writing . Open Oregon Educational Resources. Accessed December 18, 2020. https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/wrd/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License .

Jeffrey, Robin. About Writing: A Guide . Portland, OR: Open Oregon Educational Resources. Accessed December 18, 2020. https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/aboutwriting/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

• Kamala Harris, “Vice Presidential Acceptance Speech,” speech, Wilmington, Delaware, November 7, 2020, in “Read Kamala Harris’s Vice President-Elect Acceptance Speech,” by Matt Stevens, New York Times , November 8, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/article/watch-kamala-harris-speech-video-transcript.html ↵

A classical Greek philosopher and orator who lived from 384-322 B.C. A student of Plato, he is known for creating his own branch of philosophy known as Aristotelianism which is based on the use of inductive reasoning and deductive logic in order to study nature and natural law. Aristotle also wrote on various subjects including biology, physics, ethics, poetry, politics, linguistics, mathematics, and rhetoric. Aristotle’s rhetorical triangle is based on ethos, pathos, and logos and is considered the basis for understanding the rhetorical situation.

To occupy or attract the attention of someone or something.

A receiver or beneficiary.

Taking something for granted; an expected result; to be predisposed towards a certain outcome.

The set of circumstances that frame a particular idea or argument; the background information that is necessary for an audience to know about in order to understand why or how a text was written or produced.

The person who currently holds an office or position. The term is usually associated with political office.

Involving deception, dishonesty, or duplicity.

Someone or something that allows something tangible, such as money, or intangible, such as ideas, to go from one place to another; can also indirectly refer to a catalyst for change.

3.3 What is the Rhetorical Situation? Copyright © 2022 by Robin Jeffrey; Emilie Zickel; and Terri Pantuso is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Rhetorical Analysis

Almost every text makes an argument. Rhetorical analysis is the process of evaluating elements of a text and determining how those elements impact the success or failure of that argument. Often rhetorical analyses address written arguments, but visual, oral, or other kinds of “texts” can also be analyzed. 

Rhetorical Features—What to Analyze

Asking the right questions about how a text is constructed will help you determine the focus of your rhetorical analysis. A good rhetorical analysis does not try to address every element of a text; discuss just those aspects with the greatest [positive or negative] impact on the text’s effectiveness. 

The Rhetorical Situation

Remember that no text exists in a vacuum. The rhetorical situation of a text refers to the context in which it is written and read, the audience to whom it is directed, and the purpose of the writer. 

The Rhetorical Appeals

A writer makes many strategic decisions when attempting to persuade an audience. Considering the following rhetorical appeals will help you understand some of these strategies and their effect on an argument. Generally, writers should incorporate a variety of different rhetorical appeals rather than relying on only one kind. 

Ethos (appeal to the writer’s credibility)

• What is the writer’s purpose (to argue, explain, teach, defend, call to action, etc.)?
• Do you trust the writer? Why?
• Is the writer an authority on the subject? What credentials does the writer have?
• Does the writer address other viewpoints?
• How does the writer’s word choice or tone affect how you view the writer?

Pathos (appeal to emotion or to an audience’s values or beliefs)

• Who is the target audience for the argument?
• How is the writer trying to make the audience feel (i.e., sad, happy, angry, guilty)?
• Is the writer making any assumptions about the background, knowledge, values, etc. of the audience?

Logos (appeal to logic)

• Is the writer’s evidence relevant to the purpose of the argument? Is the evidence current (if applicable)? Does the writer use a variety of sources to support the argument?
• What kind of evidence is used (i.e., expert testimony, statistics, proven facts)?
• Do the writer’s points build logically upon each other?
• Where in the text is the main argument stated? How does that placement affect the success of the argument?
• Does the writer’s thesis make that purpose clear?

Kairos (appeal to timeliness)

• When was the argument originally presented?
• Where was the argument originally presented?
• What circumstances may have motivated the argument?
• Does the particular time or situation in which this text is written make it more compelling or persuasive?
• What would an audience at this particular time understand about this argument?

Writing a Rhetorical Analysis Essay

No matter the kind of text you are analyzing, remember that the text’s subject matter is never the focus of a rhetorical analysis. The most common error writers make when writing rhetorical analyses is to address the topic or opinion expressed by an author instead of focusing on how that author constructs an argument.

You must read and study a text critically in order to distinguish its rhetorical elements and strategies from its content or message. By identifying and understanding how audiences are persuaded, you become more proficient at constructing your own arguments and in resisting faulty arguments made by others.

A thesis for a rhetorical analysis does not address the content of the writer’s argument. Instead, the thesis should be a statement about specific rhetorical strategies the writer uses and whether or not they make a convincing argument.

Incorrect: Smith’s editorial promotes the establishment of more green space in the Atlanta area through the planting of more trees along major roads.

This statement is summarizing the meaning and purpose of Smith’s writing rather than making an argument about how – and how effectively – Smith presents and defends his position.

Correct: Through the use of vivid description and testimony from affected citizens, Smith makes a powerful argument for establishing more green space in the Atlanta area.

Correct: Although Smith’s editorial includes vivid descriptions of the destruction of green space in the Atlanta area, his argument will not convince his readers because his claim is not backed up with factual evidence.

These statements are both focused on how Smith argues, and both make a claim about the effectiveness of his argument that can be defended throughout the paper with examples from Smith’s text.

Introduction

The introduction should name the author and the title of the work you are analyzing. Providing any relevant background information about the text and state your thesis (see above). Resist the urge to delve into the topic of the text and stay focused on the rhetorical strategies being used.

Summary of argument

Include a short summary of the argument you are analyzing so readers not familiar with the text can understand your claims and have context for the examples you provide.

The body of your essay discusses and evaluates the rhetorical strategies (elements of the rhetorical situation and rhetorical appeals – see above) that make the argument effective or not. Be certain to provide specific examples from the text for each strategy you discuss and focus on those strategies that are most important to the text you are analyzing. Your essay should follow a logical organization plan that your reader can easily follow.

Go beyond restating your thesis; comment on the effect or significance of the entire essay. Make a statement about how important rhetorical strategies are in determining the effectiveness of an argument or text.

Analyzing Visual Arguments

The same rhetorical elements and appeals used to analyze written texts also apply to visual arguments. Additionally, analyzing a visual text requires an understanding of how design elements work together to create certain persuasive effects (or not). Consider how elements such as image selection, color, use of space, graphics, layout, or typeface influence an audience’s reaction to the argument that the visual was designed to convey.

This material was developed by the KSU Writing Center and is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License . All materials created by the KSU Writing Center are free to use and can be adopted, remixed, and shared at will as long as the materials are attributed. Please keep this information on materials you adapt or adopt for attribution purposes. 

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9.5 Writing Process: Thinking Critically about Rhetoric

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Develop a rhetorical analysis through multiple drafts.
• Identify and analyze rhetorical strategies in a rhetorical analysis.
• Demonstrate flexible strategies for generating ideas, drafting, reviewing, collaborating, revising, rewriting, and editing.
• Give and act on productive feedback for works in progress.

The ability to think critically about rhetoric is a skill you will use in many of your classes, in your work, and in your life to gain insight from the way a text is written and organized. You will often be asked to explain or to express an opinion about what someone else has communicated and how that person has done so, especially if you take an active interest in politics and government. Like Eliana Evans in the previous section, you will develop similar analyses of written works to help others understand how a writer or speaker may be trying to reach them.

Summary of Assignment: Rhetorical Analysis

The assignment is to write a rhetorical analysis of a piece of persuasive writing. It can be an editorial, a movie or book review, an essay, a chapter in a book, or a letter to the editor. For your rhetorical analysis, you will need to consider the rhetorical situation—subject, author, purpose, context, audience, and culture—and the strategies the author uses in creating the argument. Back up all your claims with evidence from the text. In preparing your analysis, consider these questions:

• What is the subject? Be sure to distinguish what the piece is about.
• Who is the writer, and what do you know about them? Be sure you know whether the writer is considered objective or has a particular agenda.
• Who are the readers? What do you know or what can you find out about them as the particular audience to be addressed at this moment?
• What is the purpose or aim of this work? What does the author hope to achieve?
• What are the time/space/place considerations and influences of the writer? What can you know about the writer and the full context in which they are writing?
• What specific techniques has the writer used to make their points? Are these techniques successful, unsuccessful, or questionable?

For this assignment, read the following opinion piece by Octavio Peterson, printed in his local newspaper. You may choose it as the text you will analyze, continuing the analysis on your own, or you may refer to it as a sample as you work on another text of your choosing. Your instructor may suggest presidential or other political speeches, which make good subjects for rhetorical analysis.

When you have read the piece by Peterson advocating for the need to continue teaching foreign languages in schools, reflect carefully on the impact the letter has had on you. You are not expected to agree or disagree with it. Instead, focus on the rhetoric—the way Peterson uses language to make his point and convince you of the validity of his argument.

Another Lens. Consider presenting your rhetorical analysis in a multimodal format. Use a blogging site or platform such as WordPress or Tumblr to explore the blogging genre, which includes video clips, images, hyperlinks, and other media to further your discussion. Because this genre is less formal than written text, your tone can be conversational. However, you still will be required to provide the same kind of analysis that you would in a traditional essay. The same materials will be at your disposal for making appeals to persuade your readers. Rhetorical analysis in a blog may be a new forum for the exchange of ideas that retains the basics of more formal communication. When you have completed your work, share it with a small group or the rest of the class. See Multimodal and Online Writing: Creative Interaction between Text and Image for more about creating a multimodal composition.

Quick Launch: Start with a Thesis Statement

After you have read this opinion piece, or another of your choice, several times and have a clear understanding of it as a piece of rhetoric, consider whether the writer has succeeded in being persuasive. You might find that in some ways they have and in others they have not. Then, with a clear understanding of your purpose—to analyze how the writer seeks to persuade—you can start framing a thesis statement : a declarative sentence that states the topic, the angle you are taking, and the aspects of the topic the rest of the paper will support.

Complete the following sentence frames as you prepare to start:

• The subject of my rhetorical analysis is ________.
• My goal is to ________, not necessarily to ________.
• The writer’s main point is ________.
• I believe the writer has succeeded (or not) because ________.
• I believe the writer has succeeded in ________ (name the part or parts) but not in ________ (name the part or parts).
• The writer’s strongest (or weakest) point is ________, which they present by ________.

Drafting: Text Evidence and Analysis of Effect

As you begin to draft your rhetorical analysis, remember that you are giving your opinion on the author’s use of language. For example, Peterson has made a decision about the teaching of foreign languages, something readers of the newspaper might have different views on. In other words, there is room for debate and persuasion.

The context of the situation in which Peterson finds himself may well be more complex than he discusses. In the same way, the context of the piece you choose to analyze may also be more complex. For example, perhaps Greendale is facing an economic crisis and must pare its budget for educational spending and public works. It’s also possible that elected officials have made budget cuts for education a part of their platform or that school buildings have been found obsolete for safety measures. On the other hand, maybe a foreign company will come to town only if more Spanish speakers can be found locally. These factors would play a part in a real situation, and rhetoric would reflect that. If applicable, consider such possibilities regarding the subject of your analysis. Here, however, these factors are unknown and thus do not enter into the analysis.

Introduction

One effective way to begin a rhetorical analysis is by using an anecdote, as Eliana Evans has done. For a rhetorical analysis of the opinion piece, a writer might consider an anecdote about a person who was in a situation in which knowing another language was important or not important. If they begin with an anecdote, the next part of the introduction should contain the following information:

• Author’s name and position, or other qualification to establish ethos
• Title of work and genre
• Author’s thesis statement or stance taken (“Peterson argues that . . .”)
• Brief introductory explanation of how the author develops and supports the thesis or stance
• If relevant, a brief summary of context and culture

Once the context and situation for the analysis are clear, move directly to your thesis statement. In this case, your thesis statement will be your opinion of how successful the author has been in achieving the established goal through the use of rhetorical strategies. Read the sentences in Table 9.1 , and decide which would make the best thesis statement. Explain your reasoning in the right-hand column of this or a similar chart.

The introductory paragraph or paragraphs should serve to move the reader into the body of the analysis and signal what will follow.

Your next step is to start supporting your thesis statement—that is, how Octavio Peterson, or the writer of your choice, does or does not succeed in persuading readers. To accomplish this purpose, you need to look closely at the rhetorical strategies the writer uses.

First, list the rhetorical strategies you notice while reading the text, and note where they appear. Keep in mind that you do not need to include every strategy the text contains, only those essential ones that emphasize or support the central argument and those that may seem fallacious. You may add other strategies as well. The first example in Table 9.2 has been filled in.

When you have completed your list, consider how to structure your analysis. You will have to decide which of the writer’s statements are most effective. The strongest point would be a good place to begin; conversely, you could begin with the writer’s weakest point if that suits your purposes better. The most obvious organizational structure is one of the following:

• Go through the composition paragraph by paragraph and analyze its rhetorical content, focusing on the strategies that support the writer’s thesis statement.
• Address key rhetorical strategies individually, and show how the author has used them.

As you read the next few paragraphs, consult Table 9.3 for a visual plan of your rhetorical analysis. Your first body paragraph is the first of the analytical paragraphs. Here, too, you have options for organizing. You might begin by stating the writer’s strongest point. For example, you could emphasize that Peterson appeals to ethos by speaking personally to readers as fellow citizens and providing his credentials to establish credibility as someone trustworthy with their interests at heart.

Following this point, your next one can focus, for instance, on Peterson’s view that cutting foreign language instruction is a danger to the education of Greendale’s children. The points that follow support this argument, and you can track his rhetoric as he does so.

You may then use the second or third body paragraph, connected by a transition, to discuss Peterson’s appeal to logos. One possible transition might read, “To back up his assertion that omitting foreign languages is detrimental to education, Peterson provides examples and statistics.” Locate examples and quotes from the text as needed. You can discuss how, in citing these statistics, Peterson uses logos as a key rhetorical strategy.

In another paragraph, focus on other rhetorical elements, such as parallelism, repetition, and rhetorical questions. Moreover, be sure to indicate whether the writer acknowledges counterclaims and whether they are accepted or ultimately rejected.

The question of other factors at work in Greendale regarding finances, or similar factors in another setting, may be useful to mention here if they exist. As you continue, however, keep returning to your list of rhetorical strategies and explaining them. Even if some appear less important, they should be noted to show that you recognize how the writer is using language. You will likely have a minimum of four body paragraphs, but you may well have six or seven or even more, depending on the work you are analyzing.

In your final body paragraph, you might discuss the argument that Peterson, for example, has made by appealing to readers’ emotions. His calls for solidarity at the end of the letter provide a possible solution to his concern that the foreign language curriculum “might vanish like a puff of smoke.”

Use Table 9.3 to organize your rhetorical analysis. Be sure that each paragraph has a topic sentence and that you use transitions to flow smoothly from one idea to the next.

As you conclude your essay, your own logic in discussing the writer’s argument will make it clear whether you have found their claims convincing. Your opinion, as framed in your conclusion, may restate your thesis statement in different words, or you may choose to reveal your thesis at this point. The real function of the conclusion is to confirm your evaluation and show that you understand the use of the language and the effectiveness of the argument.

In your analysis, note that objections could be raised because Peterson, for example, speaks only for himself. You may speculate about whether the next edition of the newspaper will feature an opposing opinion piece from someone who disagrees. However, it is not necessary to provide answers to questions you raise here. Your conclusion should summarize briefly how the writer has made, or failed to make, a forceful argument that may require further debate.

For more guidance on writing a rhetorical analysis, visit the Illinois Writers Workshop website or watch this tutorial .

Peer Review: Guidelines toward Revision and the “Golden Rule”

Now that you have a working draft, your next step is to engage in peer review, an important part of the writing process. Often, others can identify things you have missed or can ask you to clarify statements that may be clear to you but not to others. For your peer review, follow these steps and make use of Table 9.4 .

• Quickly skim through your peer’s rhetorical analysis draft once, and then ask yourself, What is the main point or argument of my peer’s work?
• Highlight, underline, or otherwise make note of statements or instances in the paper where you think your peer has made their main point.
• Look at the draft again, this time reading it closely.
• Ask yourself the following questions, and comment on the peer review sheet as shown.

The Golden Rule

An important part of the peer review process is to keep in mind the familiar wisdom of the “Golden Rule”: treat others as you would have them treat you. This foundational approach to human relations extends to commenting on others’ work. Like your peers, you are in the same situation of needing opinion and guidance. Whatever you have written will seem satisfactory or better to you because you have written it and know what you mean to say.

However, your peers have the advantage of distance from the work you have written and can see it through their own eyes. Likewise, if you approach your peer’s work fairly and free of personal bias, you’re likely to be more constructive in finding parts of their writing that need revision. Most important, though, is to make suggestions tactfully and considerately, in the spirit of helping, not degrading someone’s work. You and your peers may be reluctant to share your work, but if everyone approaches the review process with these ideas in mind, everyone will benefit from the opportunity to provide and act on sincerely offered suggestions.

Revising: Staying Open to Feedback and Working with It

Once the peer review process is complete, your next step is to revise the first draft by incorporating suggestions and making changes on your own. Consider some of these potential issues when incorporating peers’ revisions and rethinking your own work.

• Too much summarizing rather than analyzing
• Too much informal language or an unintentional mix of casual and formal language
• Too few, too many, or inappropriate transitions
• Illogical or unclear sequence of information
• Insufficient evidence to support main ideas effectively
• Too many generalities rather than specific facts, maybe from trying to do too much in too little time

In any case, revising a draft is a necessary step to produce a final work. Rarely will even a professional writer arrive at the best point in a single draft. In other words, it’s seldom a problem if your first draft needs refocusing. However, it may become a problem if you don’t address it. The best way to shape a wandering piece of writing is to return to it, reread it, slow it down, take it apart, and build it back up again. Approach first-draft writing for what it is: a warm-up or rehearsal for a final performance.

Suggestions for Revising

When revising, be sure your thesis statement is clear and fulfills your purpose. Verify that you have abundant supporting evidence and that details are consistently on topic and relevant to your position. Just before arriving at the conclusion, be sure you have prepared a logical ending. The concluding statement should be strong and should not present any new points. Rather, it should grow out of what has already been said and return, in some degree, to the thesis statement. In the example of Octavio Peterson, his purpose was to persuade readers that teaching foreign languages in schools in Greendale should continue; therefore, the conclusion can confirm that Peterson achieved, did not achieve, or partially achieved his aim.

When revising, make sure the larger elements of the piece are as you want them to be before you revise individual sentences and make smaller changes. If you make small changes first, they might not fit well with the big picture later on.

One approach to big-picture revising is to check the organization as you move from paragraph to paragraph. You can list each paragraph and check that its content relates to the purpose and thesis statement. Each paragraph should have one main point and be self-contained in showing how the rhetorical devices used in the text strengthen (or fail to strengthen) the argument and the writer’s ability to persuade. Be sure your paragraphs flow logically from one to the other without distracting gaps or inconsistencies.

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III. Rhetorical Situation

3.4 What is the Rhetorical Situation?

Robin Jeffrey; Emilie Zickel; Terri Pantuso; Kalani Pattison; and Sarah LeMire

A key component of rhetorical analysis involves thinking carefully about the rhetorical situation of a text. You can think of the rhetorical situation as the context or set of circumstances out of which a text arises. Any time anyone is trying to make an argument, one is doing so out of a particular context, one that influences and shapes the argument that is being made. When we do a rhetorical analysis, we look carefully at how the rhetorical situation (context) shapes the rhetorical act (the text). In addition, when you set down to compose a text, you should consider the various elements of rhetorical situation as they apply to your own work in order to help you make the best rhetorical choices to write and communicate effectively.

We can understand the concept of a rhetorical situation if we examine it piece by piece, by looking carefully at the rhetorical concepts from which it is built. The philosopher Aristotle organized these concepts as purpose, author, setting, text, and audience. Answering the questions about these rhetorical concepts below will give you a good sense of your text’s rhetorical situation – the starting point for rhetorical analysis.

You may have learned about rhetorical situation in previous course work or reading, though the particular aspects addressed may be slightly different. Though these five aspects of rhetorical situation are some of the most traditional in Western discussions of rhetoric, rhetorical situation itself is a little like a pizza — it can be cut into eight slices, six slices, triangles, or squares, but it is still the same pizza. Different discussions of rhetorical situation may use different divisions, and may combine some aspects and split others, but they are all generally referring to the same concepts. For the purposes of this course and textbook, one easy way to remember the 5 parts of rhetorical situation is to think of PASTA:

We will use the example of T-Mobile’s 2023 Super Bowl ad [1] to sift through these questions about the rhetorical situation (context).  The video of this advertisement is included below.

Looking at a text’s purpose means looking at both the occasion or exigence — what motivated the author to write the text in the first place — and the telos — the end goal or what the author hoped to accomplish with the text. Of course, you may not be able to know why an author created a text, but understanding the author’s motivations for creating it may give you insight and understanding.

Purpose is impossible to really understand without taking into account the author, the setting, and the audience and their relations to each other. When an author creates a text, they have decided to start a conversation or join one that is already underway. Why have they decided to join in? In any text, the author may be trying to inform, to convince, to define, to announce, or to activate a debate or discussion. When determining rhetorical purpose, consider the following in regard to the author:

• What is the author hoping to achieve with this text?
• Why did the author decide to join the conversation about the topic?
• What does the author want from their audience? What does the author want the audience to do once the text is communicated?

When you write your own texts, you may be prompted by wide ranging exigencies of needing to fulfill the course requirements, to respond to an email that someone has sent, to complain about a broken product received in the mail, or any number of other specific situations. You may also have multiple  tele  (plural of telos) for a single text. For instance, your text may both have the purpose of receiving a good grade on an assignment and persuading your classmates to see your point of view about a specific topic. Taking a moment to identify your own  telos to yourself will help you stay focused in your construction of your texts.

The exigence or occasion was the need to advertise a new service, home internet, to a broad audience during Super Bowl LVII. The author’s telos in this advertisement was to convince viewers to purchase home internet from T-Mobile.

The author of a text is the creator – the person who is communicating in order to try to effect a change in their audience. An author doesn’t have to be a single person or a person at all – an author could be an organization. To understand the rhetorical situation of a text, one must examine the identity of the author and their background. The relationship between the author and the audience and the relationship between the author and the content are both important to take into consideration.

• What kind of experience or authority does the author have in the subject about which they are speaking?
• What values does the author have, either in general or with regard to this particular subject?
• How invested is the author in the topic of the text? In other words, what affects the author’s perspective on the topic?

When you write your own texts, consider not only who you are as the author and how your identity may shape your text and tone, but also what aspects of your identity you may need to convey to your audience. For instance, if you have personal experience with or some kind of expertise about a topic, do you need to convey that experience or expertise to the audience in order to increase your persuasiveness? What might be the most effective ways of communicating that information? The ways in which you establish your identity as someone who is trustworthy is known as ethos and will be discussed in more depth in another section. In addition, you need to consider your relationship with your intended audience — are you friendly or antagonistic? Is one of you in a supervisory position over the other? Your identity in relation to your audience will affect what types of evidence are most persuasive and the tone you choose among other things.

Example of Author Analysis for the Rhetorical Situation (T-Mobile Advertisement)

The author of this advertisement is T-Mobile’s marketing firm.  T-Mobile is a well known international provider of cellular phone services, though at the time that this advertisement first aired, it was not well known as a provider of home internet.

Nothing happens in a vacuum, and that includes the creation of any text. Essays, speeches, photos, political ads – any texts – are written in a specific time and/or place, all of which can affect the way the text communicates its message. One way to think about setting is to examine both place and time (both Chronos — actual linear time– and Kairos — timeliness). Looking at Setting can also overlap with Purpose and the occasion or exigence of a text.

Looking at the Place of a text means pay attention to location in both a literal and figurative manner. For instance, texts created in different countries will need to follow different cultural and linguistic expectations for structure and evidence. In some places in the world, argument from authority is seen as very convincing, but in the United States, such evidence is seen as weak or even fallacious.

In addition to “where in the world” is the text constructed and expected to be read, the location of a text might refer to the medium or place of publication. How might a text publish online on a blog be understood or read differently than a text in a printed magazine? What different expectations for the text are reflected in place?

Just as with place, there is both a literal and figurative understanding of time when considering rhetorical situation. In literal/linear time, or  chronos , when a text was written and the history/culture of the time matter when understanding a text. For instance, the address to the legislature of New York by Elizabeth Cady Stanton on the rights of married women in February of 1854 [2] is much more understandable and conveys more nuance if the audience understands the laws restricting the various classes, races, and genders at the time and the intersection of the history of civil rights for women and African Americans. Similarly, knowledge of the 1950s and 1960s civil rights fight makes Martin Luther King’s writings and speeches more powerful and convincing.

In addition to linear/chronological time, the setting of a text also refers to the text figurative time, or “timeliness.” The term kairos is an ancient Greek word that, in rhetoric, refers to the notion that timing can impact the effectiveness of a message. For a message to be received effectively, the recipient has to be ready and able to receive the message. However, many factors can impede a recipient’s ability to receive a message. They may be distracted by other issues, experiencing strong emotions, or just be too busy to hear the message. While any individual may not be able to receive a message at a given point of time, to be effective, a speaker should consider factors that could prevent many of their intended recipients from receiving their message.

It is important to note that kairos is not about censorship or freedom of speech. It doesn’t mean that a speaker is prevented from speaking. Have you ever tried to tell a friend something when they’re distracted by something else? For example, if you’re chatting with a friend while they’re driving, they may lose their focus on the conversation for a few minutes while navigating heavy traffic. Kairos is about timing that message so you speak when your friend is ready to listen; you might pause the conversation until traffic becomes lighter.

Kairos is easy to observe in commercial speech. You don’t see advertisers putting out school supply ads in November or April. Instead, they wait and advertise their wares in July and August when parents are thinking about purchasing supplies for back to school. Similarly, marketers don’t wait to sell Super Bowl T-shirts two months after the game ends. Instead, they famously print sets of T-shirts featuring each team. They recognize that fans are most likely to part with dollars for apparel immediately following the game, so they make sure they’re ready to capitalize on the moment no matter which team wins.

When a speaker doesn’t take kairos into consideration, their message may not be received effectively by the recipient. An example of this is Cinnabon’s Twitter message about Carrie Fisher back in 2016. [3] . Although the message is, on the surface, a tribute to Carrie Fisher and her iconic portrayal of Princess Leia in the Star Wars films, there is also a secondary purpose. Cinnabon is a commercial entity. Its Twitter account is primarily promotional; it is intended to persuade potential consumers to buy one of its cinnamon rolls.

So why is this message ineffective? Viewing the tweet with the distance of several years, recipients may not immediately recognize why this tweet was received with outrage. The tweet, dated December 27, 2016, was made on the same day that Fisher died. Many viewers of the ad were in shock, mourning the sudden loss of a favorite movie star. The timing of the tweet led the message’s intended recipients, potential Cinnabon customers, to view the message as exploitative and insensitive rather than a humorous tribute.

Had Cinnabon released the same message at another point in time, perhaps to coincide with a Star Wars movie release, it may have been received differently. This same message may have been received as a nostalgic tribute and an effective marketing moment. But, because Cinnabon did not adequately consider the timing of the message, they instead deleted the tweet and issued an apology for the message.

When considering the timing of your message, ask yourself:

• How will my audience be likely to receive this message?
• Are there problems with the timing of this message?
• Is there a better time to convey this message effectively?

Application

When considering the setting in terms of rhetorical analysis, consider the following:

• Where was the text? Where was it expected to be read? What aspects of location might affect or influence the meaning of the text?
• In what place is the text found? What medium or genre or publication? How might these aspects of setting influence the expectations or conventions of the text?
• What context, historically speaking, needs to be known to understand the arguments being made? What historical information is helpful in understanding the occassion or exigence of the text?
• Was there a debate about the topic that the author of the text addresses? If so, what are (or were) the various perspectives within that debate?
• Did something specific occur that motivated the author to speak out?
• How is the text timely (or not), taking into account the  kairos of the situation?

When you are writing your own texts, remember to pay attention to the events in the world around you — consider not only what may prompt your own writing, but also how current events will influence the way your audience understands your text. Consider the place — are you writing an essay, an email, an instagram post, or a chat? Where is your audience? Will their location in the world or different cultural background affect how they receive your text? Are there current events than mean your text needs to be distributed at a specific time or not be distributed at a particular point in time? Remember that paying attention to rhetorical situation is not meant to determine what you “can and can’t” say, but meant to help you determine how to make your text accomplish your purpose in the most effective way.

Example of Setting Analysis for the Rhetorical Situation (T-Mobile)

This advertisement aired during Super Bowl LVII.  The Super Bowl, which is the annual championship game of the National Football League, is well known for its advertisements in addition to its halftime show (and the game itself).  Due to its large number of viewers, airtime during the Super Bowl is well known to be extremely expensive.  Marketers often prepare for the event by developing new, highly polished advertising campaigns  intended to capture viewers’ attention. The kairos of the advertisement comes from T-Mobile’s capitalizing on a major marketing opportunity (the Super Bowl) to launch its new service, home internet.

In addition, the advertisement draws on knowledge of the movie Grease and its actors. The movie came out in 1978, and this ad was aired 45 years later. The popularity of the original movie, especially among teens and young adults, lasted for years after the release. Therefore, most of the original audience of Grease (and the actors) would now be middle aged.  T-Mobile was savvy in choosing a film that evoke a nostalgic reaction from their target market.

When analyzing the rhetorical situation of a given text, it is important to consider the format, or medium, in which the text is being made. If you are analyzing an image for rhetorical situation, elements such as shading, color, and placement are part of the argument being presented. Other forms of media that a text might take include a written essay, speech, song, protest sign, meme, or sculpture. Visual elements apply to papers as well, of course — typeface (font) choice, design and formatting, etc. can influence the first impression that a text gives the reader and affect how they understand the ethos or credibility of the author.

In addition to medium or form, examining the text may mean looking at the tone, the register of the language used (the formality/informality of the word choice and formatting), style, organization, etc. Examining the text as part of rhetorical situation can include word choice, such as whether or not the text uses contractions (such as isn’t rather than is not) or whether the text uses second person pronouns (you) or local slang (y’all, fixing to).

When examining the rhetorical situation of a text’s medium and style, ask yourself the following:

• What is gained by having a text composed in a particular format/medium?
• What expectations of genre/medium does the text meet or not meet?
• What limitations does that format/medium have?
• What opportunities for expression does that format/medium have (that perhaps other formats do not have?)
• How does the language used affect the audience’s understanding of the text? What is the register of the word choice? What style and organization choices were made and how do they affect the presentation of the text as a whole?

When composing your own text, take the time to make sure you understand the conventions and expectations of the medium or form you plan to use. Using the appropriate tone and formality for the situation is one part of attention to the rhetorical situation of the text. The second part means paying attention to other details.  For instance, if you are writing an email to a potential employer, you may want to make sure you follow conventions of professional email — short paragraphs, extra space between paragraphs, but no first-line indents, and an email signature on the bottom. If you are recording a video presentation, you might consider the level of transitions, design, etc. that are appropriate for the situation. You might also consider the conventions for accessibility such as captions or subtitles for videos or alt-text for images on a web page or PDF.

Example of Text Analysis for the Rhetorical Situation (T-Mobile Advertisement)

Advertisements are intended to persuade viewers. Television advertisements are inherently multimodal — using visuals, words, and sounds to convey their text. Analysis of the text of this ad would need to include the words of the song, the tune, the stage setting of the neighborhood in the background, the costuming choices, the dance moves, and even some of Travolta’s facial expressions.  Because they have little time to connect with viewers, advertisements often will use repetition, jingles, popular songs or versions of popular tunes, familiar symbols or references to cultural commonalities, and other devices in order to help their message stick in the viewer’s mind.  Although the tone of an advertisement can be serious, this one is funny and nostalgic in order to connect with viewers’ emotions. The nostalgia also serves to make something new and strange (like a cellular phone company providing home internet) seem more familiar.

In any text, an author is attempting to engage an audience. Before we can analyze how effectively an author engages an audience, we must spend some time thinking about that audience. An audience is any person or group who is the recipient of the text. In addition to audience engagement, analysis of a text’s audience will help you identify what level of knowledge the audience is expected to have, the attitude or position of the audience toward the topic, and the reasoning behind some of the author’s rhetorical moves. In addition, understanding the intended audience of a text can help you determine if you are a part of that intended audience or not.

In addition to evidence from within the text itself, audience can also be determined based on the setting of the text (where was it published? What to other texts are connected to it, and what do they together reveal about the evidence?) and the purpose of the text (what is the author trying to accomplish? And who would be in a position to make a difference?).

Three Audiences

Any text has potentially at least three audiences, though the some of these audiences may be the same. The audience may be

• The intended audience — who the author meant to read the text. As mentioned above, whom the text is written for can often be determined by understanding the setting and purpose of a text. For instance, Informed Arguments as a textbook is intended to be read by students, instructors, textbook reviewers, and course designers.
• The implied audience — who the text seems to be addressing in the text. This is often more evident in literary texts, where, for instance, a poet may be addressing a lover, though the intended audience is the readers of the book rather than an actual lover. In non-literary texts, however, an implied audience is often indicated by the use of the second-person. Oftentimes the intended and implied audiences overlap, but are not identical. This textbook, for instance, has an implied audience of students in a rhetoric and composition course, though the intended audience is a bit broader. One of the indicators of the implied audience is the use of “you” and the imperative mood (commands).
• The actual audience — who actually reads the text. In many cases, a text may move beyond the intended audience and the implied audience and be read by people whom the author may not expect. This is particularly true of older texts — as authors can’t really predict how culture and history will unfold, there is a good chance, for instance, that things considered common knowledge in the past may need more explanation now. If you are a part of the actual audience of a text, but not part of the intended audience, you may need to do slightly more work and perhaps background research to understand the text more fully.

Sometimes all three audiences are the same — for instance, if you receive an email, there is a good chance you are the intended, implied, and actual audience. Other times, however, considering these three aspects of audience and their relationships can lead to insights into the interpretation of a text’s meaning and an understanding of the text’s effectiveness.

To understand the rhetorical situation of a text, one must examine who the audience is by thinking about these things:

• Who is the author addressing? Sometimes this is the hardest question of all. We can get this information of who the author is addressing by looking at where an article is published. Be sure to pay attention to the newspaper, magazine, website, or journal title where the text is published. Often, you can research that publication to get a good sense of who reads it.
• What is the audience’s demographic information (age, gender, etc.)?
• What is/are the background, values, interests of the intended audience?
• How open is this intended audience to the author?
• What assumptions might the audience make about the author?
• In what context is the audience receiving the text?

When you are preparing to compose your own text, thinking about audience can be a bit tricky. As discussed above, in one sense, your audience is the person or group that you intend to reach with your writing. However, again, any text likely also has an unintended actual audience, a reader (or readers) who read it even without being the intended recipient. The actual audience or reader might be the person you have in mind as you write, the audience you’re trying to reach, but they might be some random person you’ve never thought of a day in your life. You can’t always know much about random readers, but you should have some understanding of who your audience is. It’s the audience that you want to focus on as you shape your message. The audience works in tandem with the other elements of rhetorical situation to shape the choices you make for the most effective text to convey your message and achieve your purpose.

Example of Audience Analysis for the Rhetorical Situation (T-Mobile Advertisement)

T-Mobile was addressing Super Bowl viewers during this advertisement; the ad was broadcast nationally on Fox.  However, it is important to note that T-Mobile’s audience was actually even broader; they shared the ad on YouTube before, during, and after the Super Bowl event, ensuring that the ad was able to reach an international audience as well.

When considering who, within that general audience, T-Mobile was specifically appealing to, you may consider the details of the advertisement.  What pop culture references are they making?  Would Grease references and John Travolta be as recognizable to a teenager as they would to a Gen Xer?  What about the other famous faces in the ad?  Would a Baby Boomer be as likely to recognize the stars of Scrubs as a Millennial?  Consider which demographic groups are most likely to be in a decision-making position about home internet. Does it make sense that T-Mobile is appealing to a middle-aged audience?

Practice Activity

This section contains material from:

Jeffrey, Robin, and Emilie Zickel. “What is the Rhetorical Situation?” In A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing , by Melanie Gagich and Emilie Zickel. Cleveland: MSL Academic Endeavors. Accessed July 2019. https://pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/csu-fyw-rhetoric/chapter/rhetorical-situation-the-context/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License . Archival link: https://web.archive.org/web/20201027010031/https://pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/csu-fyw-rhetoric/chapter/rhetorical-situation-the-context/

OER credited in the text above include:

Burnell, Carol, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear. The Word on College Reading and Writing . Open Oregon Educational Resources. Accessed December 18, 2020. https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/wrd/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License . Archival link: https://web.archive.org/web/20230711210420/https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/wrd/

Jeffrey, Robin. About Writing: A Guide . Portland, OR: Open Oregon Educational Resources. Accessed December 18, 2020. https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/aboutwriting/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License . Archival link: https://web.archive.org/web/20230711210756/https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/aboutwriting/

• T-Mobile, "New year. New neighbor 2023 Big Game Day Commercial T-Mobile Home Internet," YouTube video, February 9, 2023, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jSO-Whn2sCQ&t=2s ↵
• https://www.loc.gov/item/55045184/ ↵
• Cinnabon, "RIP Carrie Fisher, you'll always have the best buns in the galaxy," Instagram post, December 27, 2016, post deleted. ↵

A classical Greek philosopher and orator who lived from 384-322 B.C. A student of Plato, he is known for creating his own branch of philosophy known as Aristotelianism which is based on the use of inductive reasoning and deductive logic in order to study nature and natural law. Aristotle also wrote on various subjects including biology, physics, ethics, poetry, politics, linguistics, mathematics, and rhetoric. Aristotle’s rhetorical triangle is based on ethos, pathos, and logos and is considered the basis for understanding the rhetorical situation.

An event -- in rhetoric, the event or occurrence prompting the creation of a text

The urgency of a situation demanding action. In rhetoric, the exigence of a speech or text is the pressing reason or need for the speech or text

The Greek term for end goal/purpose, generally used to discuss the ultimate aim of some act or text

Ethos is a rhetorical appeal that is based on authority or credibility. It can involve the reader evoking their own expertise on a topic or pointing to experts on a topic. Ethos is related to "ethics" and character, in that a speaker or source's reputation determines their credibility. Sometimes ethos-driven appeals can mistakenly rely on false authority; for example, using a celebrity endorsement even though the celebrity has no expertise on the topic. Ethos is one of three types of rhetorical appeals described by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle.

Linear or literal time -- usually in contrast to Kairos.

Time in a less literal sense; timeliness, or time in context with other events and information

To occupy or attract the attention of someone or something.

A receiver or beneficiary.

Taking something for granted; an expected result; to be predisposed towards a certain outcome.

The set of circumstances that frame a particular idea or argument; the background information that is necessary for an audience to know about in order to understand why or how a text was written or produced.

3.4 What is the Rhetorical Situation? Copyright © 2023 by Robin Jeffrey; Emilie Zickel; Terri Pantuso; Kalani Pattison; and Sarah LeMire is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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10.2: Analyzing an Argument's Situation (Kairos, or the Rhetorical Situation)

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We will often begin our analysis of an argument by “situating” it. This means figuring out who the author is, what kind of text we are dealing with, who it is trying to persuade, and when and where it was written. The rhetorical situation  (also called kairos )   is the combination of author, audience, context, purpose, constraints, and genre. It is the situation shaping the text, the situation to which the text responds. 

Key Elements of the Rhetorical Situation

To fully understand an argument, experienced readers ask big-picture questions about the author , the audience they address, the context , the genre of the text, the purpose of the text, and the constraints that shape how it is written.

Who is the author? Where are they coming from? When reading a text ,  take a few minutes to research who the author is. Who are they, what kind of writing do they do, what organizations do they belong to, what is their reputation?

Audience 

In 7.2: Tailoring an Argument to an Audience , we discussed how to shape our own arguments with a particular audience in mind. We analyze an argument, we work backward to infer what the intended audience was. From there, we can also infer how the writer's sense of their audience shaped their choices as they wrote. 

• Who does it appear the author is trying to reach? How does the author address and imagine the audience?
• Is the text aimed at a particular age, gender, cultural background, class, political orientation, or religion, for example? How is the text shaped to target this audience? 
• Does the text also seem to address a secondary audience? 
• Figuring out where the text was published, when it was published, what kind of text it is (speech, op-ed, article, song, etc.), and how it addresses readers can help provide clues to audience.
• Who is likely to find the text important, relevant, or useful? Conversely, who is going to be alienated by the text? Reread the first page and consider what readers have to believe, value, or care about to get past it. Who is likely to set it aside based on something they see at the very beginning?
• Consider style, tone, diction, and vocabulary. What do these tell you about the potential audience for the text? Examine the other authors and works referred to in the text (if there are footnotes or a Works Cited page, look at what is listed there. Just as you can learn a lot about a person by the people around them, you can learn a lot about a text from all the other texts it references). What does the author assume their readers know? What does the author assume about readers’ age, education, gender, location, or cultural values?

What is the author trying to achieve? What does the author want us to do, believe, or understand? All writing has a purpose. We write to bring awareness to a problem, make sense of an experience, call people to action, contribute to an area of knowledge, criticize or defend a position, redefine a concept, complain, clarify, challenge, document, create a beautiful story, and entertain (to name just a few purposes for writing).

As we analyze, we can ask ourselves what seems to be the question at issue. Why has the author written this text? What is the problem, dispute, or question being addressed? What motivated them to write, what do they hope to accomplish? 

As we saw in 7.1: Deciding the Purpose of a Research-Based Argument , one way to classify arguments is according to the kind of question they set out to answer.  If we determine that the argument we are analyzing is a definition , evaluation , causal , or proposal argument, we can look for common elements of that type of argument to help us understand the writer's choices and assess their effectiveness.

Context refers to situational influences that are specific to time, place, and occasion. When and where was the text written, and where is it intended to be read, seen, or heard? In her book  Teaching Arguments,  Jennifer Fletcher writes of "...the immediate social space and situation in which arguments must be made, including what's expected in terms of propriety or fitness for the occasion.”

• What is the situation that prompted the writing of this text? What was going on at the time? Can you think of any social, political, or economic conditions that were particularly important?
• What background information on the topic or associations with the topic would a reader of this time period likely have?
• Part of the context is the “conversation” the text is part of. It’s unlikely the author is the first person to write on a particular topic. As Graff and Birkenstein point out, writers invariably add their voices to a larger conversation. How does the author respond to other texts? How does she enter the conversation (“Many authors have argued X, but as Smith shows, this position is flawed, and I will extend Smith’s critique by presenting data that shows…”) How does the author position herself in relation to other authors? 
• How does the knowledge of the text's original context influence our reading of it?  How have circumstances changed since it was written?

Let's take an example: say we are analyzing an article on climate change, and we find that it doesn't try to prove that climate change is happening. Is it neglecting to address a counterargument?  Is it making a bold choice to ignore likely objections? To answer, we would need to know in what decade the article was written. In the 1990s, when climate change was first widely publicized, many people doubted whether it was real. Now, in the 2020s, the negative effects of climate change are more prominently visible than before, and very few people deny that the earth is warming due to human influence. Global warming isn’t talked about like a scary monster that we can warn our children about at bedtime; now, global warming is a very real monster huffing and puffing at our front door. If we were commenting on a dated article on climate change by Glaiza Aquino, we might note something like "Aquino's choice not to address climate deniers' claims is bold for its time. She counts on others to dispel those claims and focuses instead on making an informed case for nuclear energy as the only way out of the crisis."

Genre 

Genres are types of communication that have become routine and conventionalized.  A poem, meme, lab report, op-ed, and magazine article are all examples of genres. Identifying the text’s genre can tell us a lot about audience, purpose, and context. We can ask ourselves, what kind of writing is this? Is this an academic argument? A Ted Talk? Is this a personal narrative essay that explores a momentous moment in the writer's life? Is this a literary analysis? A letter to the editor in a newspaper?

Genres give us clues about how we should read a text, what we can do with the text, and who the audience is. Consider the two images below.

The image below does not, by itself, give much guidance on how we should interpret it. But the image above is in a familiar genre – the road sign. Even if we have never seen a sign like this, we have a good idea of its purpose, intended audience, and meaning. Identifying a text’s genre will often reveal much about the rhetorical situation. 

Attributions

• Much of this text was adapted by Anna Mills from Reading, Writing, and Evaluating Argument by Chris Werry , Department of Rhetoric and Writing Studies, San Diego State University, licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 .
• Portions of the text were written by Dylan Altman.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Chapter 10: The Rhetorical Situation

This chapter is about the  rhetorical situation . The rhetorical situation is a framework for rhetorical analysis designed for individual speeches and assessing their reception by an audience. This chapter offers a detailed explanation of the rhetorical situation and defines its core components: the  exigence , the  audience , and  constraints . The second section of the chapter provides detailed examples of the rhetorical situation. The third section explains a related model of “situation” called the “ rhetorical ecology .” This chapter contains YouTube video content not presented in the recorded lectures.

Watching the video clips embedded in the chapters may add to the projected “read time” listed in the headers.  Please also note that the audio recording for this chapter covers the same tested content as is presented in the chapter below.

Chapter Recordings

• Part 1:  Defining the Rhetorical Situation  (Video, ~20m)
• Part 2:  Analysis of a Rhetorical Situation  (Video, ~20m)
• Part 3:  Rhetorical Ecologies (Video, ~12m)

Read this Next

• Palczewski, Catherine Helen, et al. “Chapter 8 Rhetorical Situations.” Rhetoric in Civic Life , Strata Pub., State College, PA, 2012, pp. 225–263.

Written Assignments

• Assignment Description for Short Paper 3: Rhetorical Analysis

Part 1: Defining the Rhetorical Situation

The rhetorical situation is a fundamental framework for understanding rhetoric as a form of  persuasion , that is, as a speech or text that seeks to influence an audience’s actions. It describes rhetoric as a response to a problem or an answer to a question. Given an imperfect state of affairs, rhetoric responds or intervenes to create some change by addressing an audience. The rhetorical situation is also part of the tradition of  public address  scholarship. Public address may consist in the composition of eloquent speeches that are to be delivered in public settings, a studied reflection upon the geographical locations where public events have occurred in the past, or the researching of presidential correspondence, letters, or newsprint publications about former occupants of the executive branch. Public address is most aptly described as the criticism of public speech that approximates more closely a genuinely historical point of view regarding the ideas of our shared social history.

The rhetorical situation is also part of a tradition that understands rhetoric as  context-dependent.  Often, rhetorical scholars attribute this idea to Aristotle, who defines rhetoric as “the available means of persuasion  in any given situation. “   In other words, understanding the force of a persuasive speech act relies upon a deep knowledge of the setting in which it was spoken. Aristotle also describes rhetoric’s situations in terms of three discrete  genres :  Forensic rhetoric  is about the past and whether it did or did not happen; the traditional “situation” for forensic rhetoric was the courtroom proceeding.  Epideictic,  about matters of praise or blame, was speech situated in public spaces and delivered to a mass audience.  Deliberative  or policy-making speeches would occur in the situation of legislation and lawmaking, in service of developing a future course of action.

These three original genres of speech give the speech that is delivered in these spaces a specific function. They respond to a set of pre-defined circumstances concerning matters of  fact ,  good and bad judgment , and  policy . The rhetorical situation is an extension of this understanding. It provides us with a framework that says that speech responds to a set of pre-existing circumstances and is tailored for an audience.

According to Lloyd Bitzer,  the rhetorical situation  is that it is a “complex of persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an actual or potential exigence which can be completely or partially removed if discourse, introduced in the situation, can so constrain human decision or action as to bring about the significant modification of the exigence.

• First, the rhetorical situation is a  complex of persons, events, objects, and relations . The complex of  persons  includes speakers and audiences.  Events  include important and historic instances of speech and speech-making.  Objects  include the symbols gathered by speeches, what those speeches reference, and the speech’s effects. The complex  relations  of the situation describes the audiences it brings forth and the modes of identification it cultivates.
• Second, the rhetorical situation  presents an actual or potential exigence . An exigence is “an urgency marked by imperfection.” It describes a state of discontent or emergency in which speech is an adequate response and can bring about a resolution. Exigences ultimately describe the problem that the speech must respond to.
• Third, the rhetorical situation can  completely or partially remove the exigence . This means that an adequate speech makes the exigence is reversible by producing effects and audiences that are capable of addressing or effecting the change as the emergency requires.
• Fourth, the rhetorical situation  introduces discourse into the situation . This means that the use or application of rhetoric can undo the emergency. A speech that will heal the situation will bring things to a resolution.
• Fifth, the  speech  presented in a rhetorical situation  may constrain human decisions or actions . This means that a situation is rhetorical when speech resolves an emergency by steering people to act in a way that, had the speech not happened, they otherwise would not.
• Finally, the  speech  presented in a rhetorical situation  may bring about a significant modification of the exigence . Significant modification means that the speech does  something  to address the problem. Ultimately, this effect of speech upon a greater exigence is what makes the situation a rhetorical one.

Key Aspects of Rhetorical Situations

• The  historical context  is the larger background in which a message is situated. The  rhetorical situation  is a subset of that field, a smaller, more defined relative of a greater historical context.
• The  rhetorical situation  always places three specific elements into a relationship with each other. These are the rhetorical  exigence , the  audience , and the  constraints .
• A  rhetorical exigence  is an urgency marked by imperfection. It is the thing to which a speech – the rhetorical response – responds.
• A  rhetorical audience  is those people who have the capacity to act on the speaker’s message.
• A  rhetorical constraint  describes those things that limit the audience to interpret the message and steer them to act in one direction or another.

A Rhetorical Situation is not a “Context” …

A further important feature of the rhetorical situation is that it is not the same as context. This is, first of all, because every message occurs in a context, and not all contexts are rhetorical. Practically, this means that context is general, and the rhetorical situation is specific. A historical context is one in which any message can occur.

… because not all contexts are rhetorical.

A rhetorical situation is a situation that allows for a response, a speech that is capable of changing people’s minds and motivating their actions. The second reason the rhetorical situation is not the same as context is that only a rhetorical situation can invite a rhetorical response.

… because only a rhetorical situation can invite a rhetorical response.

Context is the history of an utterance, a series of motivations, occurrences, and acts that set a precedent for a public and cultural status quo . As a running example of the difference between  context  and  situation,  let’s consider the 2020 presidential impeachment hearings.

The greater  context for these presidential impeachment hearings might include the 1987 Iran-Contra scandal and the 1998 impeachment hearing of Bill Clinton. Both are distant historical events in which speeches and arguments were made concerning Congress’s authority over the Executive branch. Consistently, attorneys for the President have claimed that Congress did not have the authority to investigate the President whereas Congress has claimed that authority.

The  rhetorical situation for Presidential impeachment hearings in 2020 would instead be the circumstances and consequences surrounding a 2019 phone call between Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky and Donald Trump. The speakers and speeches generated by the impeachment trials themselves would be the “rhetoric” that responded to this situation. It would be comprised of Congressional testimony, official investigative reports, political biographies, and commentary by political pundits.

Rhetorical Response/Rhetorical Audience

Not every response to a rhetorical situation is rhetorical. Non-rhetorical responses are those that do not affect the exigency.  Rhetorical responses are those that do. An emergency such as war might provoke messages that people should be afraid or display courage. Those messages can’t be separated from the emergency that occasioned it. In that sense, they are “responses” to the rhetorical situation. But not every “response” has its intended effects, and not every “response” can be directly tied back to the exigence at hand.

Below is an example of the testimony offered during the 2019 impeachment hearings instigated by the Zelensky-Trump phone conversation. The speaker is Fiona Hill, a U.S. diplomatic liaison to the Ukraine who was removed from her post just days before the phone call occurred.

A  response  is  rhetorical  when it is addressed to a  rhetorical audience ,   that is, those auditors or listeners who have the capacity to act. Not all audiences can be rhetorical audiences. In practice, this means more people will hear the rhetorical response than can address it—only people who can act count as the rhetorical audience.

For example, consider a political speech urging young people to vote  delivered by a candidate that is delivered to an audience that has a mix of high school students. However, this speech may be heard by the younger members of the crowd or people whose naturalization status prevents them from voting. If the sought-after effect of the speech is for people to vote for the candidate, then Bitzer’s theory of the rhetorical situation is limited because it only includes those with the capability to vote.

Exigence, Audience, and Constraints

The  rhetorical exigence  is defined as imperfection marked by urgency. It is a defect, an obstacle, something waiting to be done, a thing other than it should be. There are also  non-rhetorical exigences , or “emergencies,” for which speech  isn’t  a good or effective response. Bitzer describes a natural disaster as a “non-rhetorical exigence” – a well-delivered speech, traditionally conceived, might not be the best immediate response. Instead of speech alone, an adequate rhetorical response would have to include emergency alerts, funding, and climate change mitigation efforts. What makes for a rhetorical exigence is when speech provides the remedy to the imperfection by urgency.

In the case referenced earlier, the recorded conversation between Zelensky and Trump documented a request to investigate Joe Biden in exchange for an already-promised military defense system. This conversation is the  rhetorical exigence : it generated a public emergency for which speech was deemed to be a fitting response.

The  rhetorical audience  is defined as only those capable of being influenced by discourse and of being mediators of change. They must be capable of making some change that would adjust the exigence due to hearing the speech.

There were at least two rhetorical audiences for the 2020 impeachment proceedings. One rhetorical audience of the Senate hearings consisted of the US Senate and Chief Justice John Roberts. They were the ones who would be ultimately voting on the Impeachment. In the style of forensic rhetoric, the Senators and possibly Roberts in the event of a tie were charged with discovering whether or not the President had committed an impeachable offense. Because they were the ones with the capacity to act, they composed the rhetorical audience.

The American voting public was a second rhetorical audience insofar as the messages conveyed in the Senate were meant to convince voters to turn out for the November 2020 election. Hearing the appeals on the Senate floor also persuaded those who could vote to cast them.

Finally,  rhetorical constraints  are comprised of persons, events, objects, and relations. These are part of the situation because they have the power to constrain decision-making and action.

In the Senate, constraints could include procedural limitations such as who gets to make the rules about how and when testimony is offered. It could be relations, in the sense partisan groups would seek to shut the trials down. It could be that another emergency interrupts the proceedings, or prevents that event from being remembered.

Responses to Rhetorical Situations

There are different kinds of responses to rhetorical situations.

• The first response is  conformity , in which the audience accepts what the speech is asking of them, and they perform the action that is requested.
• The second is  desecration  which violates what would have been an appropriate response. Given that there is a normal range of responses that would be accepted from a situation, the response of desecration would violate those expectations and challenge them. If someone were giving a eulogy, for instance, laughter would be a prohibited response and example of desecration.

The famous Apple “1984” advertisement linked below offers a dramatized example of both “conformity” and “desecration,” in the sense that the gathered viewers are in  conformity  with the televised speaker’s message whereas the running character who throws the sledgehammer violates conformist expectations and  desecrating  both the speaker and their message.

• The third response is  non-participation , which rejects the legitimacy of the rhetorical situation by refusing to be a part of it. In other words, it says that the emergency is not that big of an emergency, or that we don’t have to be so concerned about the emergency that is being posed. That non-participation is a rhetorical response because it simultaneously responds to the exigency by refusing to recognize it.
• Finally,  contextual reconstruction  is when a rhetor redefines the situation. In other words, given the rhetorical effort to redefine or reframe the exigency, it provides an alternative look at the current circumstances.

Below is an episode of Crossfire, a debate-style television show from the early 2000s which embraces a both-sides format. This episode features John Stewart, recently the new host of the  Daily Show . Stewart first engages in non-participation by rejecting the premise of the show and refusing to “debate.” He then engages in a  contextual reconstruction  that reframes Crossfire as contributing to a destructive both-sides mentality in politics. Stewart’s explanation is a contextual reconstruction because reframed the event, putting it in a new light. His appearance also coincided with the cancellation of the show shortly thereafter.

Part 2: Analysis of a Rhetorical Situation

This section of the chapter provides detailed examples of the major terms of the rhetorical situation, including  rhetorical exigence, context, audience, and constraints.  It ends with an example of a  rhetorical situation,  with a brief discussion of each of its parts.

Rhetorical Exigence: Michael Brown and Barack Obama

The exigence is the defect of the status quo. It is a problem we live with that has become acute; it is an emergency that is other than it should be. Rhetorical exigences can be modified through discourse. “In any rhetorical situation, there will be at least one controlling exigence which functions as an organizing principle.” This “organizing exigence” defines the audience to be addressed and the change to be effected.

On August 9, 2014, a police officer shot and killed Michael Brown in Ferguson, MO, spurring nationwide mass protests against police brutality. The following year, in April 2015, protests erupted in Baltimore after the death of Freddie Gray, who was brutally assaulted as he was arrested, fell into a coma, and died. These events also illustrated the larger problem that police departments had started to acquire military equipment as a way to police crowds, and technologies that the military had previously used during wartime deployments oversees suddenly became technologies used to police American citizens. Worse yet, police who were using these weapons had not been trained to use them appropriately. The racial bias of police departments across the country was becoming apparent given the accumulation of events related to police brutality.

This short speech by Barack Obama on October 31, 2015 sought to address the exigence of mass incarceration and over-policing by healing the divide between the different groups he addresses. We should think hard about whether this speech is accomplishing that goal given its emphasis on helping the economy and people recently released from prison. However, what is clear is that it is both a response to a problem that exists prominently at the moment that Obama is speaking and a way of curating the behavior of the audiences that are meant to hear this speech.

If the rhetorical situation “specifies the audience to be addressed,” then in the above clip, we can quite clearly hear Obama discussing “drug rehabilitation” and the pipeline from schools to prisons. We also heard Obama discussing police officers as people who “protect Americans.” To whom is this addressed? Both audiences: it is meant to affirm both the structural causes of mass incarceration for the public made angry by prominent instances of police brutality and defend violent police officers by describing them as civil servants. However, this speech neither addresses police brutality directly nor holds police officers accountable for excessive use of force. Specified audiences of the rhetorical situation includes over-policed and structurally oppressed Americans and police officers, resulting in a “middle voice” that is stretched between these audiences.

Context:  13th  by Ava DuVernay

Obama’s speech, shown above, occurs within a larger context of racial policing in the United States, which disproportionately targets minoritized communities. Every message occurs within a context: a larger, more encompassing umbrella term for the setting in which a speech or utterance happens. Context is the history of the speech or utterance, a series of motivations, occurrences, and acts that set a precedent for the current status quo – which means how things are in our present moment, right now. Consider the video below as an illustration of the larger context for Obama’s 10/31/2015 speech. The documentary “13th” by Ava DuVernay explains the historical transition from slavery to the thirteenth amendment to a contemporary system of mass incarceration.

Rhetorical Audience: George H.W. Bush v. Michael Dukakis

Next, let’s consider the rhetorical audience, which describes only those capable of being influenced by a speech (or rhetorical discourse) and of being mediators of change.

Above is another rhetorical message that is situated within the larger context of mass incarceration. However, it has a different situation: the 1988 Dukakis/Bush presidential election. The video is a campaign advertisement from the first George Bush campaign which attacks Dukakis. The exigence is Dukakis’s early lead on George Bush, which created an opening for a rhetorical response. This response is important for how it targeted specific voters by preying on the stereotype of violent minorities and the idea that people who had been imprisoned would always be “prisoners” or “criminals,” regardless of rehabilitation or if their incarceration was unjust. Let’s take a look at the video.

The rhetorical audience here isn’t just who can be influenced by the message. Viewers, for instance, might be angered by the message that’s being sent by this video. It is specifically those who would act on that message by voting against the Dukakis campaign. Viewers who might react against this message are also a rhetorical audience. They may reject the message and doing the opposite of what it asks or offer an alternative explanation of mass incarceration that does not rely on racist caricatures.

Rhetorical Constraints: Parody and Satire

Let’s consider the last element of the rhetorical situation: constraints. Constraints are comprised of persons, events, objects, and relations that are part of the situation because they can constrain decision-making and action that could modify the exigence. This example offers another campaign ad. IT is not as clearly related to the larger context of mass incarceration. This video illustrates “constraints” by showing how political campaign ads are always limited in what they can say or the messages they communicate.

The Phil Gulbright/Gil Fulbright/Phillip Mymoufwiffarts political advertisement illustrates the limitations on the speaker because he draws attention to how his own beholdenness to multiple audiences: the voting public and his private donors – narrowly shape his own rhetorical response.

Rhetorical Situation: The Challenger Address

The final example of the rhetorical situation is Ronald Reagan’s Challenger Address Speech.

The following explanation of this rhetorical situation comes from Catherine Palczewski et al.:

Reagan clearly identified the  exigence : “the tragedy of the shuttle  Challenger … is truly a national loss” that made it a day “for mourning and remembering,” but the march of progress and the call for exploration gave meaning to that loss of life.

The  context  for this meaning was a history of exploration associated with past empires. According to Reagan, the members of the space shuttle crew had “a hunger to explore the universe” and were part of a long line of explorers. The examples of the 1967  Apollo I  fire and the 1596 death of Francis Drake offered similar historical events that helped make the loss of life during exploration seem normal and expected. As Reagan explained to schoolchildren: “Its all part of the process of exploration and discovery.”

The  audiences   in the situation were composed of people who shared the need for reassurance and the sentiment that exploration defines the people of the United States: the families of the astronauts, schoolchildren, NASA workers, and the viewing public who had tuned in to the event. Reagan provided an explanation not of the accident but of exploration. He thus offered a response that quickly passed through stages of mourning while seeking to reinforce the public faith in expanded American space exploration. Reagan’s hybrid response sought to justify funding for the space program (a  deliberative  goal) while also eulogizing the lives of the astronauts who had died in the explosion (an  epideictic  goal).

The  constraints  in the situation concerned the genre of eulogy, which Reagan mirrored in structuring his speech. He also assumed a paternalistic role in the speech, speaking not only as President but as an elder relative to schoolchildren who had been watching the speech from across the country.

As a total  rhetorical situation , the  rhetor,  Reagan, responded to an exigence by speaking to particular  audiences , such as school children and the viewing public, in a way that accounted for  constraints  such as the appropriate way to respond to a tragic loss of life. Reagan did not just respond to this situation, but sought to actively redefine what it meant.

Part 3: Rhetorical Ecologies

Although Lloyd Bitzer develops the concept of “the rhetorical situation” there are several other participants in this conversation. I’d like to draw our attention to Lloyd Bitzer, Richard Vatz, and Jenny Edbauer.

• Bitzer is the originator of the rhetorical situation. In his view, there is  first  a situation,  then  there is a rhetorical response, and  finally,  rhetoric that people can act upon. The emergency arises and it creates conditions for a speaker to invent a speech that moves people to some action.
• Vatz argues that rhetoric arises not because of a situation, but because of the speaker. From this point of view, there is no emergency unless a rhetor perceives there to be an emergency. It is the speaker’s job to create a shared reality for the audience through their speech. However, if the public’s perception of an emergency depends on the speaker, a real, material reality may be at odds with other “emergencies” that a speaker brings to the public’s attention as distractions. The realities of pandemics and climate change, for instance, may be something that a speaker cannot distract from with another “imagined” exigence. Some emergencies simply cannot be ignored or deflected by a speaker because they form such a commonly felt urgency.
• Edbauer argues that rhetoric never occurs in one situation but always unfolds across many situations. Whereas Bitzer and Vatz focus on individual speeches delivered in isolated situations, Edbauer is more interested in the way that rhetoric moves from one situation to another, much like a viral tweet or video. Rhetoric that occurs in one situation may then give rise to similar rhetoric that arises in a separate situation. This then may create yet another rhetorical response, unrelated to the first, and so on. The speaker isn’t the most important person in the Edbauer model. Instead, the rhetoric moves from one rhetorical moment to the next to produce a message across a variety of situations.

Rhetorical ecologies are variations on the traditional framework of the rhetorical situation. A rhetorical situation is typically conceived as a speaker’s unique creation or as a response to an emergency. Edbauer’s version of a rhetorical situation suggests that it isn’t fixed; it does not happen once or in isolation. Instead, Edbauer argues that exigences are always a series of events. These situations create a network of lived experiences and structures of feeling. Edbauer also contextualizes rhetoric in terms of time, history, and experience. Rhetoric from this point of view isn’t linear. It doesn’t start with a speaker who devises a speech that is received by an audience. Rhetoric moves from one moment to another, from one situation to another. It changes depending on the historical moment and the particular experiences that a given instance of rhetoric foregrounds.

• The Rhetorical Situation:  Traditionally conceived, situations are  fixed spaces.  By comparison, rhetorical ecologies are  dynamic spaces . The word situation comes from the Latin  Situs , which signifies a bordered and fixed location. An example of  Situs  is the (incorrect) idea of the Earth as the presumptive center of the Universe, having a stable position that does not affect the space around it. A  Situs  for rhetoric would mean that everything revolves around the speech’s ability to respond to an emergency.
• The Rhetorical Ecology: Instead of a  Situs  for rhetoric ,  the ecology model describes rhetoric’s force, intensity, and circulatory range as a  distribution . This would be like the shift from the Newtonian Model to the Einsteinian Model, where space is molded or shaped around the speech or object. In other words, there is no clear “center” for rhetoric; rhetoric instead has many centers with distinct mass and gravity. Rather than just one speech or rhetorical discourse, an ecology-based approach would think about multiple speeches or discourses and how they affect and interact with one another.

Writing as Rhetorical Situation and Rhetorical Ecology

Let’s consider “writing an assignment” in terms of the situation and ecology models of rhetoric. As a  Situs ,  writing would be a very linear process. It would follow a first, second, third progression: receive the assignment (the exigence), outline and draft a (rhetorical) response, and see if it had the intended effect (upon an instructor or peers). The writer would make a message, then transmit it to an audience. Bitzer would say that there is an emergency to which the writer responds, like an upcoming deadline, and then their text or speech offers a more or less adequate response to that emergency.

Writing conceived in terms of  distribution  means that it would occur across a range of processes and encounters. There is, for instance, the event of starting a blank document and the tyranny of the blinking cursor. Your encounter with the keyboard might restrict or open up the flow of words. It might also create physical limitations as your fingers begin to cramp or your posture hunches over. You may stop, lose your place, or write across multiple days, weeks, or months. Then again, the same act of writing may occur in a group setting or a collaborative document. These interactions could energize your writing and stimulate productivity, or zap your ability to focus by creating pools of distracting conversation. As distribution, writing doesn’t happen in one moment or even because of one person. Instead, it happens across many moments and with the influence of many people. In a rhetorical ecology, there isn’t just one audience for writing but many. Writing would occur across distinct situations that describe how the process of writing is lived, or even how our writing outlives our unique authorship, getting picked up by other people who revise and repurpose it.

According to Edbauer, “To say that we are connected is another way of saying that we are never outside the networked interconnections of forces, energies, rhetorics, moods, and experiences. In other words our practical consciousness is never outside the prior and ongoing structure of feeling that shape the social field.”

Rhetorical ecologies highlight the importance of a shared and interactive social field. They demand an understanding of how certain speech acts, utterances, or writing circulate and proliferate. Similar to biology, where ecology refers to the relationships between organisms and their environment, rhetorical ecologies illustrate how words interact with their environment over and over again. Rhetoric from this perspective isn’t static but viral; it has effects beyond what a single author could ever anticipate.

“The intensity, force, and circulatory range of a rhetoric[al ecology] are always expanding through the mutations and new exposures attached to that given rhetoric, much like a virus.  … A rhetoric emerges already infected by the viral intensities that are circulating in the social field.”

Examples of Rhetorical Ecologies: The Amen Break

The Rhetorical Ecology model means that rhetoric never just occurs within one isolated situation, but evolves and moves across different situations.  This means that rhetoric interacts with other pressing issues or concerns of the moment. A viral intensity is how topics may be pressing or important at one moment and how those concerns may transform a given instance of rhetoric from one moment to the next. Below is a clip about the “Amen break,” which explains how a given text moves across situations rather than remaining stationary.

As the video indicates, although you may not know it, you have likely heard the Amen break in many different advertisements and musical genres. Rather than occurring in a single situation, the Amen break happens across different moments that enable it to mean something different in each instance. As an example of a rhetorical ecology, the message undergoes a significant transformation as it moves from one situation to another; it means differently because it moves.

Examples of Rhetorical Ecologies: Keep Austin Weird

Let’s consider a separate example of the rhetorical ecology that comes directly from Edbauer’s article on the topic. The phrase ‘Keep Austin Weird!’ started in Austin, Texas, with the closure of the Sound Exchange, a popular record store. Gradually over time, more and more large businesses started entering Austin, including Urban Outfitters, Barnes and Noble, and Baja Grille, each of which is (or was) a national chain. Two local businesses, Book People Books and Waterloo Records decided to stand against Austin’s stand to give a tax break to a Borders that was opening across the street from them.

According to Steve Baroo, the owner of Book People Books: “I was talking to the people of Waterloo Records about our struggle to stop the city of Austin from providing incentives to the developer, who planned to put a chain book store across the street from our stores. I suggested that we get some bumper stickers that said: ‘Keep Austin Weird,’ put both our logos on them and then give them away at our stores. He decided that we should buy five-thousand stickers and saw what our customers thought.”

The five thousand stickers were so popular that the stores immediately bought another ten thousand and then twenty-five thousand stickers. Almost a year later, nearly sixty thousand stickers had been distributed. Soon enough, other Austin businesses joined their call to weirdness. Local businesses began to sell T-shirts with individual logos on the front and the same ‘Keep Austin Weird’ logo on the back. The phrase ‘Keep Austin Weird’ quickly passed into the city’s general culture and popular circulation. One pledge pitch for a local public radio station told listeners, “You too can work toward keeping Austin Weird by pledging to keep KOOP 917 FM on the air.”

In certain parts of Austin, it is nearly impossible to go for very long without finding some display of the slogan on a T-shirt, bumper sticker, tote bag, mug, or a local businesses billboard vowing to keep it weird. In fact, even the increasingly popular counter-slogans managed to illustrate a kind of distributed ecological spread of this rhetoric.

Appearing on T-shirts and bumper stickers throughout Austin, there is the ‘Make Austin Normal’ campaign, by a University of Texas business student who wanted to make a point of – and profit from – the ironic popularity of the “Weird” slogan. “Keep Austin Weird” was also taken up by large, gentrifying  businesses, largely against its original intent. Its uptake by the South By Southwest (SXSW) Convention and Festival and local politicians indicated that  real estate corporate interests co-opted the phrase interests. Ultimately, the message moved from one situation to the next and changed until eventually its meaning became antithetical to what it had signified at its inception.

We can even see evidence of this spread in Minnesota in the form of parodic “Keep Minnesota Passive-Aggressive” slogans.  Ultimately Edbauer’s case study investigates how ‘Keep Austin Weird’ is distributed through a rhetorical ecology, one going beyond the traditional boundaries of the rhetorical situation. As rhetorics and their companion counter-rhetorics move between situations, they respond to, resist, and transform the message. Sometimes these messages address the original exigence; other times, they deflect from it. When we set aside the rhetor, audience, exigence, and constraints as the only elements of rhetoric deserving of attention, we can see how textual movement extends our understanding of where, when, and how communication happens.

Additional Resources

Models of the Rhetorical Situation

• Bitzer, Lloyd F. “The rhetorical situation.”   Philosophy & rhetoric  (1968): 1-14.
• Jamieson, Kathleen M. Hall. “Generic constraints and the rhetorical situation.”   Philosophy & Rhetoric  (1973): 162-170.
• Vatz, Richard E. “The myth of the rhetorical situation.”   Philosophy & rhetoric  (1973): 154-161.
• Consigny, Scott. “Rhetoric and its situations.”   Philosophy & rhetoric  (1974): 175-186.
• Biesecker, Barbara A. “Rethinking the Rhetorical Situation from within the Thematic of ‘Différance’.” Philosophy & rhetoric  (1989): 110-130.
• Garret, Mary, and Xiaosui Xiao. “The rhetorical situation revisited.”   Rhetoric Society Quarterly  23.2 (1993): 30-40.
• Edbauer, Jenny. “Unframing models of public distribution: From rhetorical situation to rhetorical ecologies.”   Rhetoric society quarterly  35.4 (2005): 5-24.

Examples of Rhetorical Situation-Based Criticism

• Cisneros, Josue David. “Reclaiming the Rhetoric of Reies López Tijerina: Border Identity and Agency in “The Land Grant Question”.”   Communication Quarterly  60.5 (2012): 561-587.
• Cox, J. Robert. “The fulfillment of time: King’s ‘I have a dream’ speech (August 28, 1963).” Texts in Contexts: Critical Dialogues on Significant Episodes in American Political Rhetoric  (1989): 181-204.
• Hariman, Robert. “Time and the Reconstitution of Gradualism in King’s Address: A Response to Cox: Critical Dialogues on Significant Episodes in American Political Rhetoric.”   Texts in context: Critical dialogues on significant episodes in American political rhetoric . Hermagoras Press, 1989.
• Gaipa, Mark. “A Creative Psalm of Brotherhood”: The (De) constructive Play in Martin Luther King’s “Letter from Birmingham Jail.”  Quarterly Journal of Speech  93.3 (2007): 279-307.
• Johnson, Andre E. “My Sanctified Imagination: Carter G. Woodson and a Speculative (Rhetorical) History of African American Public Address, 1925–1960.”   Rhetoric and Public Affairs  24.1-2 (2021): 15-50.
• Johnson, Paul Elliott. “The art of masculine victimhood: Donald Trump’s demagoguery.”   Women’s Studies in Communication  40.3 (2017): 229-250.
• Murphy, John M. “” Our mission and our moment”: George W. Bush and September 11th.”   Rhetoric & Public Affairs  6.4 (2003): 607-632.
• Murphy, John M. “Political economy and rhetorical matter.”   Rhetoric & Public Affairs  12.2 (2009): 303-315.
• Murphy, John M. “” A time of shame and sorrow”: Robert F. Kennedy and the American jeremiad.”   Quarterly Journal of Speech  76.4 (1990): 401-414.
• Palczewski, Catherine H. “The 1919 Prison Special: Constituting white women’s citizenship.”   Quarterly Journal of Speech  102.2 (2016): 107-132.
• Winderman, Emily. “S (anger) goes postal in The Woman Rebel: Angry rhetoric as a collectivizing moral emotion.”   Rhetoric and Public Affairs  17.3 (2014): 381-420.
• Zarefsky, David. “Making the case for war: Colin Powell at the United Nations.”   Rhetoric & Public Affairs  10.2 (2007): 275-302.

Reading Rhetorical Theory Copyright © 2022 by Atilla Hallsby is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Rhetorical Situation: Definition, Examples & FAQs

While the term 'rhetoric' often carries a negative connotation linked with politics and manipulation, it's essentially a versatile tool. We encounter rhetoric everywhere—in TV ads, on our phones, and in everyday conversations. Understanding it can enhance your ability to decipher messages and communicate effectively.

Rhetoric is simply the art of using language to achieve a purpose, whether it's persuasion, information, or entertainment. In this article, our aim is to equip you with numerous examples to effortlessly recognize rhetorical situations. So, let's jump right in!

What is a Rhetorical Situation

Now that we've brushed aside the mystique surrounding rhetoric, let our essay writer delve into the rhetorical situation definition.

A rhetorical situation occurs when there's a convergence of three key elements: the audience, the context, and the message. It's like a perfect storm where these factors interact to shape the communication process.

Firstly, there's the audience—the individuals who will receive and interpret the message. Their beliefs, values, and expectations play a crucial role in how they perceive and respond to communication.

Next, we have the context—the environment or circumstances in which the communication occurs. This includes factors such as the time, place, and social, cultural, and historical background.

Lastly, there's the message itself—the content being communicated. Whether it's a speech, an advertisement, or a piece of writing, the message is crafted to achieve a specific purpose and elicit a particular response from the audience within the given context.

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Elements of a Rhetorical Situation

Now that we've grasped the essence of rhetorical situations let's break it down further by examining its individual components—the elements that shape and define a good rhetorical analysis essay example .

These elements include:

• Audience : The people who will receive and interpret the message. Understanding their demographics, values, beliefs, and attitudes is crucial for tailoring the message effectively.
• Context : The setting or circumstances in which the communication occurs. This encompasses factors such as time, place, social dynamics, cultural background, and historical context.
• Message : The content being communicated. This includes the language used, the tone, the style, and the medium through which it is conveyed.
• Purpose : The goal or objective behind the communication. Whether it's to persuade, inform, entertain, or inspire action, clarifying the purpose helps in crafting a compelling message.
• Medium : The channel or platform through which the message is conveyed. This could be spoken words, written text, images, videos, or even non-verbal cues like gestures or facial expressions. The choice of medium influences how the message is received and interpreted by the audience.
• Constraints : These are factors that limit or shape the communication process, such as time constraints, available resources, cultural norms, and legal or ethical considerations. Recognizing and navigating these constraints is essential for effective communication.

Rhetorical Appeals

Next, let's look into the concept of rhetorical appeals, which are fundamental tools used to persuade audiences in rhetorical situations. This rhetorical situation triangle was first identified by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle and is still relevant in communication today. There are three main appeals:

• Ethos : Ethos refers to the credibility, trustworthiness, and authority of the speaker or source. Establishing ethos involves demonstrating expertise, sincerity, and goodwill towards the audience. People are more likely to be persuaded by someone they perceive as credible and trustworthy.
• Pathos : Pathos appeals to the emotions and feelings of the audience. By evoking emotions such as sympathy, fear, anger, or joy, speakers can create a strong emotional connection with their audience. Emotional appeals can be powerful motivators for action and can deeply influence people's attitudes and behavior.
• Logos : Logos involves using logic, reasoning, and evidence to support an argument. This appeal relies on facts, statistics, examples, and logical reasoning to persuade the audience. By presenting a well-structured and logical argument, speakers can appeal to the audience's intellect and rationality.

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10 Rhetorical Situation Examples in Literature

In this section, we'll explore 10 rhetorical situations examples in literature, showcasing how authors skillfully employ the devices and appeals to convey their messages and engage their audiences. And if you've been assigned to write a paper, you can always order essay from our expert writers for deeper analysis.

'Brave New World' by Aldous Huxley

Huxley's dystopian novel presents a future society where individuality and free will are sacrificed for stability and conformity. Through the character of Bernard Marx and his rebellion against the oppressive regime, Huxley critiques the dangers of technological advancement and the dehumanizing effects of a consumerist culture.

• Audience : Originally targeted at readers of dystopian fiction and those concerned with societal trends in the early 20th century, 'Brave New World' now appeals to a broader audience intrigued by themes of control, individuality, and technology.
• Context : Written amidst post-World War I uncertainties and fears of totalitarianism, Aldous Huxley's novel reflects concerns about unchecked scientific progress and societal conformity.
• Message : Huxley's novel serves as a cautionary tale, warning against sacrificing individuality and freedom for stability and conformity. It critiques the dehumanizing effects of consumerism, genetic engineering, and the suppression of free will.
• Purpose : The novel aims to provoke reflection on societal values and priorities, challenging readers to consider the ethical implications of scientific advancement and the importance of preserving individuality and freedom.
• Medium : Presented as a novel of speculative fiction, 'Brave New World' employs vivid imagery, intricate world-building, and thought-provoking dialogue to immerse readers in its dystopian society.
• Constraints : Huxley navigated societal norms, censorship, and publishing expectations while crafting 'Brave New World.' The novel's publication in 1932 amidst social and political tensions likely influenced its portrayal of a dystopian future grappling with the consequences of scientific advancement.

'The Lord of the Rings' by J.R.R. Tolkien

Tolkien's epic fantasy saga follows the quest to destroy the One Ring and defeat the dark lord Sauron. Through richly imagined world-building and themes of heroism, friendship, and sacrifice, Tolkien explores the timeless struggle between good and evil.

• Audience : The immediate audience was readers of fantasy literature. However, it now captivates those who enjoy epic tales of adventure, heroism, and the battle between good and evil.
• Context : Written post-World War II, 'The Lord of the Rings' reflects J.R.R. Tolkien's experiences, love of mythology, and medieval literature.
• Message : Tolkien's epic explores timeless themes like courage, friendship, and the fight against tyranny through characters like Frodo and Aragorn.
• Purpose : The trilogy transports readers to Middle-earth, imparting moral and philosophical insights about good and evil, perseverance, and friendship.
• Medium : Presented as a trilogy, it uses vivid descriptions and rich characters to immerse readers in its fantastical world.
• Constraints : Tolkien navigated genre expectations and his desire for a cohesive mythology, influenced by post-war themes of heroism and resilience.

'Frankenstein' by Mary Shelley

Shelley's Gothic masterpiece delves into themes of ambition, morality, and the consequences of scientific discovery. Through the tragic figure of Victor Frankenstein and his creation, Shelley explores the rhetorical situation through the boundaries of humanity and the dangers of playing god.

• Audience : Initially for fans of Gothic and Romantic literature, 'Frankenstein' now attracts a wider audience interested in its exploration of morality and the consequences of science.
• Context : Written in the early 19th century, Mary Shelley's 'Frankenstein' emerged amid scientific progress and societal worries about its ethical impact. Shelley's personal experiences and Romantic influences also shaped the novel.
• Message : 'Frankenstein' warns against ambition without ethics, using Victor Frankenstein's story to explore themes of isolation and responsibility.
• Purpose : Shelley's novel prompts thought on the ethical challenges of scientific advancement and human creation. It urges reflection on empathy and accountability.
• Medium : Presented as a Gothic tale, it uses vivid descriptions and moral complexity to immerse readers in its story of horror.
• Constraints : Shelley faced societal and personal challenges while writing, influenced by gender roles and Romantic ideals.

'Pride and Prejudice' by Jane Austen

Austen's timeless romance follows the tumultuous courtship between Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy amidst the social conventions and class hierarchies of Regency-era England. Through witty dialogue and sharp social commentary, Austen examines themes of love, marriage, and the importance of self-awareness.

• Audience : 'Pride and Prejudice' attracts a broad audience fascinated by its exploration of love and societal norms.
• Context : Written during the Regency era, it reflects the social norms and gender roles of the time.
• Message : Critiques class and gender expectations while celebrating love and individual agency through the story of Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy.
• Purpose : Austen's novel entertains while challenging societal norms, urging readers to reflect on their attitudes and behavior.
• Medium : Presented as a novel of manners, 'Pride and Prejudice' uses wit and irony to portray Regency England.
• Constraints : Austen faced societal and publishing constraints while crafting the novel.

'The Odyssey' by Homer

Homer's epic poem follows the journey of the Greek hero Odysseus as he attempts to return home after the Trojan War. Through themes of heroism, temptation, and perseverance, there are a few examples of a rhetorical situation where Homer explores the complexities of human nature and the importance of personal growth and resilience.

• Audience : Originally, it was composed for an oral audience in ancient Greece. Now, 'The Odyssey' appeals to readers of epic poetry and mythology across cultures and time periods.
• Context : Composed during the Greek Dark Ages, drawing on oral traditions and myths to recount the adventures of the hero Odysseus as he journeys home from the Trojan War.
• Message : It serves as a timeless exploration of the hero's journey and the challenges of returning home. Through Odysseus' trials and tribulations, Homer explores themes of resilience, perseverance, and the consequences of hubris.
• Purpose : Homer's epic aims to entertain and inspire audiences with its tales of adventure, heroism, and divine intervention while also imparting moral lessons about the virtues of courage, hospitality, and loyalty.
• Medium : Presented as an epic poem, the novel employs vivid imagery, heroic language, and rhythmic verse to transport listeners and readers to the mythical world of ancient Greece.
• Constraints : Homer drew on traditional myths and oral storytelling conventions, as well as the poetic forms and techniques of his time. Additionally, the poem reflects the cultural values and beliefs of ancient Greek society, including its reverence for gods and heroes.

'The Scarlet Letter' by Nathaniel Hawthorne

Hawthorne's novel explores the consequences of sin, guilt, and redemption in Puritanical New England. Through the character of Hester Prynne and her public shaming for adultery, Hawthorne critiques the harsh judgmentalism of society while probing the complexities of human nature.

• Audience : Originally for mid-19th-century American lit readers, 'The Scarlet Letter' now attracts a wide audience interested in guilt, sin, and redemption.
• Context : Set in Puritanical New England during the 17th century, Nathaniel Hawthorne's 'The Scarlet Letter' reflects his family's link to the Salem witch trials and his views on 19th-century America.
• Message : Explores morality, sin, and human nature through Hester Prynne's public shaming for adultery, highlighting guilt, redemption, and societal judgment hypocrisy.
• Purpose : Hawthorne's novel aims to challenge moral assumptions and societal norms, urging reflection on sin, forgiveness, and compassion by portraying judgment's consequences and promoting empathy.
• Medium : 'The Scarlet Letter' is presented as historical fiction and uses vivid descriptions, psychological depth, and moral ambiguity to immerse readers in Puritan New England.
• Constraints : While writing, Hawthorne dealt with societal morality, religion, gender roles, and literary conventions of his time.

'Fahrenheit 451' by Ray Bradbury

Bradbury's dystopian novel includes rhetorical situation examples where books are banned and 'firemen' burn any found. Through the protagonist Guy Montag's awakening to the power of literature and his rebellion against censorship, Bradbury critiques the dangers of ignorance, conformity, and the suppression of knowledge.

• Audience : The novel is mostly appreciated by those interested in themes of censorship, knowledge, and individuality.
• Context : Written during the Cold War era and amidst growing concerns about censorship and conformity in American society, it reflects anxieties about the suppression of ideas and the erosion of intellectual freedom.
• Message : The novel serves as a powerful warning against the dangers of censorship, ignorance, and the manipulation of information.
• Purpose : Bradbury's novel aims to provoke thought and reflection on the value of literature, the dangers of censorship, and the role of technology in shaping society. By presenting a dystopian vision of the future, Bradbury challenges readers to consider the consequences of apathy and conformity.
• Medium : Presented as a novel of speculative fiction, it employs vivid imagery, allegorical storytelling, and thought-provoking dialogue to immerse readers in its dystopian world.
• Constraints : While crafting 'Fahrenheit 451,' Bradbury navigated societal concerns about censorship and conformity, as well as the expectations of the science fiction genre and the publishing industry of his time.

'The Grapes of Wrath' by John Steinbeck

Steinbeck's novel follows the Joad family as they journey from Oklahoma to California during the Great Depression. Through their experiences of poverty, exploitation, and displacement, Steinbeck critiques the social injustices of the era while championing the resilience and dignity of the human spirit.

• Audience : The Grapes of Wrath' speaks to those interested in fairness, financial struggles, and human resilience.
• Context : Set during the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl migration, Steinbeck's novel reflects the challenges of American farmers and workers in a time of economic hardship and change.
• Message : 'The Grapes of Wrath' criticizes economic injustice, corporate greed, and mistreatment of the working class through the Joad family's journey, highlighting themes of dignity, unity, and hope for a better life.
• Purpose : Steinbeck aims to raise awareness of migrant workers' struggles and inspire empathy for the marginalized, urging readers to confront societal flaws and advocate for change.
• Medium : Presented realistically, the novel uses vivid descriptions, authentic dialogue, and symbolism to transport readers to the Great Depression era.
• Constraints : Steinbeck faced pressure for realism, social critique, and narrative structure, along with concerns about censorship and political fallout while writing the novel.

'Beloved' by Toni Morrison

Morrison's novel is full of rhetorical situations examples where he delves into the trauma of slavery and its lasting effects on individuals and communities. Through the character of Sethe, a former slave haunted by the ghost of her daughter, Morrison examines themes of memory, identity, and the search for freedom and redemption.

• Audience : The novel attracts a broad audience intrigued by themes of history, trauma, and slavery's legacy.
• Context : 'Beloved' emerges from America's slavery history, reflecting her experiences and observations on race, identity, and memory.
• Message : It powerfully explores slavery's legacy through Sethe's haunting past, touching on trauma, memory, and identity.
• Purpose : Morrison aims to spotlight overlooked African American stories, giving voice to the silenced and challenging readers to confront slavery's truths.
• Medium : Through literary fiction, 'Beloved' employs lyrical prose and symbolism, immersing readers in its exploration of memory and redemption.
• Constraints : Morrison balanced societal expectations on race, gender, and representation alongside her artistic vision amidst ongoing debates on race and identity.

'The Canterbury Tales' by Geoffrey Chaucer

Chaucer's collection of stories follows a group of pilgrims on their journey to the shrine of Thomas Becket in Canterbury. Through the diverse cast of characters and their tales, Chaucer offers a panoramic view of medieval English society while exploring themes of love, morality, and social hierarchy.

• Audience : 'The Canterbury Tales' originally catered to medieval audiences but now appeals to readers interested in literature, history, and social commentary across different periods.
• Context : Set in medieval England, Geoffrey Chaucer's work mirrors the religious, political, and economic landscape of the time.
• Message : Through a range of characters and their stories, 'The Canterbury Tales' delves into human nature, morality, and society, exploring themes such as love, betrayal, and greed.
• Purpose : Chaucer's intention is to entertain, educate, and critique the flaws and contradictions of medieval society, prompting readers to reflect on their own beliefs.
• Medium : Presented as a collection of narratives, 'The Canterbury Tales' utilizes poetry, prose, and satire to captivate readers and convey its profound themes.
• Constraints : Chaucer faced challenges, including meeting patronage expectations, adhering to medieval literary norms, and writing in Middle English, potentially contending with the political and religious sensitivities of the era.

5 Examples of Rhetorical Situations in Everyday Life

Now, shifting away from the literature discussion, let's analyze 5 real-life examples of rhetoric. And if you're interested in exploring an illustration essay further, we've got a whole separate article dedicated to it, so be sure to give that a read too!

Corporate Apology

In 2017, United Airlines faced public backlash after a video of a passenger being forcibly removed from an overbooked flight went viral. The CEO, Oscar Munoz, issued a public apology, employing rhetorical strategies such as acknowledging the incident, expressing remorse, and outlining steps for improvement to regain public trust.

• Audience : The general public, including passengers, potential customers, shareholders, and stakeholders.
• Context : United Airlines faced public backlash after a video of a passenger being forcibly removed from an overbooked flight went viral.
• Message : Acknowledgment of the incident, expression of remorse, and outlining steps for improvement to regain public trust.
• Purpose : To address the negative public perception, restore confidence in the airline's reputation, and mitigate the damage caused by the incident.
• Medium : The CEO, Oscar Munoz, issued the apology through a public statement, likely distributed via press releases, social media platforms, and news conferences.
• Constraints : The apology must strike a balance between accepting responsibility for the incident, expressing genuine remorse, and outlining concrete actions to prevent similar occurrences in the future, all while maintaining the company's professional image and credibility.

Environmental Activism

Environmental activist Greta Thunberg's speeches and activism serve as examples of rhetorical situations in real life aimed at raising awareness about climate change. Her addresses at international forums, such as the United Nations Climate Action Summit in 2019, employ rhetorical devices such as repetition and urgency to urge global leaders to take immediate action against climate change.

• Audience : Global leaders, activists, and the public.
• Context : Greta Thunberg's activism targets climate change awareness and urgent action.
• Message : Urgency for immediate climate action, using repetition and urgency.
• Purpose : Mobilize leaders and inspire action against climate change.
• Medium : Speeches at international forums, social media, and public appearances.
• Constraints : Maintain credibility and navigate political sensitivities.

Product Launch Events

Apple's product launch events, such as the unveiling of new iPhones, are meticulously crafted rhetorical situations designed to generate excitement and anticipation among consumers. Through keynote presentations delivered by company executives, Apple utilizes persuasive language, product demonstrations, and testimonials to showcase the features and benefits of its latest innovations.

• Audience : Consumers, tech enthusiasts, investors, and media outlets.
• Context : Apple's product launch events aim to generate excitement and anticipation for new products, particularly iPhones.
• Message : Highlight the features and benefits of new innovations through persuasive language, product demonstrations, and testimonials.
• Purpose : Generate consumer interest, drive sales, and maintain Apple's brand image as an innovator.
• Medium : Keynote presentations delivered by Apple executives, supported by multimedia presentations and live demonstrations.
• Constraints : Ensure that the presentations effectively communicate the value proposition of the new products while maintaining secrecy about unreleased products to preserve anticipation and surprise.

Presidential Debates

Presidential debates serve as prominent rhetorical situations during election cycles. The 2020 United States presidential debates between Donald Trump and Joe Biden featured exchanges of arguments, rebuttals, and appeals to voters. Candidates utilized rhetorical strategies such as framing, persuasion techniques, and nonverbal communication to convey their policies and positions effectively to the electorate.

• Audience : Voters, undecided voters, political analysts, and the media.
• Context : The 2020 United States presidential debates between Donald Trump and Joe Biden were pivotal events in the election cycle, providing a platform for candidates to present their policies and engage in discourse.
• Message : Candidates used rhetorical strategies such as framing, persuasion techniques, and nonverbal communication to convey their policies and positions effectively.
• Purpose : To sway voter opinions, clarify policy stances, and demonstrate leadership qualities to the electorate.
• Medium : Televised debates with millions of viewers, supplemented by social media coverage and analysis.
• Constraints : Candidates must navigate the debate format, adhere to time limits, and effectively address moderator questions while maintaining composure and projecting confidence.

Legal Trials and Courtroom Arguments

Courtroom trials involve intense rhetorical situations where lawyers aim to persuade judges and juries of their client's innocence or guilt. An example is the O.J. Simpson trial in 1995, where defense attorney Johnnie Cochran utilized rhetorical strategies such as repetition ('If it doesn't fit, you must acquit') and emotional appeals to cast doubt on the prosecution's case and secure a favorable outcome for his client.

• Audience : Judges, jury members, legal professionals, and the public.
• Context : The O.J. Simpson trial in 1995 was a high-profile case where the defense aimed to persuade the court of Simpson's innocence in the murders of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman.
• Message : Defense attorney Johnnie Cochran utilized rhetorical strategies, including repetition and emotional appeals, to cast doubt on the prosecution's case and secure a favorable outcome for his client.
• Purpose : To persuade the jury of Simpson's innocence by undermining the prosecution's evidence and creating reasonable doubt.
• Medium : Courtroom proceedings, media coverage, and public discourse.
• Constraints : Adhering to legal procedures, presenting evidence, and maintaining professionalism while effectively conveying the defense's argument.

Wrapping Up

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What is a Rhetorical Situation?

Which behavior is most clearly a response to a rhetorical situation, what is an example of a rhetorical situation, related articles.

10 Rhetorical Situation Examples

The term ‘rhetorical situation’ is defined as “the context in which speakers or writers create discourse” (Bitzer, 1999, p. 217)

If a literacy teacher asks you to describe the rhetorical situation, they’re asking you to analyze the context of the discourse.

So, what does this mean?

Usually, it means you need to examine two things:

• The rhetorical elements used, and
• The rhetorical devices used.

I’ll summarize these below so we can jump straight to our examples, then elaborate on them toward the end of the article. Here’s the TL;DR:

Rhetorical Elements

You’ll need to examine the following elements first and foremost to demonstrate the ‘rhetorical situation’:

• Text: e.g. a books, speech, podcast, film, video, etc.
• Author: e.g. the speaker, writer, or producer of the text.
• Audience: e.g. the listener, reader, viewer, or consumer of the text.
• Purpose: e.g. why the text was produced.
• A setting: e.g. the time, location, and contextual factors (Gabrielsen, 2010).

Rhetorical Devices

These are the methods of communicating utilized in the text, including:

• Logos: the use of logic to communicate.
• Ethos: the use of authority or credibility when conveying a message.
• Pathos: the use of emotion to communicate.

These devices are based on Aristotle’s philosophy.

By examining rhetorical elements and devices, we can develop a deeper understanding of a rhetorical situation, how it works, and perhaps, why it hasn’t worked so well!

Rhetorical Situation Examples

1. steve jobs stanford speech (2005).

In 2005, Steve Jobs delivered the commencement address at Stanford University, sharing personal stories of his life and career. The speech, titled “Connecting the Dots,” has since become iconic, offering lessons on life, work, and following one’s passion. Jobs addressed a crowd of graduates, faculty, and family members, leaving a lasting impact on the audience.

To determine the rhetorical situation, let’s unpick the key elements and devices in this discourse:

• Text: The text was a commencement address, consisting of anecdotes from Jobs’ life, including dropping out of college, being fired from Apple, and facing a life-threatening illness, to convey broader life lessons.
• Author: The author was Steve Jobs, the co-founder of Apple Inc. and Pixar Animation Studios, known for his innovation in the technology and entertainment industries.
• Audience: The primary audience was the graduating class of Stanford University, along with faculty and families, but the speech has since reached a global audience through various media.
• Purpose: The purpose of the speech was to inspire and motivate the graduates by encouraging them to pursue their passions, face setbacks with resilience, and see opportunities in life’s challenges.
• Rhetorical Devices: Jobs employed storytelling as a major rhetorical device, using personal anecdotes to create an emotional connection (pathos) with the audience. He also established ethos through his reputation as a successful entrepreneur and innovator. The use of repetition and parallel structure helped emphasize key points and make the speech memorable.

2. J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter (1997)

In 1997, J.K. Rowling released “Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone,” the first book in a series that would become a global phenomenon. The novel introduced readers to a magical world filled with complex characters, intricate plots, and a battle between good and evil. The book, and the series it initiated, captivated audiences worldwide, influencing an entire generation and beyond.

• Text: The text is a fantasy novel, blending elements of magic, adventure, and coming-of-age to explore themes of friendship, courage, and the choice between good and evil.
• Author: The author, J.K. Rowling, was relatively unknown at the time but has since become one of the most successful and influential writers in modern literature.
• Audience: Initially aimed at children and young adults, the novel quickly attracted readers of all ages, transcending demographic boundaries.
• Purpose: The primary purpose was to entertain, but the novel also sought to explore deeper themes and values, such as the importance of choice, the value of friendship, and the nature of courage.
• Rhetorical Devices: Rowling used vivid imagery and detailed world-building to immerse readers in the magical universe. The use of allegory allowed for the exploration of real-world themes within a fantastical context, and character development served to engage and invest the audience in the narrative.

3. Malala Yousafzai’s UN Speech (2012)

In 2012, Malala Yousafzai, a Pakistani activist for female education, delivered a speech at the United Nations Youth Assembly, advocating for the right to education for every child. This speech came after she survived an assassination attempt by the Taliban for her activism. Her address, titled “Malala Day,” called for worldwide access to education and emphasized the power of youth.

• Text: The text was a formal speech, rich with personal anecdotes, global examples, and a call to action, focusing on the importance of education and the role of youth in enacting change.
• Author: The author, Malala Yousafzai, was a young education activist from Pakistan, who became a symbol of resilience and advocacy for girls’ education worldwide.
• Audience: The primary audience was the United Nations Youth Assembly, but the speech was also broadcast globally, reaching a diverse international audience.
• Purpose: The purpose was to advocate for universal access to education, particularly for girls, and to inspire young people to take action for change.
• Rhetorical Devices: Malala used ethos by sharing her personal experiences and challenges, pathos by evoking emotions related to the struggles of children deprived of education, and logos by presenting facts and logical arguments for universal education. The repetition of phrases like “We will continue” emphasized determination and resilience.

4. Al Gore’s An Inconvenient Truth (2006)

In 2006, former Vice President Al Gore released the documentary “An Inconvenient Truth,” aiming to educate the public about the reality and dangers of climate change. The film combined data, personal anecdotes, and visual imagery to present a compelling case for urgent action. It played a significant role in raising global awareness about climate change and won two Academy Awards.

• Text: The text was a documentary film, utilizing a mix of scientific data, visual graphics, personal narratives, and future projections to convey the urgency of addressing climate change.
• Author: The author and narrator of the documentary was Al Gore, former Vice President of the United States, and a long-time environmental advocate.
• Audience: The intended audience was the global public, policymakers, and anyone with a stake in the future of the planet.
• Purpose: The film aimed to raise awareness about the reality of climate change, educate the public on its consequences, and inspire individual and collective action to address it.
• Rhetorical Devices: Gore effectively used ethos, drawing on his political background and environmental advocacy. Pathos was employed through alarming visual imagery and projections of climate impact, and logos through the presentation of scientific data and facts. The juxtaposition of current realities with future projections served to emphasize the urgency of action.

5. Greta Thunberg’s UN Speech (2019)

In 2019, Greta Thunberg, a young climate activist from Sweden, addressed the United Nations Climate Action Summit, passionately urging world leaders to take immediate action against climate change. Her speech, “How Dare You,” criticized the inaction of political leaders and highlighted the urgent need for substantive change to combat environmental degradation. The address became a rallying cry for environmental activists around the world.

• Text: The text was a concise yet powerful speech, marked by emotive language, direct criticism, and a clear call for urgent and meaningful action against climate change.
• Author: The author, Greta Thunberg, was a teenage climate activist from Sweden, who gained international recognition for her Fridays for Future movement and candid advocacy for environmental protection.
• Audience: The primary audience was the world leaders and delegates at the United Nations Climate Action Summit, but the speech also reached a global audience through extensive media coverage.
• Purpose: The purpose of the speech was to hold world leaders accountable for their inaction, raise awareness about the climate crisis, and galvanize immediate and substantive action to protect the environment.
• Rhetorical Devices: Thunberg employed pathos through her passionate and emotive delivery, ethos by referencing her personal sacrifices and commitment to climate activism, and logos by citing scientific data on climate change. The repeated phrase “How dare you” served as a powerful rhetorical device to emphasize her criticism and demand accountability.

6. Facebook (2004-Now)

In 2004, Mark Zuckerberg launched Facebook, a social networking platform initially for Harvard students, which quickly expanded to other universities and eventually to the general public. Facebook’s mission was to connect people and build community, but it also raised questions about privacy, data security, and the impact on social dynamics. The platform revolutionized communication and became a subject of scrutiny and debate.

• Text: The text in this scenario is the platform itself, Facebook, which included user profiles, status updates, friend requests, and various features that allowed for online social interaction and information sharing.
• Author: The author is, well, anyone with a Facebook profile who wants to make a post!
• Audience: The initial audience was Harvard students, but it quickly expanded to include a diverse and global user base, ranging from teenagers to older adults.
• Purpose: The primary purpose of Facebook was to connect people, facilitate communication, and build online communities, but it also aimed to monetize user engagement through targeted advertising.
• Rhetorical Devices: The platform utilized user-friendly interface and features to appeal to a wide audience (ethos), incorporated real-time notifications and updates to engage users emotionally (pathos), and used algorithms and data analytics to optimize user experience and advertising (logos). The concept of “friends” and “likes” served as rhetorical devices to foster a sense of community and validation.

7. MLK’s I Have a Dream Speech (1963)

In 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. The speech articulated King’s vision of a future where people would not be judged by the color of their skin but by their character. This address became a defining moment in the Civil Rights Movement and a symbol of the ongoing fight for racial equality.

• Text: The text was a public speech, characterized by its rhythmic cadence, vivid imagery, and references to the American Dream, the Bible, and the U.S. Constitution.
• Author: The author, Martin Luther King Jr., was a prominent leader in the Civil Rights Movement, known for his advocacy for nonviolent resistance and racial equality.
• Audience: The immediate audience was the over 250,000 civil rights supporters present at the march, but the speech was also broadcast nationwide, reaching a much wider audience.
• Purpose: The purpose of the speech was to advocate for an end to racism and segregation, inspire hope and solidarity among civil rights supporters, and call for freedom and equality for all.
• Rhetorical Devices: King employed a range of rhetorical devices including anaphora, through the repetition of the phrase “I have a dream,” metaphors, comparing racial injustice to a “bank of injustice,” and allusions to biblical and historical texts, establishing ethos, pathos, and logos.

8. Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet (1590s)

William Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet,” written in the early 1590s, is a tragic tale of two young lovers from feuding families in Verona. The play explores themes of love, fate, conflict, and death, and it has been celebrated for its exploration of the human condition and the consequences of societal discord. The timeless story has been adapted countless times across various mediums.

• Text: The text is a play, written in iambic pentameter, consisting of dialogue, soliloquies, and stage directions, exploring complex characters and universal themes.
• Author: The author, William Shakespeare, was an English playwright and poet, widely regarded as one of the greatest writers in the English language and world literature.
• Audience: The original audience was the theatergoers of Elizabethan England, but the play has since reached a global audience and has been studied and performed worldwide.
• Purpose: The purpose of “Romeo and Juliet” was to entertain, but also to explore and reflect on human nature, societal conflict, love, and fate.
• Rhetorical Devices: Shakespeare used a variety of rhetorical devices including metaphor, simile, foreshadowing, and dramatic irony. The use of soliloquies provided insight into characters’ thoughts and motivations, and the poetic structure added rhythm and emphasis to the dialogue.

9. Churchill’s We Shall Fight on the Beaches (1944)

In 1940, Winston Churchill delivered one of his most famous speeches to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom during World War II, known as the “We Shall Fight on the Beaches” speech. The speech was a powerful call to arms, aiming to inspire the British people and maintain morale during a particularly challenging time in the war. Churchill’s words became a symbol of British resilience and determination.

• Text: The text was a wartime speech, characterized by its defiant tone, vivid imagery of defense, and the repeated assurance of Britain’s resolve to fight against Nazi Germany, regardless of the circumstances.
• Author: The author, Winston Churchill, was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, known for his leadership during World War II and his ability to inspire and unite the British people through his speeches.
• Audience: The immediate audience was the House of Commons, but the speech was also broadcast over the radio to the British public and the wider world.
• Purpose: The purpose of the speech was to bolster British morale, assure the public of the government’s commitment to victory, and demonstrate resolve to the international community.
• Rhetorical Devices: Churchill employed anaphora, with the repetition of the phrase “We shall fight,” to emphasize determination. He used vivid imagery to depict various battle scenarios, and pathos to evoke a sense of national pride and duty.

10. The US Declaration of Independence (1776)

In 1776, Thomas Jefferson penned the United States Declaration of Independence, a document that declared the thirteen American colonies independent from British rule. The text outlined the philosophical justification for independence, listed grievances against King George III, and articulated the fundamental principles that the new nation would embody. The Declaration is a foundational document of the United States and a symbol of the pursuit of liberty.

• Text: The text is a formal political document, characterized by its eloquent prose, philosophical reasoning, and clear enumeration of grievances and principles.
• Author: The principal author was Thomas Jefferson, a Founding Father and the third President of the United States, with contributions from John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston.
• Audience: The immediate audience was the British Crown, but the document was also addressed to the international community and the American people, both contemporaneous and future.
• Purpose: The purpose of the Declaration was to formally announce and justify the colonies’ decision to sever ties with Britain and to articulate the foundational principles of the new nation, including equality, liberty, and self-governance.
• Rhetorical Devices: Jefferson employed a range of rhetorical devices including parallelism, in the listing of grievances; allusion, to philosophical and Enlightenment ideas; and pathos, to evoke a sense of injustice and the desire for liberty. The famous phrase “We hold these truths to be self-evident” exemplifies the use of ethos to establish the moral grounding of the American cause.

Let’s dive deeper into the five rhetorical elements you’ll want to look at in order to explain a rhetorical istuation:

The text is the medium through which the message is conveyed.

It can take various forms, such as books, speeches, podcasts, films, videos, or digital content, each with its unique characteristics and conventions.

The nature of the text influences how the message is received and interpreted by the audience (Gabrielsen, 2010).

For instance, a speech might appeal to the audience’s emotions through tone and delivery, while a written article might rely on structured arguments and evidence (Toye, 2013). Understanding the nuances of the text is crucial for analyzing the effectiveness of the communication.

See More: A List of Text Types

The author is the originator of the message, responsible for crafting the content and delivering it to the audience.

This person utilizes their knowledge, experiences, and perspectives to shape the message, whether they are a speaker, writer, filmmaker, or content creator.

The author’s credibility, intentions, and relationship with the audience play a significant role in how the message is received (Toye, 2013). For example, a well-respected expert in a field may have more influence over an audience than an unknown individual.

Analyzing the author’s background, motivations, and biases is essential for a comprehensive understanding of the rhetorical situation.

3. Audience

The audience is the recipient of the message, whose interpretation and response are integral to the communication process.

This group can be diverse, encompassing listeners, readers, viewers, or consumers, each bringing their unique perspectives, values, and expectations to the interaction.

The audience’s background, beliefs, and context significantly influence how they perceive and react to the message (Gabrielsen, 2010; Toye, 2013).

A successful communicator must understand and consider the audience’s needs, expectations, and potential biases to effectively convey their message. The audience’s engagement and response are key indicators of the success or failure of the rhetorical situation.

See More: Examples of Intended Audiences

The purpose is the driving force behind the creation of the text, answering the question of why the message was produced.

It can range from informing, persuading, entertaining, inspiring, to challenging the audience, and it shapes the content, tone, and structure of the message (Gabrielsen, 2010).

Understanding the purpose is crucial for both the author and the audience, as it guides the creation of the message and influences how the audience interprets and responds to it (Toye, 2013).

A clear and well-defined purpose is more likely to result in effective communication and achieve the desired outcome. Analyzing the purpose provides insight into the goals of the author and the potential impact of the message.

Analyzing purpose is a particularly important media literacy skill .

The setting encompasses the time, location, and contextual factors that frame the rhetorical situation (Toye, 2013).

This includes the historical, cultural, social, and political environment in which the communication occurs.

The setting influences both the creation and reception of the message, shaping the author’s perspective and the audience’s interpretation.

For example, a speech delivered during a time of crisis may be received differently than one given in a period of stability.

Understanding the setting is essential for a holistic analysis of the rhetorical situation, providing context and background that illuminate the motivations, challenges, and implications of the communication (Gabrielsen, 2010).

Rhetorical Devices (Aristotle)

Besides elements of the text, we can also examine the text’s rhetorical devices, which are the methods employed to communicate and persuade.

Generally, we refer to Aristotle’s writings on rhetoric for this.

Here are Aristotle’s rhetorical devices:

1. Logos (Appeal to Logic)

Logos is a rhetorical device that involves the use of logical reasoning to persuade the audience. It often incorporates facts, statistics, data, and well-structured arguments to appeal to the audience’s sense of reason.

A communicator using logos will aim to present clear, concise, and coherent arguments that are supported by evidence and sound reasoning (Bitzer, 1998).

This approach is particularly effective when discussing topics that require a rational and objective perspective.

By appealing to the audience’s intellect, logos helps to establish the credibility of the argument and the reliability of the speaker or writer.

Read More: Logos Examples

2. Ethos (Appeal to Credibility)

Ethos is a rhetorical device focused on establishing the credibility and moral character of the speaker or writer.

It involves demonstrating knowledge, expertise, and a sense of ethics to gain the trust and respect of the audience.

Ethos can be established through the author’s reputation, professional background, and the way they present themselves and their arguments.

The use of appropriate language, tone, and style, as well as showing respect for differing viewpoints, contributes to building ethos (Bitzer, 1998; Rapp, 2022).

When the audience perceives the communicator as credible and trustworthy, they are more likely to be persuaded by the message.

Read More: Ethos Examples

3. Pathos (Appeal to Emotions)

Pathos appeals to the emotions, values, and desires of the audience to elicit feelings that support the speaker or writer’s argument.

It involves the use of emotive language, vivid imagery, and personal anecdotes to create an emotional response.

Pathos can be particularly effective in persuading the audience by making them feel a certain way, whether it be compassion, anger, joy, or sorrow (Bitzer, 1998).

However, it is important for pathos to be balanced with logos and ethos to ensure the argument does not become overly emotional or manipulative.

When used effectively, pathos can create a strong connection between the audience and the message, making the argument more compelling.

Read More: Pathos Examples

4. Telos (Purpose)

Telos is not traditionally listed as a rhetorical device in the same manner as logos, ethos, and pathos.

However, in a broader sense, telos refers to the purpose or goal of a rhetorical situation or a speaker’s intention in communication (Rapp, 2022). It involves considering the end purpose of the message and how it aligns with the values, expectations, and needs of the audience.

Understanding telos is crucial for both the communicator and the audience, as it provides insight into the motivations behind the message and its intended impact. A clear and well-defined telos is essential for effective communication and achieving the desired outcome.

5. Kairos (Timing)

Kairos refers to the opportune moment or the right timing in which to deliver a message. It involves considering when the audience will be most receptive and when the message will have the greatest impact.

Kairos takes into account external factors such as the cultural, social, and political climate, as well as internal factors like the audience’s mood and level of interest (Rapp, 2022).

Recognizing and seizing the opportune moment can significantly enhance the effectiveness of the message.

Kairos, therefore, emphasizes the importance of context and timing in rhetorical situations, contributing to the persuasiveness and success of the communication.

Aristotle. (2014). The Art of Rhetoric . Toronto: HarperCollins.

Bitzer, L. (1998). The Rhetorical Sitaution . In Condit, C. M., Lucaites, J. L., & Caudill, S. (Eds.). Contemporary Rhetorical Theory, First Edition. Guilford Publications.

Gabrielsen, J. (2010). The Power of Speech . Hans Reitzels Forlag.

Rapp, C. (2022). Aristotle’s Rhetoric. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2022). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.  https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2022/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/

Toye, R. (2013). Rhetoric: A Very Short Introduction . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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What is a Rhetorical Situation? (Definition, Examples, Rules)

What is a rhetorical situation? How does it work? We’ve all heard of things being “rhetorical,” although do we completely understand them? Learn more about a rhetorical situation in this short guide.

What is a rhetorical situation?

A piece of writing or a speech is influenced by its creator’s background, beliefs, interests, and values. Readers interpret the text or speech by considering the circumstances out of which it arises. 

The rhetorical situation offers an understanding of how readers and writers relate to each other through the written or spoken medium. It helps writers produce more effective text that meets its intended goals. It allows readers to determine the context in which the writing took place and what the text aims to do. 

Let’s look at the rhetorical situation in more detail and use examples for a better grasp of the model. 

How do you find the rhetorical situation?

The rhetorical situation is made up of components that impact the development and reception of the text. The components are:

2. Exigence

3. Audience

The author is the individual who creates the text. Readers of the text will consider the author’s authority or experience in the subject on which he/she has written. They will also look at the values the author holds with regard to the subject, and factors that affect the author’s perspectives on the subject.

The exigence describes the urgent need that the author wants to address through the text. The author knows why he/she wants to express certain points and how those points will impact his/her audience.

The audience refers to the people the text aims to persuade, inform, or entertain. Individuals other than the intended recipients of the text are also included in the text’s audience. 

Purpose 

The purpose describes the aims of the text. Does the writer aim to inform, persuade, or entertain his/her audience? Readers that engage with the text think about the writer’s motivations to create the text and the goals of that text. 

Context 

The context is made up of all the factors that influence the meaning of the text. The types of context are:

Physical context

The physical settings of authors affect the texts they create. For example, some writers may find they’re able to produce more effective text in bustling coffee shops while others may prefer the solitude of libraries. The specific places in which readers receive the text affect how they respond to the text.

For example, those commuting by train may read a pamphlet in a more leisurely way, which will affect how they feel about its contents. If the same pamphlet were to be handed to them while they were walking, they may engage with it differently. 

Social context

The social environment of writers and readers affects how they create and receive a text. Writers and readers belonging to similar communities are more likely to communicate effectively with one another compared to writers or readers belonging to different communities.

Writers may not need to provide a detailed background on a topic when presenting to groups already familiar with the topic. Supporters of a political party will not expect a columnist supporting the rival party to provide a nuanced or unbiased account of a key poll issue. 

Cultural context

A documentary set in the sixties will connect more easily with viewers who are intimately familiar with the social behaviors and speech of that era. Millennials may find it hard to understand the colloquial speech and slang of earlier generations.

Readers based in India may find it easier to follow a news article on the issue of dowry deaths than counterparts in the west, where the dowry system has never existed. 

The topic is the piece of communication, whether that occurs verbally or in writing. 

What is an example of a rhetorical situation?

You’re surrounded by rhetoric . It’s in YouTube videos, newspaper ads, television commercials, billboards, political speeches, literary essays, songs, and graphic novels, to name some.

The examples below highlight the components of the rhetorical situation.

1. Archbishop of Canterbury Justin Welby delivered the funeral eulogy for Queen Elizabeth II.

• The exigence is that it is customary to publicly reflect on a Head of State’s life and achievements
• The audience comprises the British public and people from all over the world
• The purpose is to highlight the Queen’s life of public service
• In the west, it is customary to conduct a eulogy to pay tribute to someone who has died
• The topic is the sermon the archbishop delivered at the Queen’s funeral at Westminster Abbey

2. Inaugural address by President Joseph Biden.

• The exigence is that it is customary for the elected President of the United States to deliver an inaugural address
• The audience is Americans although the inaugural address is shown on all international news channels
• The purpose is to share the President’s vision for America and promise to the American people
• The inaugural address is part of the customary ceremony to mark the commencement of a new four-year term of the President of the United States.
• The topic is the inaugural speech by the President.

Use rhetorical analysis to shape messages and gain a detailed understanding of content

Breaking down the rhetorical situation is helpful for writers, speakers, and content creators. A rhetorical analysis of content is useful to identify the improvements needed to make it more appealing to its audience and meet its goals. As a reader, rhetorical analysis is a tool to effectively understand, critique, or enjoy different types of content. Use this model today to enhance your writing and interpretation skills.

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About the author

Dalia Y.: Dalia is an English Major and linguistics expert with an additional degree in Psychology. Dalia has featured articles on Forbes, Inc, Fast Company, Grammarly, and many more. She covers English, ESL, and all things grammar on GrammarBrain.

Core lessons

• Abstract Noun
• Accusative Case
• Active Sentence
• Alliteration
• Adjective Clause
• Adjective Phrase
• Adverbial Clause
• Appositive Phrase
• Body Paragraph
• Compound Adjective
• Complex Sentence
• Compound Words
• Compound Predicate
• Common Noun
• Comparative Adjective
• Comparative and Superlative
• Compound Noun
• Compound Subject
• Compound Sentence
• Copular Verb
• Collective Noun
• Colloquialism
• Conciseness
• Conditional
• Concrete Noun
• Conjunction
• Conjugation
• Conditional Sentence
• Comma Splice
• Correlative Conjunction
• Coordinating Conjunction
• Coordinate Adjective
• Cumulative Adjective
• Dative Case
• Declarative Statement
• Direct Object Pronoun
• Direct Object
• Dangling Modifier
• Demonstrative Pronoun
• Demonstrative Adjective
• Direct Characterization
• Definite Article
• Doublespeak
• Equivocation Fallacy
• Future Perfect Progressive
• Future Simple
• Future Perfect Continuous
• Future Perfect
• First Conditional
• Gerund Phrase
• Genitive Case
• Helping Verb
• Irregular Adjective
• Irregular Verb
• Imperative Sentence
• Indefinite Article
• Intransitive Verb
• Introductory Phrase
• Indefinite Pronoun
• Indirect Characterization
• Interrogative Sentence
• Intensive Pronoun
• Inanimate Object
• Indefinite Tense
• Infinitive Phrase
• Interjection
• Intensifier
• Indicative Mood
• Juxtaposition
• Linking Verb
• Misplaced Modifier
• Nominative Case
• Noun Adjective
• Object Pronoun
• Object Complement
• Order of Adjectives
• Parallelism
• Prepositional Phrase
• Past Simple Tense
• Past Continuous Tense
• Past Perfect Tense
• Past Progressive Tense
• Present Simple Tense
• Present Perfect Tense
• Personal Pronoun
• Personification
• Persuasive Writing
• Parallel Structure
• Phrasal Verb
• Predicate Adjective
• Predicate Nominative
• Phonetic Language
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2.1 Writing Purposes & Rhetorical Situation

Before drafting any piece of writing, from personal essays to research papers, you should explore what you want your readers to feel, think, say, or do about your topic. Your writing should help your readers understand a concept, adopt a particular belief or point of view, or carry out a task.

General Writing Purposes

The following are four general writing purposes, two or more of which are usually combined for greater effect:

To Inform – Presenting information is one of the most common writing purposes. In academic writing situations, students often write papers to demonstrate their mastery of the material. Journalistic writing is the most common form of informative writing, but informing readers can have its place in every writing situation. For example, in narrating her experience of a childhood vacation, a writer may also work toward informing her readers about the beauty of a particular place.

To Persuade – Persuasion is another common writing purpose. We have strong opinions on many issues, and sometimes our writing seeks to defend those views and/or convince the reader of the superiority of our position. Persuasion can take many forms, from writing to elected officials about the need for a new traffic light to an academic essay that defends the need for the death penalty in the U.S., but its aim is always to persuade. Personal essays also sometimes work toward persuasion; writers often illustrate their points through the use of narrative structures or examples.

To Express Yourself – Self-expression, or self-exploration, can be the sole purpose of some writing situations, but it can also work to further establish the writer’s presence in a piece or to illustrate a larger point. For example, a student writing about his experience with drug addiction may use that experience to make a larger point about the need for more drug treatment options.

To Entertain – Some writing merely entertains, while some writing couples entertainment with a more serious purpose. Sometimes a lighthearted approach can help your reader absorb dull or difficult material, while other times humor provides an opportunity to point out the shortcomings of people, ideas, or institutions by poking fun at them.

Specific Writing Purposes

Besides having one or more general purposes , each piece of writing has its own specific purpose —exactly what you want readers to come away with. For example, consider the differences between a paper that outlines how to change your car’s oil and one that discusses the reasons why you should change your oil. Each has its own specific purpose even though the topics are similar. Having a specific purpose in mind helps you define your audience and select the appropriate details, language, and approach that best suits them. It also helps keep you from getting off track.

In defining your specific purpose, it’s helpful to think in terms of verbs. Is your purpose to communicate or to convince? Table 2.1  shows a few examples:

Understanding the Rhetorical Situation

It is common knowledge in the workplace that no one really wants to read what you write, and even if they want to or have to read it, they will likely not read all of it. So how do you get your reader to understand what you need quickly and efficiently? Start by doing a detailed Needs Assessment —make sure you understand the “rhetorical situation.” Before you begin drafting a document, determine the needs of your rhetorical situation.

The “rhetorical situation” is a term used to describe the components of any situation in which you may want to communicate, whether in written or oral form. To define a “rhetorical situation,” ask yourself this question:  “ Who is talking to whom about what, how, and why ?” *See Chapter One: What is…?  or view the PALES slideshow on Prezi .

WRITER  refers to you, the writer/creator/designer of the communication. It is important to examine your own motivation for writing and any biases, past experiences, and knowledge you bring to the writing situation. These elements will influence how you craft the message, whether positively or negatively. This examination should also include your role within the organization, as well as your position relative to your target audience.

AUDIENCE  refers to your readers/listeners/viewers/users.  Audience analysis is possibly the most critical part of understanding the rhetorical situation (see.  Consider Figure 1.3.2  below. Is your audience internal (within your company) or external (such as clients, suppliers, customers, other stakeholders)? Are they lateral to you (at the same position or level), upstream from you (management), or downstream from you (employees, subordinates)? Who is the primary audience? Who are the secondary audiences? These questions, and others, help you to create an understanding of your audience that will help you craft a message that is designed to effectively communicate specifically to them.

MESSAGE refers to what information you want to communicate. This is the content of your document. It should be aligned to your purpose and targeted to your audience. While it is important to carefully choose what content your audience needs, it is equally critical to cut out content that your audience does not need or want. It is important to avoid wasting your audience’s time with unnecessary or irrelevant information. Your message should be professional, and expressed in a tone appropriate for the audience, purpose, and context.

CONTEXT  refers to the situation that creates the need for the writing. In other words, what has happened or needs to happen that creates the need for communication? The context is influenced by timing, location, current events, and culture, which can be organizational or social. Ignoring the context for your communication could result in awkward situations, or possibly offensive ones. It will almost certainly impact your ability to clearly convey your message to your audience.

Figure 2.1  is a visual representation of the rhetorical situation:

How Writers and Readers Interact

Writers and readers interact in unique ways. In all cases, writing is a one-way flow of information. Therefore, writers must consider and include all of their readers’ needs. Every reader is different, but an effective writer must anticipate what will be most useful to the audience. Additionally, the world is extremely diverse. Some readers may be more relaxed or open-minded than others. For this reason, writers must learn to be conscientious in their writing to ensure they won’t discourage or offend any of their readers. If a reader is offended, any decision made will likely not be made in the writer’s favor. Effective writing eliminates unnecessary pieces of information and ensures a concise document.

When writing a document you must start with who your audience is and what they need to know. It’s also important to take any cultural differences into consideration.

Additional Resources

• “ The Rhetorical Situation ,” a video from Joy Robinson, UAH Technical Writing
• “ Rhetorical Situations ” (article from the Purdue OWL)

Technical Writing at LBCC Copyright © 2020 by Will Fleming is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Rhetorical Situations

Rhetorical context: the larger social, historical situation in which the text will interact..

Any piece of writing is shaped by external factors before the first word is ever set down on the page. These factors are referred to as the  rhetorical situation , or  rhetorical context , and are often presented in the form of a pyramid. The three key factors–purpose, author, and audience–all work together to influence what the text itself says, and how it says it. 

Purpose: 

Any time you are preparing to write, you should first ask yourself, “Why am I writing?” All writing, no matter the type, has a purpose. Purpose will sometimes be given to you (by a teacher, for example), while other times, you will decide for yourself. As the author, it’s up to you to make sure that purpose is clear not only for yourself, but also–especially–for your audience. If your purpose is not clear, your audience is not likely to receive your intended message ( read more ).

Audience: 

In order for your writing to be maximally effective, you have to think about the audience you’re writing for and adapt your writing approach to their needs, expectations, backgrounds, and interests. Being aware of your audience helps you make better decisions about what to say and how to say it. For example, you have a better idea if you will need to define or explain any terms, and you can make a more conscious effort not to say or do anything that would offend your audience ( read more ).

Author: 

The final unique aspect of anything written down is who it is, exactly, that does the writing. In some sense, this is the part you have the most control over–it’s you who’s writing, after all! You can harness the aspects of yourself that will make the text most effective to its audience, for its purpose ( read more ).

Voice is conveyed through the author's choice of diction or level of formality. It should directly connect to the text's audience and purpose.

Common Writing Assignments

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