socrates summary of life

• History Classics
• Your Profile
• Find History on Facebook (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on Twitter (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on YouTube (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on Instagram (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on TikTok (Opens in a new window)
• This Day In History
• History Podcasts
• History Vault

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 13, 2023 | Original: November 9, 2009

Viewed by many as the founding figure of Western philosophy, Socrates (469-399 B.C.) is at once the most exemplary and the strangest of the Greek philosophers. He grew up during the golden age of Pericles’ Athens, served with distinction as a soldier, but became best known as a questioner of everything and everyone. His style of teaching—immortalized as the Socratic method—involved not conveying knowledge, but rather asking question after clarifying question until his students arrived at their own understanding. 

Socrates wrote nothing himself, so all that is known about him is filtered through the writings of a few contemporaries and followers, most notably his student Plato. Socrates was accused of corrupting the youth of Athens and sentenced to death. Choosing not to flee, he spent his final days in the company of his friends before drinking the executioner’s cup of poisonous hemlock.

Socrates: Early Years

Socrates was born and lived nearly his entire life in Athens. His father Sophroniscus was a stonemason and his mother, Phaenarete, was a midwife. As a youth, he showed an appetite for learning. Plato describes him eagerly acquiring the writings of the leading contemporary philosopher Anaxagoras and says he was taught rhetoric by Aspasia , the talented mistress of the great Athenian leader Pericles .

Did you know? Although he never outright rejected the standard Athenian view of religion, Socrates' beliefs were nonconformist. He often referred to God rather than the gods, and reported being guided by an inner divine voice .

His family apparently had the moderate wealth required to launch Socrates’ career as a hoplite (foot soldier). As an infantryman, Socrates showed great physical endurance and courage, rescuing the future Athenian leader Alcibiades during the siege of Potidaea in 432 B.C. 

Through the 420s, Socrates was deployed for several battles in the Peloponnesian War , but also spent enough time in Athens to become known and beloved by the city’s youth. In 423 he was introduced to the broader public as a caricature in Aristophanes’ play “Clouds,” which depicted him as an unkempt buffoon whose philosophy amounted to teaching rhetorical tricks for getting out of debt.

Philosophy of Socrates

Although many of Aristophanes’ criticisms seem unfair, Socrates cut a strange figure in Athens, going about barefoot, long-haired and unwashed in a society with incredibly refined standards of beauty. It didn’t help that he was by all accounts physically ugly, with an upturned nose and bulging eyes. 

Despite his intellect and connections, he rejected the sort of fame and power that Athenians were expected to strive for. His lifestyle—and eventually his death—embodied his spirit of questioning every assumption about virtue, wisdom and the good life.

Two of his younger students, the historian Xenophon and the philosopher Plato, recorded the most significant accounts of Socrates’ life and philosophy. For both, the Socrates that appears bears the mark of the writer. Thus, Xenophon’s Socrates is more straightforward, willing to offer advice rather than simply asking more questions. In Plato’s later works, Socrates speaks with what seem to be largely Plato’s ideas. 

In the earliest of Plato’s “Dialogues”—considered by historians to be the most accurate portrayal—Socrates rarely reveals any opinions of his own as he brilliantly helps his interlocutors dissect their thoughts and motives in Socratic dialogue, a form of literature in which two or more characters (in this case, one of them Socrates) discuss moral and philosophical issues.

One of the greatest paradoxes that Socrates helped his students explore was whether weakness of will—doing wrong when you genuinely knew what was right—ever truly existed. He seemed to think otherwise: people only did wrong when at the moment the perceived benefits seemed to outweigh the costs. Thus the development of personal ethics is a matter of mastering what he called “the art of measurement,” correcting the distortions that skew one’s analyses of benefit and cost.

Socrates was also deeply interested in understanding the limits of human knowledge. When he was told that the Oracle at Delphi had declared that he was the wisest man in Athens, Socrates balked until he realized that, although he knew nothing, he was (unlike his fellow citizens) keenly aware of his own ignorance.

Trial and Death of Socrates

Socrates avoided political involvement where he could and counted friends on all sides of the fierce power struggles following the end of the Peloponnesian War. In 406 B.C. his name was drawn to serve in Athens’ assembly, or ekklesia, one of the three branches of ancient Greek democracy known as demokratia. 

Socrates became the lone opponent of an illegal proposal to try a group of Athens’ top generals for failing to recover their dead from a battle against Sparta (the generals were executed once Socrates’ assembly service ended). Three years later, when a tyrannical Athenian government ordered Socrates to participate in the arrest and execution of Leon of Salamis, he refused—an act of civil disobedience that Martin Luther King Jr. would cite in his “ Letter from a Birmingham Jail .”

The tyrants were forced from power before they could punish Socrates, but in 399 he was indicted for failing to honor the Athenian gods and for corrupting the young. Although some historians suggest that there may have been political machinations behind the trial, he was condemned on the basis of his thought and teaching. In his “The Apology of Socrates,” Plato recounts him mounting a spirited defense of his virtue before the jury but calmly accepting their verdict. It was in court that Socrates allegedly uttered the now-famous phrase, “the unexamined life is not worth living.”

His execution was delayed for 30 days due to a religious festival, during which the philosopher’s distraught friends tried unsuccessfully to convince him to escape from Athens. On his last day, Plato says, he “appeared both happy in manner and words as he died nobly and without fear.” He drank the cup of brewed hemlock his executioner handed him, walked around until his legs grew numb and then lay down, surrounded by his friends, and waited for the poison to reach his heart.

The Socratic Legacy

Socrates is unique among the great philosophers in that he is portrayed and remembered as a quasi-saint or religious figure. Indeed, nearly every school of ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, from the Skeptics to the Stoics to the Cynics, desired to claim him as one of their own (only the Epicurians dismissed him, calling him “the Athenian buffoon”). 

Since all that is known of his philosophy is based on the writing of others, the Socratic problem, or Socratic question–reconstructing the philosopher’s beliefs in full and exploring any contradictions in second-hand accounts of them–remains an open question facing scholars today.

Socrates and his followers expanded the purpose of philosophy from trying to understand the outside world to trying to tease apart one’s inner values. His passion for definitions and hair-splitting questions inspired the development of formal logic and systematic ethics from the time of Aristotle through the Renaissance and into the modern era. 

Moreover, Socrates’ life became an exemplar of the difficulty and the importance of living (and if necessary dying) according to one’s well-examined beliefs. In his 1791 autobiography Benjamin Franklin reduced this notion to a single line: “Humility: Imitate Jesus and Socrates.”

HISTORY Vault: Ancient History

From the Sphinx of Egypt to the Kama Sutra, explore ancient history videos.

Sign up for Inside History

Get HISTORY’s most fascinating stories delivered to your inbox three times a week.

By submitting your information, you agree to receive emails from HISTORY and A+E Networks. You can opt out at any time. You must be 16 years or older and a resident of the United States.

More details : Privacy Notice | Terms of Use | Contact Us

Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher considered to be the main source of Western thought. He was condemned to death for his Socratic method of questioning.

Who Was Socrates?

When the political climate of Greece turned against him, Socrates was sentenced to death by hemlock poisoning in 399 B.C. He accepted this judgment rather than fleeing into exile.

Early Years

Born circa 470 B.C. in Athens, Greece, Socrates's life is chronicled through only a few sources: the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon and the plays of Aristophanes.

Because these writings had other purposes than reporting his life, it is likely none present a completely accurate picture. However, collectively, they provide a unique and vivid portrayal of Socrates's philosophy and personality.

Socrates was the son of Sophroniscus, an Athenian stonemason and sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife. Because he wasn't from a noble family, he probably received a basic Greek education and learned his father's craft at a young age. It's believed Socrates worked as mason for many years before he devoted his life to philosophy.

Contemporaries differ in their account of how Socrates supported himself as a philosopher. Both Xenophon and Aristophanes state Socrates received payment for teaching, while Plato writes Socrates explicitly denied accepting payment, citing his poverty as proof.

Socrates married Xanthippe, a younger woman, who bore him three sons: Lamprocles, Sophroniscus and Menexenus. There is little known about her except for Xenophon's characterization of Xanthippe as "undesirable."

He writes she was not happy with Socrates's second profession and complained that he wasn’t supporting family as a philosopher. By his own words, Socrates had little to do with his sons' upbringing and expressed far more interest in the intellectual development of Athens' other young boys.

Life in Athens

Athenian law required all able-bodied males serve as citizen soldiers, on call for duty from ages 18 until 60. According to Plato, Socrates served in the armored infantry — known as the hoplite — with shield, long spear and face mask.

He participated in three military campaigns during the Peloponnesian War , at Delium, Amphipolis and Potidaea, where he saved the life of Alcibiades, a popular Athenian general.

Socrates was known for his fortitude in battle and his fearlessness, a trait that stayed with him throughout his life. After his trial, he compared his refusal to retreat from his legal troubles to a soldier's refusal to retreat from battle when threatened with death.

Plato's Symposium provides the best details of Socrates' physical appearance. He was not the ideal of Athenian masculinity. Short and stocky, with a snub nose and bulging eyes, Socrates always seemed to appear to be staring.

However, Plato pointed out that in the eyes of his students, Socrates possessed a different kind of attractiveness, not based on a physical ideal but on his brilliant debates and penetrating thought.

Socrates always emphasized the importance of the mind over the relative unimportance of the human body. This credo inspired Plato’s philosophy of dividing reality into two separate realms, the world of the senses and the world of ideas, declaring that the latter was the only important one.

Socrates believed that philosophy should achieve practical results for the greater well-being of society. He attempted to establish an ethical system based on human reason rather than theological doctrine.

Socrates pointed out that human choice was motivated by the desire for happiness. Ultimate wisdom comes from knowing oneself. The more a person knows, the greater his or her ability to reason and make choices that will bring true happiness.

Socrates believed that this translated into politics with the best form of government being neither a tyranny nor a democracy. Instead, government worked best when ruled by individuals who had the greatest ability, knowledge and virtue, and possessed a complete understanding of themselves.

DOWNLOAD BIOGRAPHY'S SOCRATES FACT CARD

Socratic Method

For Socrates, Athens was a classroom and he went about asking questions of the elite and common man alike, seeking to arrive at political and ethical truths. Socrates didn’t lecture about what he knew. In fact, he claimed to be ignorant because he had no ideas, but wise because he recognized his own ignorance.

He asked questions of his fellow Athenians in a dialectic method — the Socratic Method — which compelled the audience to think through a problem to a logical conclusion. Sometimes the answer seemed so obvious, it made Socrates' opponents look foolish. For this, his Socratic Method was admired by some and vilified by others.

During Socrates' life, Athens was going through a dramatic transition from hegemony in the classical world to its decline after a humiliating defeat by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War. Athenians entered a period of instability and doubt about their identity and place in the world.

As a result, they clung to past glories, notions of wealth and a fixation on physical beauty. Socrates attacked these values with his insistent emphasis on the greater importance of the mind.

While many Athenians admired Socrates' challenges to Greek conventional wisdom and the humorous way he went about it, an equal number grew angry and felt he threatened their way of life and uncertain future.

Trial of Socrates

In 399 B.C., Socrates was accused of corrupting the youth of Athens and of impiety, or heresy. He chose to defend himself in court.

Rather than present himself as wrongly accused, Socrates declared he fulfilled an important role as a gadfly, one who provides an important service to his community by continually questioning and challenging the status quo and its defenders.

The jury was not swayed by Socrates' defense and convicted him by a vote of 280 to 221. Possibly the defiant tone of his defense contributed to the verdict and he made things worse during the deliberation over his punishment.

Athenian law allowed a convicted citizen to propose an alternative punishment to the one called for by the prosecution and the jury would decide. Instead of proposing he be exiled, Socrates suggested he be honored by the city for his contribution to their enlightenment and be paid for his services.

The jury was not amused and sentenced him to death by drinking a mixture of poison hemlock.

Socrates' Death

Before Socrates' execution, friends offered to bribe the guards and rescue him so he could flee into exile.

He declined, stating he wasn't afraid of death, felt he would be no better off if in exile and said he was still a loyal citizen of Athens, willing to abide by its laws, even the ones that condemned him to death.

Plato described Socrates' execution in his Phaedo dialogue: Socrates drank the hemlock mixture without hesitation. Numbness slowly crept into his body until it reached his heart. Shortly before his final breath, Socrates described his death as a release of the soul from the body.

"],["

"]]" tml-render-layout="inline">

QUICK FACTS

• Name: Socrates
• Birth Year: 470
• Birth City: Athens
• Birth Country: Greece
• Gender: Male
• Best Known For: Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher considered to be the main source of Western thought. He was condemned to death for his Socratic method of questioning.
• Education and Academia
• Nacionalities
• Death Year: 399
• Death City: Athens
• Death Country: Greece

We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us !

Philosophers

Francis Bacon

Auguste Comte

Charles-Louis de Secondat

Saint Thomas Aquinas

William James

John Stuart Mill

Jean-Paul Sartre

• Table of Contents
• Random Entry
• Chronological
• Editorial Information
• About the SEP
• Editorial Board
• How to Cite the SEP
• Special Characters
• Advanced Tools
• Support the SEP
• PDFs for SEP Friends
• Make a Donation
• SEPIA for Libraries
• Entry Contents

Bibliography

Academic tools.

• Friends PDF Preview
• Author and Citation Info
• Back to Top

Constantin Brancusi. Socrates Image © The Museum of Modern Art; Licensed by Scala/Art Resource, NY ©2005 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris reproduced with permission of the Brancusi Estate

The philosopher Socrates remains, as he was in his lifetime (469–399 B.C.E.), [ 1 ] an enigma, an inscrutable individual who, despite having written nothing, is considered one of the handful of philosophers who forever changed how philosophy itself was to be conceived. All our information about him is second-hand and most of it vigorously disputed, but his trial and death at the hands of the Athenian democracy is nevertheless the founding myth of the academic discipline of philosophy, and his influence has been felt far beyond philosophy itself, and in every age. Because his life is widely considered paradigmatic not only for the philosophic life but, more generally, for how anyone ought to live, Socrates has been encumbered with the adulation and emulation ordinarily reserved for religious figures – strange for someone who tried so hard to make others do their own thinking and for someone convicted and executed on the charge of irreverence toward the gods. Certainly he was impressive, so impressive that many others were moved to write about him, all of whom found him strange by the conventions of fifth-century Athens: in his appearance, personality, and behavior, as well as in his views and methods.

So thorny is the difficulty of distinguishing the historical Socrates from the Socrateses of the authors of the texts in which he appears and, moreover, from the Socrateses of scores of later interpreters, that the whole contested issue is generally referred to as the Socratic problem . Each age, each intellectual turn, produces a Socrates of its own. It is no less true now that, “The ‘real’ Socrates we have not: what we have is a set of interpretations each of which represents a ‘theoretically possible’ Socrates,” as Cornelia de Vogel (1955, 28) put it. In fact, de Vogel was writing as a new analytic paradigm for interpreting Socrates was about to become standard—Gregory Vlastos’s model (§2.2), which would hold sway until the mid 1990s. Who Socrates really was is fundamental to virtually any interpretation of the philosophical dialogues of Plato because Socrates is the dominant figure in most of Plato’s dialogues.

1. Socrates’s strangeness

2.1 three primary sources: aristophanes, xenophon, and plato, 2.2 contemporary interpretative strategies, 2.3 implications for the philosophy of socrates, 3. a chronology of the historical socrates in the context of athenian history and the dramatic dates of plato’s dialogues.

Resources for Teaching

General overviews and reference

Analytic philosophy of socrates, continental interpretations, interpretive issues, specialized studies, other internet resources, related entries.

Standards of beauty are different in different eras, and in Socrates’s time beauty could easily be measured by the standard of the gods, stately, proportionate sculptures of whom had been adorning the Athenian acropolis since about the time Socrates reached the age of thirty. Good looks and proper bearing were important to a man’s political prospects, for beauty and goodness were linked in the popular imagination. The extant sources agree that Socrates was profoundly ugly, resembling a satyr more than a man—and resembling not at all the statues that turned up later in ancient times and now grace Internet sites and the covers of books. He had wide-set, bulging eyes that darted sideways and enabled him, like a crab, to see not only what was straight ahead, but what was beside him as well; a flat, upturned nose with flaring nostrils; and large fleshy lips like an ass. Socrates let his hair grow long, Spartan-style (even while Athens and Sparta were at war), and went about barefoot and unwashed, carrying a stick and looking arrogant. He didn’t change his clothes but efficiently wore in the daytime what he covered himself with at night. Something was peculiar about his gait as well, sometimes described as a swagger so intimidating that enemy soldiers kept their distance. He was impervious to the effects of alcohol and cold weather, but this made him an object of suspicion to his fellow soldiers on campaign. We can safely assume an average height (since no one mentions it at all), and a strong build, given the active life he appears to have led. Against the iconic tradition of a pot-belly, Socrates and his companions are described as going hungry (Aristophanes, Birds 1280–83). On his appearance, see Plato’s Theaetetus 143e, and Symposium 215a–c, 216c–d, 221d–e; Xenophon’s Symposium 4.19, 5.5–7; and Aristophanes’s Clouds 362. Brancusi’s oak sculpture, standing 51.25 inches including its base, captures Socrates’s appearance and strangeness in the sense that it looks different from every angle, including a second “eye” that cannot be seen if the first is in view. (See the Museum of Modern Art’s page on Brancusi’s Socrates which offers additional views.) Also true to Socrates’s reputation for ugliness, but less available, are the drawings of the contemporary Swiss artist, Hans Erni.

In the late fifth century B.C.E., it was more or less taken for granted that any self-respecting Athenian male would prefer fame, wealth, honors, and political power to a life of labor. Although many citizens lived by their labor in a wide variety of occupations, they were expected to spend much of their leisure time, if they had any, busying themselves with the affairs of the city. Men regularly participated in the governing Assembly and in the city’s many courts; and those who could afford it prepared themselves for success at public life by studying with rhetoricians and sophists from abroad who could themselves become wealthy and famous by teaching the young men of Athens to use words to their advantage. Other forms of higher education were also known in Athens: mathematics, astronomy, geometry, music, ancient history, and linguistics. One of the things that seemed strange about Socrates is that he neither labored to earn a living, nor participated voluntarily in affairs of state. Rather, he embraced poverty and, although youths of the city kept company with him and imitated him, Socrates adamantly insisted he was not a teacher (Plato, Apology 33a–b) and refused all his life to take money for what he did. The strangeness of this behavior is mitigated by the image then current of teachers and students: teachers were viewed as pitchers pouring their contents into the empty cups that were the students. Because Socrates was no transmitter of information that others were passively to receive, he resists the comparison to teachers. Rather, he helped others recognize on their own what is real, true, and good (Plato, Meno , Theaetetus )—a new, and thus suspect, approach to education. He was known for confusing, stinging, and stunning his conversation partners into the unpleasant experience of realizing their own ignorance, a state sometimes superseded by genuine intellectual curiosity.

It did not help matters that Socrates seemed to have a higher opinion of women than most of his companions had, speaking of “men and women,” “priests and priestesses,” likening his work to midwifery, and naming foreign women as his teachers: Socrates claimed to have learned rhetoric from Aspasia of Miletus, the de facto spouse of Pericles (Plato, Menexenus ); and to have learned erotics from the priestess Diotima of Mantinea (Plato, Symposium ). Socrates was unconventional in a related respect. Athenian citizen males of the upper social classes did not marry until they were at least thirty, and Athenian females were poorly educated and kept sequestered until puberty, when they were given in marriage by their fathers. Thus the socialization and education of males often involved a relationship for which the English word ‘pederasty’ (though often used) is misleading, in which a youth approaching manhood, fifteen to seventeen, became the beloved of a male lover a few years older, under whose tutelage and through whose influence and gifts, the younger man would be guided and improved. It was assumed among Athenians that mature men would find youths sexually attractive, and such relationships were conventionally viewed as beneficial to both parties by family and friends alike. A degree of hypocrisy (or denial), however, was implied by the arrangement: “officially” it did not involve sexual relations between the lovers and, if it did, then the beloved was not supposed to derive pleasure from the act—but ancient evidence (comedies, vase paintings, et al.) shows that both restrictions were often violated (Dover 1989, 204). What was odd about Socrates is that, although he was no exception to the rule of finding youths attractive (Plato, Charmides 155d, Protagoras 309a–b; Xenophon, Symposium 4.27–28), he refused the physical advances of even his favorite, Alcibiades (Plato, Symposium 219b–d), and kept his eye on the improvement of their, and all the Athenians’, souls (Plato, Apology 30a–b), a mission he said he had been assigned by the oracle of Apollo at Delphi, if he was interpreting his friend Chaerephon’s report correctly (Plato, Apology 20e–23b), a preposterous claim in the eyes of his fellow citizens. Socrates also acknowledged a rather strange personal phenomenon, a daimonion or internal voice that prohibited his doing certain things, some trivial and some important, often unrelated to matters of right and wrong (thus not to be confused with the popular notions of a superego or a conscience). The implication that he was guided by something he regarded as divine or semi-divine was all the more reason for other Athenians to be suspicious of Socrates.

Socrates was usually to be found in the marketplace and other public areas, conversing with a variety of different people—young and old, male and female, slave and free, rich and poor, citizen and visitor—that is, with virtually anyone he could persuade to join with him in his question-and-answer mode of probing serious matters. Socrates’s lifework consisted in the examination of people’s lives, his own and others’, because “the unexamined life is not worth living for a human being,” as he says at his trial (Plato, Apology 38a). Socrates pursued this task single-mindedly, questioning people about what matters most, e.g., courage, love, reverence, moderation, and the state of their souls generally. He did this regardless of whether his respondents wanted to be questioned or resisted him. Athenian youths imitated Socrates’s questioning style, much to the annoyance of some of their elders. He had a reputation for irony, though what that means exactly is controversial; at a minimum, Socrates’s irony consisted in his saying that he knew nothing of importance and wanted to listen to others, yet keeping the upper hand in every discussion. One further aspect of Socrates’s much-touted strangeness should be mentioned: his dogged failure to align himself politically with oligarchs or democrats; rather, he had friends and enemies among both, and he supported and opposed actions of both (see §3).

2. The Socratic problem: Who was Socrates really?

The Socratic problem is a rat’s nest of complexities arising from the fact that various people wrote about Socrates whose accounts differ in crucial respects, leaving us to wonder which, if any, are accurate representations of the historical Socrates. “There is, and always will be, a ‘Socratic problem’. This is inevitable,” said Guthrie (1969, 6), looking back on a gnarled history between ancient and contemporary times that is narrated in detail by Press (1996), but barely touched on below. The difficulties are increased because all those who knew and wrote about Socrates lived before any standardization of modern categories of, or sensibilities about, what constitutes historical accuracy or poetic license. All authors present their own interpretations of the personalities and lives of their characters, whether they mean to or not, whether they write fiction or biography or philosophy (if the philosophy they write has characters), so other criteria must be introduced for deciding among the contending views of who Socrates really was. A look at the three primary ancient sources of information about Socrates (§2.1) will provide a foundation for appreciating how contemporary interpretations differ (§2.2) and why the differences matter (§2.3).

One thing is certain about the historical Socrates: even among those who knew him in life, there was profound disagreement about what his actual views and methods were. This is evident in the three contemporaneous sources below; and it is hinted at in the few titles and scraps by other authors of the time who are now lumped together as ‘minor Socratics’, not for the quality of their work but because so little or none of it is extant. We shall probably never know much about their views of Socrates (see Giannantoni 1990). [ 2 ] After Socrates’s death, the tradition became even more disparate. As Nehamas (1999, 99) puts it, “with the exception of the Epicureans, every philosophical school in antiquity, whatever its orientation, saw in him either its actual founder or the type of person to whom its adherents were to aspire.”

Aristophanes (±450–±386)

Our earliest extant source—and the only one who can claim to have known Socrates in vigorous midlife—is the playwright Aristophanes. His comedy, Clouds , was produced within a year of the battle of Delium (423) at which Socrates fought as a hoplite, and when both Xenophon and Plato were infants. In the play, the character called Socrates heads a Think-o-Rama in which young men study the natural world, from insects to stars, and study slick argumentative techniques as well, lacking all respect for the Athenian sense of propriety. The actor wearing the mask of Socrates makes fun of the traditional gods of Athens (lines 247–48, 367, 423–24), mimicked later by the young protagonist, and gives naturalistic explanations of phenomena Athenians viewed as divinely directed (lines 227–33; cf. Theaetetus 152e, 153c–d, 173e–174a; Phaedo 96a–100a). Worst of all, he teaches dishonest techniques for avoiding repayment of debt (lines 1214–1302) and encourages young men to beat their parents into submission (lines 1408–46).

Comedy by its very nature is a tricky source for information about anyone. Yet, in favor of Aristophanes as a source for Socrates is that Xenophon and Plato were some forty-five years younger than Socrates, so their acquaintance could only have been during Socrates’s later years. Could Socrates really have changed so much? Can the lampooning of the younger Socrates found in Clouds and other comic poets be reconciled with Plato’s characterization of a philosopher in his fifties and sixties? Some have said yes, pointing out that the years between Clouds and Socrates’s trial (399) were years of war and upheaval, changing everyone. The Athenian intellectual freedom of which Pericles been so proud at the beginning of the war (Thucydides 2.37–39) had been eroded completely by the end (see §3). Thus, what had seemed comical a quarter century earlier, Socrates hanging in a basket on-stage, talking nonsense, was ominous in memory by then. A good reason to believe that Aristophanes’s representation of Socrates is not merely a comic exaggeration but systematically misleading in retrospect is Kenneth Dover’s view that Clouds amalgamates in one character, Socrates, features now well known to be unique to specific other fifth-century intellectuals (1968, xxxii-lvii). Perhaps Aristophanes chose Socrates to represent garden-variety intellectuals because Socrates’s physiognomy was strange enough by itself to get a laugh. Aristophanes sometimes speaks in his own voice in his plays, giving us good reason to believe he genuinely objected to social instability brought on by the freedom Athenian youths enjoyed to study with professional rhetoricians, sophists (see §1), and natural philosophers, e.g., those who, like the presocratics, studied the cosmos or nature. Such professions could be lucrative. That Socrates eschewed any earning potential in philosophy does not seem to have been significant to the great writer of comedies.

Aristophanes’s depiction of Socrates is important because Plato’s Socrates says at his trial ( Apology 18a–b, 19c) that most of his jurors have grown up believing the falsehoods attributed to him in the play. Socrates calls Aristophanes more dangerous than the three men who brought charges against him because Aristophanes had poisoned the jurors’ minds while they were young. Aristophanes did not stop accusing Socrates in 423 when Clouds placed third behind another play in which Socrates was mentioned as barefoot; rather, he soon began writing a revision, which he circulated but never produced. Complicating matters, the revision is our only extant version of the play. Aristophanes appears to have given up on reviving Clouds in about 416, but his comic ridicule of Socrates continued. Again in 414 with Birds , and in 405 with Frogs , Aristophanes complained of Socrates’s deleterious effect on the youths of the city, including Socrates’s neglect of the poets. Aristophanes even coins a verb, to socratize , conveying a range of unsavory behaviors. [ 3 ]

Xenophon (±425–±386)

Another source for the historical Socrates is the soldier-historian, Xenophon. Xenophon says explicitly of Socrates, “I was never acquainted with anyone who took greater care to find out what each of his companions knew” ( Memorabilia 4.7.1); and Plato corroborates Xenophon’s statement by illustrating throughout his dialogues Socrates’s adjustment of the level and type of his questions to the particular individuals with whom he talked. If it is true that Socrates succeeded in pitching his conversation at the right level for each of his companions, the striking differences between Xenophon’s Socrates and Plato’s is largely explained by the differences between their two personalities. Xenophon was a practical man whose ability to recognize philosophical issues is almost imperceptible, so it is plausible that his Socrates is a practical and helpful advisor. That is the side of Socrates Xenophon experienced. Xenophon’s Socrates differs additionally from Plato’s in offering advice about subjects in which Xenophon was himself experienced, but Socrates was not: moneymaking (Xenophon, Memorabilia 2.7) and estate management (Xenophon, Oeconomicus ), suggesting that Xenophon may have entered into the writing of Socratic discourses (as Aristotle labeled the genre, Poetics 1447b11) making the character Socrates a mouthpiece for his own views. His other works mentioning or featuring Socrates are Anabasis , Apology , Hellenica , and Symposium .

Something that has strengthened Xenophon’s prima facie claim as a source for Socrates’s life is his work as a historian; his Hellenica ( History of Greece ) is one of the chief sources for the period 411–362, after Thucydides’s history abruptly ends in the midst of the Peloponnesian wars. Although Xenophon tends to moralize and does not follow the superior conventions introduced by Thucydides, still it is sometimes argued that, having had no philosophical axes to grind, Xenophon may have presented a more accurate portrait of Socrates than Plato does. But two considerations have always weakened that claim: (1) The Socrates of Xenophon’s works is so pedestrian that it is difficult to imagine his inspiring fifteen or more people to write Socratic discourses in the period following his death. (2) Xenophon could not have chalked up many hours with Socrates or with reliable informants. He lived in Erchia, about 15 kilometers and across the Hymettus mountains from Socrates’s haunts in the urban area of Athens, and his love of horses and horsemanship (on which he wrote a still-valuable treatise) took up considerable time. He left Athens in 401 on an expedition to Persia and, for a variety of reasons (mercenary service for Thracians and Spartans; exile), never resided in Athens again. And now a third is in order. (3) It turns out to have been ill-advised to assume that Xenophon would apply the same criteria for accuracy to his Socratic discourses as to his histories. [ 4 ] The biographical and historical background Xenophon deploys in his memoirs of Socrates fails to correspond to such additional sources as we have from archaeology, history, the courts, and literature. The widespread use of computers in classical studies, enabling the comparison of ancient persons, and the compiling of information about each of them from disparate sources, has made incontrovertible this observation about Xenophon’s Socratic works. Xenophon’s memoirs are pastiches, several of which simply could not have occurred as presented.

Plato (424/3–347)

Philosophers have usually privileged the account of Socrates given by their fellow philosopher, Plato. Plato was about twenty-five when Socrates was tried and executed, and had probably known the old man most of his life. It would have been hard for a boy of Plato’s social class, registered in the political district (deme) of Collytus within the city walls, to avoid Socrates. The extant sources agree that Socrates was often to be found where youths of the city spent their time. Further, Plato’s representation of individual Athenians has proved over time to correspond remarkably well to both archaeological and literary evidence: in his use of names and places, familial relations and friendship bonds, and even in his rough dating of events in almost all the authentic dialogues where Socrates is the dominant figure. The dialogues have dramatic dates that fall into place as one learns more about their characters and, despite incidental anachronisms, it turns out that there is more realism in the dialogues than most have suspected. [ 5 ] The Ion , Lysis , Euthydemus , Meno , Menexenus , Theaetetus , Euthyphro , Cratylus , the frame of Symposium , Apology , Crito , Phaedo (although Plato says he was not himself present at Socrates’s execution), and the frame of Parmenides are the dialogues in which Plato had greatest access to Athenians he depicts.

It does not follow, however, that Plato represented the views and methods of Socrates (or anyone, for that matter) as he recalled them, much less as they were originally uttered. There are a number of cautions and caveats that should be in place from the start. (i) Plato may have shaped the character Socrates (or other characters) to serve his own purposes, whether philosophical or literary or both. (ii) The dialogues representing Socrates as a youth and young man took place, if they took place at all, before Plato was born and when he was a small child. (iii) One should be cautious even about the dramatic dates of Plato’s dialogues because they are calculated with reference to characters whom we know primarily, though not only, from the dialogues. (iv) Exact dates should be treated with a measure of skepticism for numerical precision can be misleading. Even when a specific festival or other reference fixes the season or month of a dialogue, or birth of a character, one should imagine a margin of error. Although it becomes obnoxious to use circa or plus-minus everywhere, the ancients did not require or desire contemporary precision in these matters. All the children born during a full year, for example, had the same nominal birthday, accounting for the conversation at Lysis 207b, odd by contemporary standards, in which two boys disagree about who is the elder. Philosophers have often decided to bypass the historical problems altogether and to assume for the sake of argument that Plato’s Socrates is the Socrates who is relevant to potential progress in philosophy. That strategy, as we shall soon see, gives rise to a new Socratic problem (§2.2).

What, after all, is our motive for reading a dead philosopher’s words about another dead philosopher who never wrote anything himself? This is a way of asking a popular question, Why do history of philosophy? —which has no settled answer. One might reply that our study of some of our philosophical predecessors is intrinsically valuable , philosophically enlightening and satisfying. When we contemplate the words of a dead philosopher, a philosopher with whom we cannot engage directly—Plato’s words, say—we seek to understand not merely what he said and assumed, but what his statements imply, and whether they are true. Others’ words can prompt the exploration of new and rich veins of philosophy. Sometimes, making such judgments about the text requires us to learn the language in which the philosopher wrote, more about his predecessors’ ideas and those of his contemporaries. The truly great philosophers, and Plato was one of them, are still capable of becoming our companions in philosophical conversation, our dialectical partners. Because he addressed timeless, universal, fundamental questions with insight and intelligence, our own understanding of such questions is heightened whether we agree or disagree. That explains Plato, one might say, but where is Socrates in this picture? Is he interesting merely as a predecessor to Plato? Some would say yes, but others would say it is not Plato’s but Socrates’s ideas and methods that mark the real beginning of philosophy in the West, that Socrates is the better dialectical guide, and that what is Socratic in the dialogues should be distinguished from what is Platonic (§2.2). But how? That again is the Socratic problem .

If it were possible to confine oneself exclusively to Plato’s Socrates, the Socratic problem would nevertheless reappear because one would soon discover Socrates himself defending one position in one Platonic dialogue, its contrary in another, and using different methods in different dialogues to boot. Inconsistencies among the dialogues seem to demand explanation, though not all philosophers have thought so (Shorey 1903). Most famously, the Parmenides attacks various theories of forms that the Republic , Symposium , and Phaedo develop and defend. In some dialogues (e.g., Laches ), Socrates only weeds the garden of its inconsistencies and false beliefs, but in other dialogues (e.g., Phaedrus ), he is a planter as well, advancing structured philosophical claims and suggesting new methods for testing those claims. There are differences on smaller matters as well. For example, Socrates in the Gorgias opposes, while in the Protagoras he supports, hedonism; the details of the relation between erotic love and the good life differ from Phaedrus to Symposium ; the account of the relation between knowledge and the objects of knowledge in Republic differs from the Meno account; despite Socrates’s commitment to Athenian law, expressed in the Crito , he vows in the Apology that he will disobey the lawful jury if it orders him to stop philosophizing. A related problem is that some of the dialogues appear to develop positions familiar from other philosophical traditions (e.g., that of Heraclitus in Theaetetus and Pythagoreanism in Phaedo ). Three centuries of efforts to solve versions of the Socratic problem are summarized in the following supplementary document:

Early Attempts to Solve the Socratic Problem

Contemporary efforts recycle bits and pieces—including the failures—of these older attempts.

The Twentieth Century

Until relatively recently in modern times, it was hoped that confident elimination of what could be ascribed purely to Socrates would leave standing a coherent set of doctrines attributable to Plato (who appears nowhere in the dialogues as a speaker). Many philosophers, inspired by the nineteenth century scholar Eduard Zeller, expect the greatest philosophers to promote grand, impenetrable schemes. Nothing of the sort was possible for Socrates, so it remained for Plato to be assigned all the positive doctrines that could be extracted from the dialogues. In the latter half of the twentieth century, however, there was a resurgence of interest in who Socrates was and what his own views and methods were. The result is a narrower, but no less contentious, Socratic problem. Two strands of interpretation dominated views of Socrates in the twentieth century (Griswold 2001; Klagge and Smith 1992). Although there has been some healthy cross-pollination and growth since the mid 1990s, the two were so hostile to one another for so long that the bulk of the secondary literature on Socrates, including translations peculiar to each, still divides into two camps, hardly reading one another: literary contextualists and analysts. The literary-contextual study of Socrates, like hermeneutics more generally, uses the tools of literary criticism—typically interpreting one complete dialogue at a time; its European origins are traced to Heidegger and earlier to Nietzsche and Kierkegaard. The analytic study of Socrates, like analytic philosophy more generally, is fueled by the arguments in the texts—typically addressing a single argument or set of arguments, whether in a single text or across texts; its origins are in the Anglo-American philosophical tradition. Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900–2002) was the doyen of the hermeneutic strand, and Gregory Vlastos (1907–1991) of the analytic.

Literary contextualism

Faced with inconsistencies in Socrates’s views and methods from one dialogue to another, the literary contextualist has no Socratic problem because Plato is seen as an artist of surpassing literary skill, the ambiguities in whose dialogues are intentional representations of actual ambiguities in the subjects philosophy investigates. Thus terms, arguments, characters, and in fact all elements in the dialogues should be addressed in their literary context. Bringing the tools of literary criticism to the study of the dialogues, and sanctioned in that practice by Plato’s own use of literary devices and practice of textual critique ( Protagoras 339a–347a, Republic 2.376c–3.412b, Ion , and Phaedrus 262c–264e), most contextualists ask of each dialogue what its aesthetic unity implies, pointing out that the dialogues themselves are autonomous, containing almost no cross-references. Contextualists who attend to what they see as the aesthetic unity of the whole Platonic corpus, and therefore seek a consistent picture of Socrates, advise close readings of the dialogues and appeal to a number of literary conventions and devices said to reveal Socrates’s actual personality. For both varieties of contextualism, the Platonic dialogues are like a brilliant constellation whose separate stars naturally require separate focus.

Marking the maturity of the literary contextualist tradition in the early twenty-first century is a greater diversity of approaches and an attempt to be more internally critical (see Hyland 2004).

Analytic developmentalism

Beginning in the 1950s, Vlastos (1991, 45–80) recommended a set of mutually supportive premises that together provide a plausible framework in the analytic tradition for Socratic philosophy as a pursuit distinct from Platonic philosophy. [ 6 ] Although the premises have deep roots in early attempts to solve the Socratic problem (see the supplementary document linked above), the beauty of Vlastos’s particular configuration is its fecundity. The first premise marks a break with a tradition of regarding Plato as a dialectician who held his assumptions tentatively and revised them constantly; rather,

• Plato held philosophical doctrines , and
• Plato’s doctrines developed over the period in which he wrote,

accounting for many of the inconsistencies and contradictions among the dialogues (persistent inconsistencies are addressed with a complex notion of Socratic irony.) In particular, Vlastos tells a story “as hypothesis, not dogma or reported fact” describing the young Plato in vivid terms, writing his early dialogues while convinced of “the substantial truth of Socrates’s teaching and the soundness of its method.” Later, Plato develops into a constructive philosopher in his own right but feels no need to break the bond with his Socrates, his “father image.” (The remainder of Plato’s story is not relevant to Socrates.) Vlastos labels a small group of dialogues ‘transitional’ to mark the period when Plato was beginning to be dissatisfied with Socrates’s views. Vlastos’s third premise is

• It is possible to determine reliably the chronological order in which the dialogues were written and to map them to the development of Plato’s views.

The evidence Vlastos uses varies for this claim, but is of several types: stylometric data, internal cross references, external events mentioned, differences in doctrines and methods featured, and other ancient testimony (particularly that of Aristotle). The dialogues of Plato’s Socratic period, called “elenctic dialogues” for Socrates’s preferred method of questioning, are Apology, Charmides, Crito, Euthyphro, Gorgias, Hippias Minor, Ion, Laches, Protagoras, and book 1 of the Republic. The developmentalists’ Platonic dialogues are potentially a discrete sequence, the order of which enables the analyst to separate Socrates from Plato on the basis of different periods in Plato’s intellectual evolution. Finally,

• Plato puts into the mouth of Socrates only what Plato himself believes at the time he writes each dialogue.

“As Plato changes, the philosophical persona of his Socrates is made to change” (Vlastos 1991, 53)—a view sometimes referred to as the “mouthpiece theory.” Because the analyst is interested in positions or doctrines (particularly as conclusions from, or tested by, arguments), the focus of analysis is usually on a particular philosophical view in or across dialogues, with no special attention given to context or to dialogues considered as wholes; and evidence from dialogues in close chronological proximity is likely to be considered more strongly confirming than that from dialogues of other developmental periods. The result of applying the premises is a firm list (contested, of course, by others) of ten theses held by Socrates, all of which are incompatible with the corresponding ten theses held by Plato (1991, 47–49).

Many analytic ancient philosophers in the late twentieth century mined the gold Vlastos had uncovered, and many of those who were productive in the developmentalist vein in the early days went on to constructive work of their own (see Bibliography).

It is a risky business to say where ancient philosophy is now, but an advantage of an entry in a dynamic reference work is that authors are allowed, nay, encouraged to update their entries to reflect recent scholarship and sea changes in their topics. For many analytic philosophers, John Cooper (1997, xiv) sounded the end of the developmentalist era when he described the early- and middle-period dialogue distinctions as “an unsuitable basis for bringing anyone to the reading of these works. To use them in that way is to announce in advance the results of a certain interpretation of the dialogues and to canonize that interpretation under the guise of a presumably objective order of composition—when in fact no such order is objectively known. And it thereby risks prejudicing an unwary reader against the fresh, individual reading that these works demand.” When he added, “it is better to relegate thoughts about chronology to the secondary position they deserve and to concentrate on the literary and philosophical content of the works, taken on their own and in relation to the others,” he proposed peace between the literary contextualist and analytic developmentalist camps. As in any peace agreement, it takes some time for all the combatants to accept that the conflict has ended—but that is where we are.

In short, one is now more free to answer, Who was Socrates really? in the variety of ways that it has been answered in the past, in one’s own well-reasoned way, or to sidestep the question, philosophizing about the issues in Plato’s dialogues without worrying too much about the long toes of any particular interpretive tradition. Those seeking the views and methods of Plato’s Socrates from the perspective of what one is likely to see attributed to him in the secondary literature (§2.2) will find it useful to consult the related entry on Plato’s shorter ethical works .

The larger column on the left below provides some of the biographical information from ancient sources with the dramatic dates of Plato’s dialogues interspersed [in boldface] throughout. In the smaller column on the right are dates of major events and persons familiar from fifth century Athenian history. Although the dates are as precise as allowed by the facts, some are estimated and controversial (Nails 2002).

This brings us to the spring and summer of 399, to Socrates’s trial and execution. Twice in Plato’s dialogues ( Symposium 173b, Theaetetus 142c–143a), fact-checking with Socrates took place as his friends sought to commit his conversations to writing before he was executed. [spring 399 Theaetetus ] Prior to the action in the Theaetetus , a young poet named Meletus had composed a document charging Socrates with the capital crime of irreverence ( asebeia ): failure to show due piety toward the gods of Athens. This he delivered to Socrates in the presence of witnesses, instructing Socrates to present himself before the king archon within four days for a preliminary hearing (the same magistrate would later preside at the pre-trial examination and the trial). At the end of the Theaetetus , Socrates was on his way to that preliminary hearing. As a citizen, he had the right to countersue, the right to forgo the hearing, allowing the suit to proceed uncontested, and the right to exile himself voluntarily, as the personified laws later remind him ( Crito 52c). Socrates availed himself of none of these rights of citizenship. Rather, he set out to enter a plea and stopped at a gymnasium to talk to some youngsters about mathematics and knowledge.

When he arrived at the king archon’s stoa, Socrates fell into a conversation about reverence with a diviner he knew, Euthyphro [399 Euthyphro ] , and afterwards answered Meletus’s charge. This preliminary hearing designated the official receipt of the case and was intended to lead to greater precision in the formulation of the charge. In Athens, religion was a matter of public participation under law, regulated by a calendar of religious festivals; and the city used revenues to maintain temples and shrines. Socrates’s irreverence, Meletus claimed, had resulted in the corruption of the city’s young men ( Euthyphro 3c–d). Evidence for irreverence was of two types: Socrates did not believe in the gods of the Athenians (indeed, he had said on many occasions that the gods do not lie or do other wicked things, whereas the Olympian gods of the poets and the city were quarrelsome and vindictive); Socrates introduced new divinities (indeed, he insisted that his daimonion had spoken to him since childhood). Meletus handed over his complaint, and Socrates entered his plea. The king-archon could refuse Meletus’s case on procedural grounds, redirect the complaint to an arbitrator, or accept it; he accepted it. Socrates had the right to challenge the admissibility of the accusation in relation to existing law, but he did not, so the charge was published on whitened tablets in the agora and a date was set for the pre-trial examination—but not before Socrates fell into another conversation, this one on the origins of words (Smith 2022). [399 Cratylus ] From this point, word spread rapidly, probably accounting for the spike of interest in Socratic conversations recorded in Theaetetus and Symposium . [399 Symposium frame] But Socrates nevertheless is shown by Plato spending the next day in two very long conversations promised in Theaetetus (210d). [399 Sophist , Statesman ]

At the pre-trial examination, Meletus paid no court fees because it was considered a public duty to prosecute irreverence. To discourage frivolous suits, however, Athenian law imposed a heavy fine on plaintiffs who failed to obtain at least one fifth of the jury’s votes, as Socrates later points out ( Apology 36a–b). Unlike closely timed jury trials, pre-trial examinations encouraged questions to and by the litigants, to make the legal issues more precise. This procedure had become essential because of the susceptibility of juries to bribery and misrepresentation. Originally intended to be a microcosm of the citizen body, juries by Socrates’s time were manned by elderly, disabled, and impoverished volunteers who needed the meager three-obol pay.

In the month of Thargelion [May-June 399 Apology ] a month or two after Meletus’s initial summons, Socrates’s trial occurred. On the day before, the Athenians had launched a ship to Delos, dedicated to Apollo and commemorating Theseus’s legendary victory over the Minotaur ( Phaedo 58a–b). Spectators gathered along with the jury ( Apology 25a) for a trial that probably lasted most of the day, each side timed by the water clock. Plato does not provide Meletus’s prosecutorial speech or those of Anytus and Lycon, who had joined in the suit; or the names of witnesses, if any ( Apology 34a implies Meletus called none). Apology —the Greek ‘ apologia ’ means ‘defense’—is not edited as are the court speeches of orators. For example, there are no indications in the Greek text (at 35d and 38b) that the two votes were taken; and there are no breaks (at 21a or 34b) for witnesses who may have been called. Also missing are speeches by Socrates’s supporters; it is improbable that he had none, even though Plato does not name them.

Socrates, in his defense, mentioned the harm done to him by Aristophanes’s Clouds (§2.1). Though Socrates denied outright that he studied the heavens and what is below the earth, his familiarity with the investigations of natural philosophers and his own naturalistic explanations of such phenomena as earthquakes and eclipses make it no surprise that the jury remained unpersuaded. And, seeing Socrates out-argue Meletus, the jury probably did not make fine distinctions between philosophy and sophistry. Socrates three times took up the charge that he corrupted the young, insisting that, if he corrupted them, he did so unwillingly; but if unwillingly, he should be instructed, not prosecuted ( Apology 25e–26a). The jury found him guilty. By his own argument, however, Socrates could not blame the jury, for it was mistaken about what was truly in the interest of the city (cf. Theaetetus 177d–e) and thus required instruction.

In the penalty phase of the trial, Socrates said, “If it were the law with us, as it is elsewhere, that a trial for life should not last one but many days, you would be convinced, but now it is not easy to dispel great slanders in a short time” ( Apology 37a–b). This isolated complaint stands opposed to the remark of the personified laws that Socrates was “wronged not by us, the laws, but by men” ( Crito 54c). It had been a crime since 403/2 for anyone even to propose a law or decree in conflict with the newly inscribed laws, so it was ironic for the laws to tell Socrates to persuade or obey them ( Crito 51b–c). In a last-minute capitulation to his friends, he offered to allow them to pay a fine of six times his net worth (Xenophon Oeconomicus 2.3.4–5), thirty minae . The jury rejected the proposal. Perhaps the jury was too incensed by Socrates’s words to vote for the lesser penalty; after all, he needed to tell them more than once to stop interrupting him. It is more likely, however, that superstitious jurors were afraid that the gods would be angry if they failed to execute a man already found guilty of irreverence. Sentenced to death, Socrates reflected that it might be a blessing: either a dreamless sleep, or an opportunity to converse in the underworld.

While the sacred ship was on its journey to Delos, no executions were allowed in the city. Although the duration of the annual voyage varied with conditions, Xenophon says it took thirty-one days in 399 ( Memorabilia 4.8.2); if so, Socrates lived thirty days beyond his trial, into the month of Skirophorion. A day or two before the end, Socrates’s childhood friend Crito tried to persuade Socrates to escape. [June–July 399 Crito ] Socrates replied that he “listens to nothing … but the argument that on reflection seems best” and that “neither to do wrong or to return a wrong is ever right, not even to injure in return for an injury received” ( Crito 46b, 49d), not even under threat of death (cf. Apology 32a), not even for one’s family ( Crito 54b). Socrates could not point to a harm that would outweigh the harm he would be inflicting on the city if he now exiled himself unlawfully when he could earlier have done so lawfully ( Crito 52c); such lawbreaking would have confirmed the jury’s judgment that he was a corrupter of the young ( Crito 53b–c) and brought shame on his family and friends.

The events of Socrates’s last day, when he “appeared happy both in manner and words as he died nobly and without fear” ( Phaedo 58e) were related by Phaedo to the Pythagorean community at Phlius some weeks or months after the execution. [June–July 399 Phaedo ] The Eleven, prison officials chosen by lot, met with Socrates at dawn to tell him what to expect ( Phaedo 59e–60b). When Socrates’s friends arrived, Xanthippe and their youngest child, Menexenus, were still with him. Xanthippe commiserated with Socrates that he was about to enjoy his last conversation with his companions; then, performing the ritual lamentation expected of women, was led home. Socrates spent the day in philosophical conversation, defending the soul’s immortality and warning his companions not to restrain themselves in argument, “If you take my advice, you will give but little thought to Socrates but much more to the truth. If you think that what I say is true, agree with me; if not, oppose it with every argument” ( Phaedo 91b–c). On the other hand, he warned them sternly to restrain their emotions, “keep quiet and control yourselves” ( Phaedo 117e).

Socrates had no interest in whether his corpse was burned or buried, but he bathed at the prison’s cistern so the women of his household would be spared from having to wash his corpse. After meeting with his family again in the late afternoon, he rejoined his companions. The servant of the Eleven, a public slave, bade Socrates farewell by calling him “the noblest, the gentlest, and the best” of men ( Phaedo 116c). The poisoner described the physical effects of the Conium maculatum variety of hemlock used for citizen executions (Bloch 2001), then Socrates cheerfully took the cup and drank. Phaedo, a former slave echoing the slave of the Eleven, called Socrates, “the best, … the wisest and the most upright” ( Phaedo 118a).

4. Socrates outside philosophy

Socrates is an inescapable figure in intellectual history worldwide. Readers interested in tracking this might start with Trapp’s two volumes (2007). Strikingly, Socrates is invoked also in nonacademic contexts consistently over centuries, across geographical and linguistic boundaries globally, and throughout a wide range of media and forms of cultural production.

Though not commonplace today, Socrates was once routinely cited alongside Jesus. Consider Benjamin Franklin’s pithy maxim in his Autobiography, “Humility: Imitate Jesus and Socrates,” and the way the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., defends civil disobedience in Letter from Birmingham Jail by arguing that those who blame him for bringing imprisonment on himself are like those who would condemn Socrates for provoking the Athenians to execute him or condemn Jesus for having triggered his crucifixion. In the visual arts, artist Bror Hjorth celebrates Walt Whitman by giving him Jesus and Socrates as companions. This wood relief, Love, Peace and Work, was commissioned in the early 1960s by the Swedish Workers’ Educational Association for installation in its new building in Stockholm and was selected to appear on a 1995 postage stamp. A more light-hearted linking is Greece’s entry into the 1979 Eurovision Song Contest, Elpida’s Socrates Supersta r, the lyrics of which mention that Socrates was earlier than Jesus.

At times, commending Socrates asserted the distinctiveness of Western Civilization. For example, an illustrated essay on Socrates inaugurates a 1963 feature called “They Made Our World” in LOOK , a popular U.S. magazine. Today Socrates remains an icon of the Western ideal of an intellectual and is sometimes invoked as representative of the ideal of a learned person more universally. Whether he is being poked fun at, extolled, pilloried, or just acknowledged, Socrates features in a wide range of projects intended for broad audiences as a symbol of the very idea of the life of the mind, which, necessarily from a Socratic viewpoint, is also a moral life (but not necessarily a conventionally successful life).

There may be no more succinct expression of this standing than James Madison’s comments on the tyrannical impulses of crowds in Federalist 55: “Had every Athenian citizen been a Socrates; every Athenian assembly would still have been a mob.” The persistence of this position in the cultural imagination is clear in his many appearances as a sober knower (e.g., Roberto Rossellini’s 1971 film) and a giant among giants, as in, for example, his imagined speech, penned by Gilbert Murray, where he is placed first among the “immortals” featured in the 1953 recording, This I Believe ,compiled by journalist Edward R. Murrow and linked to his wildly successful radio broadcast of the same name. But Socrates also persistently appears in funny settings. For example, an artist makes the literally brainless, good-natured scarecrow featured in the 1961 animation, Tales from the Wizard of Oz , answer to the name ‘Socrates’; and the Beatles make Jeremy Hillary Boob, Ph.D., their sweet fictional character in the 1968 film Yellow Submarine , respond to a question with the quip, “A true Socratic query, that!” A more robust recent example that mobilizes the longevity of Socrates’ association with reflection and ethical behavior is Walter Mosley’s crime fiction featuring Socrates Fortlow. His three books follow a Black ex-con in Los Angeles with a violent past and a fierce determination to live life as a thinking person and to do good; the character says his mother named him ‘Socrates’ because she wanted him to grow up smart, a reference to a naming custom practiced by former slaves. The association of Socrates with great intellect and moral rectitude is still kicking, as a quick glance at the collection of Socrates-themed merchandise available from a wide array of vendors will attest. Further, in the mode of “the exception proves the rule,” observe that in DC Comics, Mr. Socrates is a criminal genius able to control Superman by subduing him with a device that disables him mentally.

In antiquity, Socrates did not act as a professional teacher of doctrines; he did, however, self-identify as a knowledge-seeker for the sake of himself and the benefit of those with whom he engaged, young or not. So firmly entrenched internationally in today’s vernacular is his association with education that his name is used to brand professional enterprises as varied as curricula designed for elementary school, college, law school, institutional initiatives that serve multiple disciplines, think tank retreats, café gatherings, electronic distance learning platforms, training programs for financial and marketing consultants, some parts of cognitive behavioral therapy, and easy-to-use online legal services. We find a less commercial example in Long Walk to Freedom (1994) in which the great South African statesman Nelson Mandela reports that, during his incarceration for anti-apartheid activism, his fellow prisoners educated themselves while laboring in rock quarries and that “the style of teaching was Socratic in nature;” a leader would pose a question for them to discuss in study sessions. Another example is Elliniko Theatro’s S ocrates Now, a solo performance based on Plato’s Apology that integrates audience discussion.

In U.S. education at all levels these days, Socratic questioning implies no effort on the part of a leading figure to elicit from the participants any severe discomfort with current opinions (that is, to sting like a gadfly or to expose a disquieting truth), but instead uses the name ‘Socrates’ to invest with gravitas collaborative learning that addresses moral questions and relies on interactive techniques. The unsettling and dangerous aspects of Socratic practice turn up in politicized contexts where a distinction between dissent and disloyalty is at issue. Appeals to Socrates in these settings most often highlight the personal risks run by an intellectually exemplary critic of the unjust acts of an established authority. This is a recurring theme in politically minded allusions to Socrates globally. A wave of such work took hold in the U.S., Britain and Canada around WWII, the McCarthy Era, and Cold War. Creative artists in literature, radio, theater, and television summoned Socrates to probe what it means to be an unyielding advocate of free speech and free inquiry—even a martyr to belief in the necessity of these freedoms to meaningful and virtuous human life. In these sources, his strange appearance, behavior, and views, especially his relentlessly critical, even irritating, truth-seeking, and anti-ideological posture are presented as testing Athenian democracy’s capacity to abide by these ideals. They suggest that the indictment, trial, and execution are stains on Athenian democracy and that a worrisome historical parallel is unfolding. These full-blown interpretations of the life of Socrates require wrestling with the whole issue of the historical Socrates; a claim to historical accuracy was a crucial part of any case for his story’s being credible as a warning.

Visually, we find monuments and other sculptural tributes to a less overtly political Socrates in cities and small towns across the globe in public spaces devoted to learning and contemplation. A stand-out for its unusual focus is Antonio Canova’s 1797 bas-relief, “Socrates rescues Alcibiades in the battle of Potidaea,” in which Socrates strikes a powerful pose as a hoplite. An 1875 piece by Russian imperial sculptor Mark Antokolski foregrounds the personal cost of Socrates’s commitment to philosophy, portraying him alone, a drained cup of hemlock at his side, slumped over dead. Reproductions of, and drawings based on, ancient copies of what are thought to be a fourth-century B.C.E. statue of Socrates by the Athenian Lysippus (e.g., the British Museum’s Statuette of Socrates) are also in wide circulation. A particularly interesting one can be found in graphic artist Ralph Steadman’s Paranoids , a 1986 book of Polaroid caricatures of famous people. But the most influential image of the philosopher today is the riveting, widely reproduced, 1787 painting, “The Death of Socrates,” by Jacques Louis David, now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. It captures the philosopher’s own claim to be reverent, his courageous decision to take the cup of hemlock in his own hand, and the grief his unjust fate stirred in others.

David’s neo-classical history-painting has come to be a defining image of Socrates. This is curious because, while the design of the painting abounds with careful references to the primary sources, it ignores those sources’ description of Socrates himself — the ones cited in section 1 on Socrates’s strangeness — rendering the old philosopher classically handsome instead. Attending to the primary sources has led some readers to wonder whether Socrates might have had an African heritage. For example, in the 1921 “The Foolish and the Wise: Sallie Runner is Introduced to Socrates,” a short story in the NAACP journal edited by W. E. B. Du Bois, author Leila Amos Pendleton tackles the issue. Her character, a bright girl employed as a maid, responds to her employer’s account of the physical appearance of the great man born before Jesus that Miss Audrey intends to tell Sallie all about: “He was a cullod gentmun, warn’t he?” This prompts the following exchange: “Oh no, Sallie, he wasn’t colored.” “Wal, ef he been daid all dat long time, Miss Oddry, how kin yo’ tell his color?” “Why he was an Athenian, Sallie. He lived in Greece.” Nails (1989) depicted Socrates as an African village elder in a recreation of Republic 1. In the visual arts, drawings and watercolors by the Swiss artist Hans Erni resolutely portray Socrates as ugly as the sources describe him. Socrates also sometimes resonates as Black (or queer, or touched), independent of any discussion of physical attributes; this follows from his renown for refusing to be defined by the stultifying norms of his day.

In Plato’s Phaedo , Socrates says a recurring dream instructs him to “compose music and work at it” and that he had always interpreted it to mean something like keep doing philosophy because “philosophy was the greatest kind of music and that’s what I was working at” (60e–61a). In prison awaiting execution, he says he experimented with new ways of doing philosophy; he tried turning some of Aesop’s fables into verse. We might view some of the deeply thoughtful, even loving, engagements with Socrates in music and dance in light of this passage. “Socrates” is the fifth movement of Leonard Bernstein’s Serenade after Plato’s Symposium (1954). He is the explicit inspiration for two works of choreography by Mark Morris, Death of Socrates in 1983, and Socrates in 2010, both of which work with 1919 compositions by Erik Satie that directly reference Socrates. And we have a work produced in 2022 at HERE in New York, The Hang, the stunning product of a collaboration by playwright Taylor Mac and composer Matt Ray.

Conjurings of Socrates appear outside philosophy as both brief but dense references to discrete features of this puzzling figure, and sustained portraits that wrestle with his enigmatic character. Details of the sources mentioned above, and other sources that may be useful, are included in the following supplementary document.

• Ahbel-Rappe, Sara, and Rachana Kamtekar (eds.), 2005, A Companion to Socrates , Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
• Bussanich, John, and Nicholas D. Smith (eds.), 2013, The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates , London: Bloomsbury Publishing.
• Cooper, John M. (ed.), 1997, Plato: Complete Works , Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.
• Giannantoni, Gabriele, 1990, Socratis et Socraticorum Reliquiae . 4 vols. Elenchos 18. Naples, Bibliopolis.
• Guthrie, W. K. C., 1969, A History of Greek Philosophy III, 2: Socrates , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Nails, Debra, 2002, The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics , Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.
• Morrison, Donald R., 2010, The Cambridge Companion to Socrates , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Rudebusch, George, 2009, Socrates , Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
• Taylor, A[lfred] E[dward], 1952, Socrates , Boston: Beacon.
• Trapp, Michael (ed.), 2007, Socrates from Antiquity to the Enlightenment and Socrates in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries , London: Routledge.
• Vander Waerdt (ed.), 1994, The Socratic Movement , Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
• Waterfield, Robin, 2009, Why Socrates Died , New York: Norton.
• Benson, Hugh H. 2000, Socratic Wisdom: The Model of Knowledge in Plato’s Early Dialogues , New York: Oxford University Press.
• –––, 2015, Clitophon’s Challenge: Dialectic in Plato’s Meno, Phaedo, and Republic, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Benson, Hugh H., (ed.), 1992, Essays on the Philosophy of Socrates , New York: Oxford University Press.
• Beversluis, John, 2000, Cross-Examining Socrates: A Defense of the Interlocutors in Plato’s Early Dialogues , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Brickhouse, Thomas C., and Nicholas D. Smith, 1989, Socrates on Trial , Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• –––, 1994, Plato’s Socrates , New York: Oxford University Press.
• –––, 2015, “Socrates on the Emotions” Plato: The Internet Journal of the International Plato Society , Volume 15 [ available online ].
• Burnyeat, M[yles] F., 1998, “The Impiety of Socrates,” Ancient Philosophy , 17: 1–12.
• Jones, Russell E., 2013, “Felix Socrates?” Philosophia (Athens), 43: 77–98 [ available online ].
• Nehamas, Alexander, 1999, Virtues of Authenticity , Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Penner, Terry, 1992, “Socrates and the Early Dialogues,” in Richard Kraut (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Plato , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Santas, Gerasimos, 1979, Socrates: Philosophy in Plato’s Early Dialogues , Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Teloh, Henry, 1986, Socratic Education in Plato’s Early Dialogues , Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.
• Vlastos, Gregory, 1954, “The Third Man Argument in Plato’s Parmenides ,” Philosophical Review 63: 319–49.
• –––, 1983, “The Historical Socrates and Athenian Democracy,” Political Theory , 11: 495–516.
• –––, 1989, “Socratic Piety,” Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy , 5: 213–38.
• –––, 1991, Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Bloom, Allan, 1974, “Leo Strauss September 20, 1899–October 18, 1973,” Political Theory , 2(4): 372–92.
• Gadamer, Hans-Georg, 1980, Dialogue and Dialectic: Eight Hermeneutical Studies on Plato , tr. from the German by P. Christopher Smith, New Haven: Yale University Press.
• Heidegger, Martin, 1997, Plato’s Sophist , tr. from the German by Richard Rojcewicz and Andre Schuwer, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• Hyland, Drew A., 2004, Questioning Platonism: Continental Interpretations of Plato , Albany: State University of New York Press.
• Kierkegaard, Søren, 1989, The Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates , tr. from the Danish by H. V. Hong and E. H. Hong, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Nietzsche, Friedrich, 1872, The Birth of Tragedy , tr. from the German by Walter Kaufmann, New York: Penguin (1967).
• Strauss, Leo, 1964, The City and Man , Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
• –––, 1966, Socrates and Aristophanes , Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• –––, 1968, Liberalism Ancient and Modern , Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Zuckert, Catherine H., 2009, Plato’s Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialogues , Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Blondell, Ruby, 2002, The Play of Character in Plato’s Dialogues , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Griswold, Charles, (ed.), 2001, Platonic Writings/Platonic Readings , University Park: Penn State University Press.
• Howland, Jacob, 1991, “Re-Reading Plato: The Problem of Platonic Chronology,” Phoenix , 45(3): 189–214.
• Klagge, James C., and Nicholas D. Smith (eds.), 1992, Methods of Interpreting Plato and His Dialogues. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Nails, Debra, 1995, Agora, Academy, and the Conduct of Philosophy , Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishing.
• Press, Gerald A[lan] 1996, “The State of the Question in the Study of Plato,” Southern Journal of Philosophy , 34: 507–32.
• –––, (ed.), 2000, Who Speaks for Plato? Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
• Rowe, Christopher, 2007, Plato and the Art of Philosophical Writing , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Shorey, Paul, 1903, The Unity of Plato’s Thought , Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Szlezák, Thomas A., 1993, Reading Plato , tr. from the German by Graham Zanker, London: Routledge.
• Thesleff, Holger, 2009, Platonic Patterns: A Collection of Studies , Las Vegas: Parmenides Publishing.
• Allen, R[eginald] E., 1971, “Plato’s Earlier Theory of Forms,” in Vlastos 1971, 319–34.
• Bloch, Enid, 2001, “Hemlock Poisoning and the Death of Socrates: Did Plato Tell the Truth?” Plato: The Internet Journal of the International Plato Society , Volume 1 [ available online ].
• de Vogel, Cornelia J., 1955, “The Present State of the Socratic Problem,” Phronesis , 1: 26–35.
• Dover, K[enneth] J. 1968, Aristophanes: Clouds , Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• –––, 1989, Greek Homosexuality , updated, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
• Harris, William, 1989, Athenian Literacy , Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
• Henderson, Jeffrey, 1998, Aristophanes II: Clouds, Wasps, Peace , Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
• Lang, Mable, 1990, “Illegal Execution in Ancient Athens,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society , 134: 24–29.
• Ledger, Gerard R., 1989, Re-Counting Plato: A Computer Analysis of Plato’s Style , Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• McCabe, M. M., 2007, “Looking Inside Charmides’ Cloak,” in Dominic Scott (ed.), Maieusis , Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• McPherran, Mark L., 1996, The Religion of Socrates , University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
• Monoson, S. Sara, 2011, “The Making of a Democratic Symbol: The Case of Socrates in North-American Popular Media, 1941–56,” Classical Reception Journal , 3: 46–76.
• Nails, Debra, 1989, “Teaching Plato in South African Universities,” South African Journal of Philosophy 8: 100–117.
• –––, 2012, “Plato’s Republic in Its Athenian Context,” History of Political Thought , 33: 1–23.
• O’Conner, David (ed.), 2002, The Symposium of Plato: The Shelley Translation , South Bend: St. Augustine’s Press.
• Reshotko, Naomi, 2006, Socratic Virtue: Making the Best of the Neither-Good-Nor-Bad , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Robinson, Richard, Plato’s Earlier Dialectic , second edition, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Ross, W. David, 1933, “The Socratic Problem,” Proceedings of the Classical Association , 30: 7–24.
• Smith, Colin C., 2022 forthcoming, “The Case for the 399 BCE Dramatic Date of Plato ’ s Cratylus ,” Classical Philology , 117.
• Tarrant, Harold, 2022 forthcoming, “Traditional and Computational Methods for Recognizing Revisions in the Works of Plato,” in Olga Alieva, et al. (eds.), The Platonic Corpus in the Making, Turnhout: Brepols.
• Weiss, Roslyn, 1998, Socrates Dissatisfied: An Analysis of Plato’s Crito, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Wilson, Emily, 2007, The Death of Socrates , Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

How to cite this entry . Preview the PDF version of this entry at the Friends of the SEP Society . Look up topics and thinkers related to this entry at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). Enhanced bibliography for this entry at PhilPapers , with links to its database.

• Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University, has Plato’s works in Greek, in translation, and with notes. It has the works of Aristophanes and Xenophon as well.
• “ The Uses and Disadvantages of Socrates ”, Christopher Rowe’s 1999 Inaugural Lecture at the University of Durham.
• The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy has an article devoted to Socrates.

Plato | Plato: ethics | Plato: ethics and politics in The Republic | Plato: friendship and eros | Plato: rhetoric and poetry | Plato: shorter ethical works | Sophists, The

Acknowledgments

Reproduction, including downloading, of Constantin Brancusi’s works is prohibited by copyright laws and international conventions without the express written permission of Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.

Copyright © 2022 by Debra Nails < nails @ msu . edu > S. Sara Monoson < s-monoson @ northwestern . edu >

• Accessibility

Support SEP

Mirror sites.

View this site from another server:

• Info about mirror sites

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is copyright © 2023 by The Metaphysics Research Lab , Department of Philosophy, Stanford University

Library of Congress Catalog Data: ISSN 1095-5054

Culture History

Socrates (469-399 BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy. He is known for the Socratic method of questioning to stimulate critical thinking and his contributions to ethics. Socrates’ life and teachings are primarily known through the writings of his student, Plato.

Early Life and Background

Socrates’ early life and background, though shrouded in the mists of time, provide a fascinating glimpse into the formative years of one of history’s greatest philosophers. Born around 469 BCE in Athens, Greece, Socrates emerged in an era marked by cultural vibrancy, political upheaval, and the flourishing of intellectual pursuits.

Socrates was the son of Sophroniscus, a stonecutter or sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife. His family’s modest background set the stage for a life that would be defined not by material wealth but by an insatiable curiosity and a relentless pursuit of wisdom. Little is known about Socrates’ early education, but his later philosophical endeavors indicate a broad familiarity with the arts and sciences of his time.

Athens, the city of Socrates’ birth, was a thriving center of intellectual and artistic activity during the Golden Age of Greece. The city-state was a crucible of democracy, philosophy, and the arts, providing a fertile ground for the development of Socrates’ inquisitive mind. As Athens underwent social and political transformations, young Socrates would have witnessed the rise and fall of statesmen, the impact of the Peloponnesian War, and the dynamic interplay of ideas that shaped the city’s intellectual landscape.

Unlike many philosophers of his time, Socrates did not leave behind written records of his teachings. Consequently, piecing together the details of his early life relies heavily on the accounts of his disciples, primarily Plato and Xenophon. These accounts often intertwine historical events with philosophical insights, creating a narrative that illuminates Socrates’ intellectual evolution.

Socrates’ physical appearance, as described by contemporaries, was rather unremarkable. He was often depicted as stocky, with a snub nose and prominent eyes. Yet, it was not his outward appearance but his intellectual prowess and unique approach to philosophy that would distinguish him from his peers.

The sources regarding Socrates’ early adulthood are sparse, but it is believed that he followed in his father’s footsteps, at least initially, engaging in some form of artistic or craft-related work. This period of his life, however, was merely a prelude to the transformative influence of philosophy, a discipline that would become the cornerstone of his existence.

The turning point in Socrates’ life came when he began to devote himself wholeheartedly to the pursuit of wisdom. This transition might have been influenced by encounters with prominent thinkers of his time, such as Parmenides and Heraclitus, whose contrasting views on the nature of reality and existence likely sparked Socrates’ intellectual curiosity.

Socratic philosophy, characterized by its emphasis on dialogue and dialectics, was not merely an abstract pursuit for Socrates but a way of life. His philosophical method, famously known as the Socratic method, involved engaging in conversations with individuals from various walks of life. By posing probing questions and challenging conventional wisdom, Socrates sought to lead others to a deeper understanding of fundamental concepts and the nature of virtue.

Socrates’ interactions with fellow citizens, artisans, and statesmen were not confined to the serene halls of academia but played out in the bustling agora and public spaces of Athens. His relentless questioning earned him both admiration and disdain. Some viewed him as a wise guide, while others perceived him as a disruptive influence challenging the social and moral fabric of Athenian society.

Despite the challenges, Socrates remained committed to his philosophical mission. His method of questioning, which he referred to as maieutics or the “art of midwifery,” aimed to assist others in giving birth to their own ideas and understanding. Socrates did not claim to possess definitive answers but rather saw himself as a catalyst for intellectual growth and self-discovery in others.

Socrates’ personal life was marked by simplicity and frugality. He lived without the trappings of wealth, focusing on the pursuit of virtue and knowledge instead. Historical accounts suggest that he married Xanthippe, a woman known for her sharp tongue. This aspect of Socrates’ life adds a human touch to his philosophical persona, showcasing his ability to engage with the complexities of everyday existence.

The Oracle at Delphi, a significant religious and spiritual authority in ancient Greece, played a pivotal role in shaping Socrates’ understanding of wisdom. The Oracle declared that no one was wiser than Socrates. Intrigued by this pronouncement, Socrates set out to find individuals who possessed greater wisdom. Through a series of dialogues with various figures, he concluded that his wisdom lay in recognizing his own ignorance—a profound revelation that would become a recurring theme in his philosophical inquiries.

As Athens grappled with political instability and the repercussions of the Peloponnesian War, Socrates’ role as a philosopher gained both admirers and critics. The city’s democratic ideals clashed with Socrates’ unyielding commitment to intellectual integrity, leading to tensions that would eventually culminate in his trial and execution.

The trial of Socrates, as depicted in Plato’s “Apology,” is a poignant moment in his life story. Charged with impiety and corrupting the youth, Socrates defended himself with eloquence and unwavering conviction. He refused to compromise his philosophical principles or beg for mercy, choosing instead to uphold the pursuit of truth over personal safety.

Socrates’ refusal to conform to societal expectations and his willingness to face death for the sake of philosophy underscored the depth of his commitment to principles. In 399 BCE, he drank hemlock, embracing his fate with stoic resolve. The death of Socrates became a symbol of intellectual courage and a testament to the enduring power of philosophy to challenge, inspire, and provoke.

While Socrates’ physical existence came to an end with his execution, his legacy endured through the works of Plato and Xenophon. Plato’s dialogues, including “Phaedo,” “Symposium,” and “Republic,” immortalized Socrates as the central figure in philosophical discourse. Xenophon’s writings, such as “Memorabilia” and “Apology of Socrates to the Jury,” provided additional perspectives on Socrates’ life and teachings.

Socrates’ influence extended far beyond his immediate circle. His commitment to free inquiry, moral introspection, and the pursuit of virtue resonated with subsequent generations of thinkers. The Socratic method, with its emphasis on dialogue, critical thinking, and self-examination, became a foundational approach in education and philosophy.

Teachings and Philosophy

Socrates, although leaving no written records of his own teachings, has profoundly influenced Western philosophy through the accounts of his disciples, particularly Plato and Xenophon. His teachings and philosophy centered around ethics, the nature of virtue, and the pursuit of knowledge through the Socratic method—a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue.

One of the core tenets of Socratic philosophy was his emphasis on self-examination. He believed that true wisdom begins with recognizing one’s own ignorance. In the famous Oracle of Delphi’s declaration that no one was wiser than Socrates, he saw a divine challenge. Instead of claiming superiority in knowledge, Socrates set out to prove the Oracle wrong by engaging with people of various professions and social standings in Athens. Through these dialogues, he aimed to reveal the limitations of others’ understanding and encourage them to question their beliefs.

Socrates’ method of inquiry, commonly known as the Socratic method, was a dynamic and interactive process. Rather than presenting a systematic doctrine, he engaged others in a series of questions, probing their assumptions and guiding them toward a deeper understanding. This approach, reminiscent of a cross-examination, aimed not at asserting his own knowledge but at stimulating critical thinking in his interlocutors.

The Socratic method often began with Socrates pretending to be ignorant of the topic under discussion. He would then ask questions to elicit responses from others, gradually exposing contradictions or weaknesses in their arguments. This process was not meant to humiliate but to facilitate a joint exploration of ideas, leading participants to refine their understanding through dialectical reasoning.

Central to Socrates’ philosophy was the notion that virtue, or moral excellence, could be taught. In dialogues such as “Protagoras” and “Meno,” he explored the nature of virtue and whether it could be transmitted from one person to another. Socrates argued that, since virtue was equivalent to knowledge, anyone who truly understood what is right would naturally act accordingly. This idea challenged conventional beliefs and opened avenues for exploring the relationship between knowledge and morality.

The “Euthyphro” dialogue exemplifies Socrates’ approach to ethics. In this dialogue, Socrates engages with Euthyphro, a religious expert, about the nature of piety. Instead of accepting Euthyphro’s initial definition of piety as what the gods love, Socrates prompts him to consider whether something is pious because the gods love it or if the gods love it because it is pious. This questioning not only scrutinizes the concept of piety but also introduces the Euthyphro dilemma, a philosophical problem still discussed today regarding the relationship between morality and the will of the gods.

Socrates’ ethical philosophy also included the idea that no one willingly does evil; rather, people commit immoral acts out of ignorance. This belief in the inherent goodness of the soul, tainted only by ignorance, underscored his conviction that moral education could lead to virtuous behavior. He argued that understanding the nature of virtue would naturally guide individuals toward righteous actions.

In the pursuit of knowledge and virtue, Socrates was unyielding in his commitment to truth. His dedication to intellectual integrity and his disdain for hypocrisy were evident in his relentless questioning of the established norms and beliefs of Athenian society. This commitment ultimately led to his trial and execution, as he chose to prioritize the pursuit of truth over his own safety.

Socrates’ teachings extended beyond ethics to metaphysical and epistemological inquiries. While he did not propose a comprehensive metaphysical system, his discussions often delved into questions about the nature of reality and the soul. In the “Phaedo” dialogue, Socrates engages in a profound exploration of the immortality of the soul, arguing that true philosophers should welcome death as a liberation of the soul from the limitations of the body.

The dialogue “Apology” provides insights into Socrates’ views on knowledge and wisdom. In his defense against the charges of impiety and corrupting the youth, Socrates states that his wisdom lies in acknowledging his own ignorance. This Socratic paradox—his claim of wisdom in admitting he knows nothing—epitomizes the humility and intellectual honesty that characterized his philosophical approach.

Socratic dialogues often revolved around the concept of justice, exploring its nature and application in various contexts. The “Crito” dialogue, occurring after Socrates’ trial and before his execution, examines the relationship between the individual and the state. Socrates, adhering to his principles, refuses Crito’s suggestion to escape from prison, arguing that one must obey the laws of the state, even unjust ones, as a commitment to the social contract.

In the “Republic,” Socrates engages in an extensive exploration of justice, delving into the nature of the individual soul and the structure of an ideal state. The famous Allegory of the Cave, found in this dialogue, symbolizes the journey from ignorance to knowledge, illustrating Socrates’ belief in the transformative power of education and philosophical enlightenment.

Socratic irony, a rhetorical device where one pretends ignorance to provoke thoughtful discussion, was a characteristic feature of his dialogues. By feigning ignorance, Socrates encouraged his interlocutors to articulate and defend their beliefs. Through this process, he illuminated inconsistencies and gaps in their understanding, pushing them to refine their ideas and seek deeper truths.

Socrates’ impact on philosophy extended far beyond his lifetime. His teachings, as recorded by Plato and Xenophon, laid the groundwork for subsequent philosophical movements. The Platonic Academy, founded by Plato, became a prominent center for philosophical inquiry, with Socratic ideals influencing generations of scholars.

Aristotle, another of Socrates’ notable disciples, built upon Socratic philosophy in his own work. While Aristotle differed in some aspects, particularly in his emphasis on empirical observation and systematic categorization, Socratic principles continued to shape the foundations of Western thought through the centuries.

The enduring legacy of Socrates lies not only in his specific philosophical ideas but in his method—the Socratic method. This method, emphasizing dialogue, critical inquiry, and self-examination, became a cornerstone of Western pedagogy. Socratic questioning remains a fundamental tool in education, encouraging students to think critically, articulate their thoughts, and engage in meaningful discourse.

Contributions to Ethics

Socrates, often regarded as the father of Western philosophy, made significant contributions to the field of ethics that have reverberated through the centuries. Although he left no written records of his own teachings, the dialogues of his disciples, primarily Plato and Xenophon, provide valuable insights into his ethical philosophy. Socrates’ impact on ethics can be understood through his emphasis on virtue, the pursuit of knowledge, and the transformative power of self-examination.

One of the central themes in Socratic ethics is the nature of virtue. Unlike his contemporaries, who often sought to define virtue in terms of specific actions or characteristics, Socrates approached the concept in a more abstract and intellectual manner. He posited that virtue, or moral excellence, was equivalent to knowledge. In other words, he believed that individuals who truly understood what was right would naturally act in accordance with virtue.

The Socratic dialogue “Protagoras” delves into the nature of virtue, with Socrates engaging in a discussion with Protagoras, a prominent sophist. While Protagoras suggests that virtue can be taught, Socrates challenges him to explain how, if virtue is teachable, there are both good and bad citizens in a city where citizens receive the same education. This dialogue raises questions about the inherent nature of virtue and whether it can be instilled through instruction.

In the dialogue “Meno,” Socrates explores the idea of whether virtue can be taught by interrogating Meno, a young and ambitious aristocrat. Through a series of questions, Socrates leads Meno to recognize that virtue is not simply a product of inheritance or education but involves a deeper understanding of what is good. This dialogue exemplifies Socrates’ method of maieutics, the art of midwifery, in which he helps others give birth to their own ideas and understanding.

Socratic ethics also introduces the concept of intellectual virtue, emphasizing the importance of wisdom and knowledge in guiding moral behavior. Socrates believed that ignorance was the root cause of wrongdoing; people acted immorally because they lacked a true understanding of what was good. This idea challenged the prevailing view that individuals knowingly engaged in evil deeds and underscored the importance of education and self-awareness in cultivating virtue.

The “Euthyphro” dialogue further explores Socrates’ inquiries into the nature of piety and the divine. In his discussion with Euthyphro, a religious expert, Socrates questions whether actions are pious because the gods love them or if the gods love actions because they are inherently pious. This dialogue not only challenges traditional views on morality but introduces the Euthyphro dilemma, a philosophical problem that remains relevant in discussions about the relationship between morality and religion.

Socrates’ ethical philosophy extended beyond theoretical discussions to practical applications in everyday life. He believed that individuals could improve their moral character through self-examination and critical reflection. The Socratic injunction “know thyself” encapsulates this idea, emphasizing the importance of introspection in understanding one’s own values, motivations, and beliefs.

The idea that virtue is knowledge influenced Socrates’ approach to moral education. He argued that individuals could become virtuous by acquiring knowledge of what is truly good. This belief challenged conventional views that virtue was primarily a result of upbringing or societal norms. Socratic education, therefore, involved not only imparting information but also fostering an understanding of ethical principles through dialogue and critical thinking.

Socratic irony, a rhetorical device where one pretends ignorance to provoke thoughtful discussion, was a key element in Socratic ethics. By feigning ignorance, Socrates encouraged his interlocutors to articulate and defend their ethical beliefs. Through this process, he aimed to reveal inconsistencies or gaps in their understanding, prompting them to refine their ethical principles through reasoned discourse.

The trial and execution of Socrates, as depicted in the “Apology” dialogue, showcase his unwavering commitment to ethical principles. Faced with charges of impiety and corrupting the youth, Socrates chose not to compromise his philosophical mission for the sake of personal safety. Instead, he defended the pursuit of truth and virtue, asserting that his commitment to philosophy and ethical inquiry was more important than his own life.

Socratic ethics also delved into the relationship between the individual and the state. In the “Crito” dialogue, Socrates discusses the obligations of a citizen to the state, even in the face of unjust laws. While Socrates acknowledges the importance of obeying the laws of the state, he argues that one must not act unjustly, even in response to an unjust verdict. This dialogue underscores Socrates’ conviction that ethical principles should guide one’s actions, even when facing societal or legal challenges.

The “Republic,” one of Plato’s most famous dialogues, offers a comprehensive exploration of Socratic ethics. In this dialogue, Socrates discusses the nature of justice and the ideal state. The allegory of the tripartite soul—a model of the soul divided into rational, spirited, and appetitive components—illustrates Socrates’ ethical framework. He contends that individuals achieve true virtue when reason governs the soul, aligning desires with rational principles.

The Allegory of the Cave in the “Republic” further emphasizes Socrates’ belief in the transformative power of education. The allegory depicts individuals confined in a cave, unaware of the outside world. Through education and the pursuit of knowledge, individuals can escape the cave and perceive the truth. This metaphor encapsulates Socrates’ conviction that enlightenment and self-awareness lead to a more virtuous and just society.

Socratic ethics continued to influence later philosophical traditions. Aristotle, a student of Plato and Socrates, built upon Socratic ideas in his ethical philosophy. While Aristotle diverged in some aspects, particularly in his focus on virtue as a mean between extremes, the Socratic emphasis on knowledge and the pursuit of virtue remained foundational in Aristotelian ethics.

The Socratic method, with its emphasis on dialogue, questioning, and critical thinking, became a cornerstone of Western education. Socratic questioning, designed to stimulate intellectual curiosity and engage students in thoughtful reflection, remains a widely used pedagogical tool. The enduring influence of Socratic ethics is evident in its integration into educational practices that prioritize the development of ethical reasoning and moral character.

Critique of Sophists

Socrates’ critique of the Sophists, as presented in various dialogues by his disciples, particularly Plato, offers a compelling examination of the ethical and epistemological challenges posed by these influential educators in ancient Greece. The Sophists, a group of itinerant teachers and rhetoricians, were known for their ability to impart persuasive speech and argumentative skills. However, Socrates raised profound questions about the ethical foundations of their teachings, the nature of truth, and the potential dangers of prioritizing persuasive techniques over genuine knowledge.

One of the primary criticisms leveled by Socrates against the Sophists was their perceived relativism regarding morality. The Sophists were known for teaching the art of persuasion and rhetoric, claiming that they could make the weaker argument appear stronger. This emphasis on persuasive skill raised ethical concerns for Socrates, as he questioned whether the Sophists were more concerned with winning arguments than with seeking the truth. In the dialogue “Gorgias,” Socrates engages with Gorgias, a prominent Sophist, and challenges him to defend the view that rhetoric is a noble and beneficial art.

Socratic questioning revealed the potential ethical pitfalls of Sophistic teachings. Socrates sought to uncover whether the Sophists’ emphasis on persuading others to one’s viewpoint could lead to manipulative practices or the promotion of self-interest over the common good. The dialogue “Protagoras” explores the idea that the Sophists, in teaching the art of persuasion, might be contributing to moral relativism by suggesting that what is considered right or just is determined by individual or societal preferences.

Furthermore, Socrates questioned the Sophists’ claim that virtue could be taught. In the dialogue “Meno,” Socrates engages with Meno, a young aristocrat, and questions the Sophistic idea that virtue can be imparted as a skill, akin to learning a craft. Socrates challenges the Sophists’ conception of virtue, arguing that it involves more than a set of skills or techniques; it requires a deep understanding of the nature of goodness and morality.

The Sophists’ commercial approach to education also drew criticism from Socrates. Sophists were known to charge fees for their instruction, and this transactional nature of education raised concerns for Socrates. In the dialogue “Protagoras,” Socrates contrasts the Sophists with true educators, arguing that those who genuinely seek knowledge and wisdom should not demand payment. Socrates himself did not charge fees for his teachings, and his commitment to the pursuit of truth over material gain stood in contrast to the Sophists’ profit-oriented practices.

Socratic dialogues, particularly those involving the character of Thrasymachus in the “Republic,” delve into the Sophistic challenge to objective truth and justice. Thrasymachus argues that justice is simply the advantage of the stronger, challenging the idea of an inherent moral order. Socrates engages in a dialectical exchange, attempting to uncover the flaws in Thrasymachus’ relativistic perspective and affirm the existence of objective moral principles. This dialogue exemplifies Socrates’ commitment to exploring and defending the nature of justice against Sophistic skepticism.

While the Sophists were skilled in argumentation and rhetoric, Socrates questioned the depth and sincerity of their knowledge. In the dialogue “Gorgias,” Socrates challenges Gorgias to define the nature of his expertise. Gorgias claims to possess the art of persuasion, but Socrates questions whether this skill is rooted in genuine knowledge or merely the ability to manipulate opinions. Socratic inquiry aimed to reveal whether the Sophists truly understood the subjects they claimed to teach or if their expertise was limited to persuasive techniques.

Socrates also criticized the Sophists’ focus on pragmatic success rather than a deeper understanding of human excellence. The dialogue “Protagoras” presents a debate between Socrates and Protagoras, in which Socrates questions whether the Sophists can truly educate individuals to become morally virtuous. He challenges the idea that success in public life necessarily equates to moral excellence, suggesting that the Sophists may prioritize practical success at the expense of cultivating virtuous character.

The Sophists’ emphasis on rhetoric and persuasive techniques as the primary tools for success in public life drew Socratic scrutiny. In the “Gorgias” dialogue, Socrates engages with Callicles, a supporter of Sophistic views, and challenges the notion that the pursuit of power and success should be divorced from ethical considerations. Socrates argues that true success should be aligned with moral excellence and that the Sophists’ separation of power from virtue could lead to the misuse of influence for self-interest.

Socratic critique extended to the Sophists’ approach to education, particularly their focus on teaching practical skills rather than cultivating a deeper understanding of human nature and morality. In the dialogue “Protagoras,” Socrates questions whether the Sophists are capable of imparting true wisdom. He challenges Protagoras to demonstrate the effectiveness of Sophistic education in producing morally virtuous individuals. Socrates’ probing inquiries sought to uncover the limitations of a purely pragmatic and relativistic approach to education.

Socrates’ emphasis on the pursuit of knowledge and virtue as foundational to ethical conduct stood in stark contrast to the Sophistic focus on persuasion and practical success. The dialogue “Gorgias” exemplifies this contrast, as Socrates argues that the true aim of education should be the cultivation of virtue and wisdom. He challenges the Sophists to consider whether their teachings genuinely contribute to the moral betterment of individuals or merely serve as tools for achieving personal gain.

While the Sophists were often associated with moral relativism, Socrates sought to affirm the existence of objective moral principles. In the “Euthyphro” dialogue, Socrates engages with Euthyphro, a religious expert, to explore the nature of piety and morality. Socrates questions whether actions are pious because the gods love them or if the gods love actions because they are inherently pious. This dialogue challenges the Sophistic view that morality is determined solely by individual or societal preferences.

Trial and Death

The trial and death of Socrates, as depicted in the dialogues of his disciple Plato, particularly in “Apology,” “Crito,” and “Phaedo,” stand as iconic moments in the history of philosophy. These events not only marked the end of Socrates’ physical existence but also showcased his unwavering commitment to philosophical principles, the pursuit of truth, and his profound influence on subsequent generations.

The trial of Socrates took place in 399 BCE in Athens, a city embroiled in political turmoil and social change. Socrates, despite his significant contributions to philosophy and education, found himself facing charges of impiety and corrupting the youth. The “Apology” dialogue provides a detailed account of Socrates’ defense during the trial, where he addressed the accusations and articulated his philosophical mission.

Socrates began his defense by acknowledging the rumors and prejudices that had contributed to his negative reputation. He stated that he was aware of the prejudice against him, fueled by misinterpretations of his method and the influential figures he had questioned. Despite this awareness, Socrates chose to continue his philosophical pursuits, driven by a sense of duty to the god Apollo and his commitment to the pursuit of wisdom.

One of the key elements of Socrates’ defense was his claim that he possessed a divine inner voice, a daimonion, which guided him and prevented him from engaging in actions that would lead to his own harm. Socrates argued that this inner voice served as a moral compass, advising him against actions that deviated from his philosophical mission. While this claim might have puzzled and even irritated the jurors, it highlighted Socrates’ belief in a higher ethical standard that transcended societal norms.

Socrates refuted the charges of impiety by arguing that he was not an atheist and that he believed in divine forces. He attributed the accusations to a misunderstanding of his mission, emphasizing that his questioning was aimed at uncovering true wisdom and virtue rather than challenging the existence of the gods. Socratic irony, a rhetorical device where one feigns ignorance to provoke thoughtful discussion, was evident in his defense as he highlighted the limitations of his own knowledge.

Moreover, Socrates defended his role in Athens by pointing out the paradoxical nature of his perceived corruption of the youth. He argued that if he had corrupted the youth, it was unintentional, as his mission was to improve individuals’ moral character through philosophical inquiry. Socrates challenged his accusers to provide specific examples of his corrupting influence, highlighting the lack of concrete evidence to support the charges.

Despite the eloquence and conviction of his defense, Socrates was ultimately found guilty by a narrow margin. The jury’s decision set the stage for the sentencing phase, during which Socrates’ supporters had the opportunity to propose an alternative punishment. Socrates, however, remained steadfast in his principles and refused to compromise his philosophical mission.

The dialogue “Crito” picks up after Socrates’ conviction, depicting a conversation between Socrates and his friend Crito. In this dialogue, Crito attempts to persuade Socrates to escape from prison before his impending execution. Crito presents pragmatic reasons for escaping, including concerns about the potential negative consequences for Socrates’ friends and the loss of a valuable companion.

Socrates’ response, however, emphasizes his commitment to the rule of law and the social contract. He argues that escaping would be unjust and a violation of the laws to which he had willingly subjected himself by choosing to live in Athens. Socrates rejects the idea that one can respond to injustice with further injustice and emphasizes the importance of living a life in accordance with ethical principles, even in the face of imminent death.

The dialogue explores the relationship between the individual and the state, touching on themes of justice, duty, and moral integrity. Socrates’ refusal to escape reflects his prioritization of ethical considerations over personal convenience or survival. By choosing to abide by the laws of Athens, even those that led to his own unjust death, Socrates exemplifies his commitment to principles that transcend individual circumstances.

The final chapter in Socrates’ life unfolds in the dialogue “Phaedo,” which narrates the philosopher’s last moments before drinking hemlock and his subsequent death. The setting is the prison of Athens, where Socrates engages in a series of philosophical discussions with his disciples as he awaits execution.

The “Phaedo” dialogue delves into metaphysical and epistemological inquiries, particularly the nature of the soul and the afterlife. Socrates presents arguments for the immortality of the soul, suggesting that the soul is eternal and that true philosophers should not fear death. He argues that the pursuit of knowledge and the practice of philosophy prepare the soul for the journey beyond this life.

The dialogue also introduces the famous Allegory of the Cave, a metaphorical illustration of the transformative power of education and the philosopher’s journey from ignorance to enlightenment. Socrates emphasizes that the philosopher’s task is to liberate the soul from the shackles of ignorance and perceive the eternal truths that transcend the material world.

As Socrates prepares to drink the hemlock, his demeanor remains calm and composed. He reassures his friends and disciples that death should not be feared but embraced by those who have dedicated their lives to the pursuit of wisdom. Socrates’ acceptance of death reflects his conviction that true philosophers are engaged in a continuous process of preparing the soul for the afterlife.

The final moments of Socrates’ life are poignant and symbolic. As he drinks the hemlock, surrounded by his grieving disciples, he maintains a sense of tranquility and philosophical contemplation. The act of drinking the hemlock, a method of execution in ancient Greece, becomes a symbolic affirmation of Socrates’ commitment to his principles and his unwavering pursuit of truth and virtue.

The death of Socrates marked the end of a philosophical era but also laid the groundwork for the enduring legacy of his ideas. His steadfastness in the face of adversity, his refusal to compromise his ethical principles, and his willingness to accept death for the sake of philosophy became powerful symbols that resonated through the centuries.

Socrates’ trial and death were pivotal moments that captured the essence of his philosophical mission. His teachings, preserved in the dialogues of Plato, continue to inspire scholars, educators, and seekers of wisdom. The Socratic method, with its emphasis on questioning, dialogue, and critical inquiry, remains a foundational approach in education. Socrates’ legacy transcends the confines of history, serving as a testament to the enduring power of philosophy to challenge, inspire, and illuminate the human quest for truth and virtue.

Socrates, despite leaving no written records of his own, left an indelible mark on the history of philosophy and the development of Western thought. His legacy is multifaceted, encompassing contributions to ethics, epistemology, and the philosophy of education. The enduring impact of Socrates can be traced through his influence on subsequent philosophers, the continued relevance of the Socratic method, and the enduring questions he posed about virtue, knowledge, and the nature of the self.

Socrates’ legacy is prominently reflected in the dialogues of his disciple Plato. Through these dialogues, Socrates becomes a central figure in philosophical discourse, engaging in discussions that traverse ethical dilemmas, metaphysical inquiries, and explorations of justice. Plato’s “Apology,” “Crito,” “Phaedo,” and others serve as both historical records of Socrates’ life and philosophical treatises that encapsulate the core tenets of his teachings.

One of the most enduring aspects of Socrates’ legacy is the Socratic method, a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue that seeks to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate underlying assumptions. The method involves a series of questions posed by the teacher, encouraging students to articulate and defend their ideas. By engaging in this dialectical process, participants are led to refine their understanding and uncover deeper truths. The Socratic method became a cornerstone of education, emphasizing active participation, critical inquiry, and the development of intellectual autonomy.

The impact of the Socratic method extends far beyond ancient Greece. It has permeated educational practices across cultures and time periods, becoming a fundamental approach in various disciplines. Whether in law schools, medical education, or philosophy classrooms, educators employ the Socratic method to cultivate analytical thinking, articulate reasoning, and foster a deeper engagement with subject matter. Socrates’ legacy lives on as an advocate for dialogue, questioning, and the pursuit of knowledge through collaborative inquiry.

Socrates’ influence is also evident in the works of his other prominent disciple, Xenophon. While Xenophon’s portrayal of Socrates differs from Plato’s, it provides additional perspectives on Socrates’ life and teachings. Xenophon’s “Memorabilia” and “Apology of Socrates to the Jury” contribute to the multifaceted understanding of Socratic philosophy. Together with Plato’s dialogues, these writings form a comprehensive depiction of Socrates’ impact on his contemporaries.

Aristotle, another giant in the history of philosophy and a student of Plato, engaged with Socratic ideas in his own work. While Aristotle departed from certain aspects of Socratic philosophy, such as the Socratic emphasis on knowledge as virtue, he acknowledged Socrates’ influence. Aristotle’s ethical and epistemological inquiries build upon the foundations laid by Socrates, demonstrating the enduring legacy of Socratic thought in shaping subsequent philosophical traditions.

Beyond the realm of philosophy, Socrates’ legacy extends into literature, art, and popular culture. Plato’s dialogues, with Socrates as the central character, have inspired countless writers and thinkers throughout history. Artists have depicted Socrates in paintings, sculptures, and plays, capturing the essence of his intellectual pursuits and his willingness to face death for the sake of principles. The “Socratic method” has become a colloquial term, signifying a style of questioning that seeks to stimulate critical thinking and elicit thoughtful responses.

The impact of Socratic philosophy is particularly evident in the Renaissance period, where a revival of classical learning sparked a renewed interest in the works of ancient Greek philosophers. Scholars like Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola engaged with Socratic ideas, contributing to a broader intellectual movement that shaped the course of European thought.

Socrates’ legacy also found resonance in the Age of Enlightenment, as thinkers like Immanuel Kant and Jean-Jacques Rousseau grappled with questions related to ethics, education, and the nature of the self. The emphasis on reason, autonomy, and moral philosophy in Enlightenment thought can be seen as a continuation of the Socratic tradition.

In the 20th century, existentialist philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus engaged with themes of individual responsibility, authenticity, and the search for meaning—echoing Socratic concerns about moral choices and the examined life. Sartre’s famous declaration, “Existence precedes essence,” aligns with Socratic notions of self-examination and the constant creation of one’s identity through choices.

Socratic philosophy has also left its imprint on contemporary discussions about education. Progressive education models emphasize active learning, critical thinking, and student engagement—principles that align with the Socratic approach. In an era of rapidly evolving information and technology, the Socratic emphasis on developing intellectual skills and the ability to question assumptions remains relevant.

The enduring relevance of Socratic ideas is perhaps most pronounced in the ongoing dialogues about virtue, justice, and the nature of the good life. Socrates’ inquiries into the relationship between knowledge and virtue, the pursuit of ethical principles, and the importance of self-examination continue to resonate with thinkers across disciplines. In a world confronted by ethical challenges, the Socratic legacy prompts individuals to reflect on their values, engage in meaningful discourse, and strive for a more examined and virtuous life.

However, Socrates’ legacy is not without its complexities and criticisms. Some argue that Socratic questioning, if not employed judiciously, can lead to a form of intellectual elitism, where individuals may prioritize debate and dialogue over concrete action. Others critique Socrates for his perceived neglect of practical matters and his abstract focus on ethical ideals, questioning the applicability of his philosophy to real-world problems.

In addition, the Socratic emphasis on the examined life and the pursuit of virtue has been criticized for its potential to foster an elitist attitude, as not everyone may have the privilege or opportunity for extensive philosophical reflection. Critics argue that Socratic ideals might be more attainable for those with the luxury of leisure and education, potentially excluding individuals facing practical challenges or systemic barriers.

Moreover, Socrates’ uncompromising commitment to truth and virtue, even at the cost of his own life, raises questions about the practicality and feasibility of such an approach in various social and political contexts. The complexities of navigating ethical dilemmas, societal norms, and political realities may require a more nuanced understanding of moral decision-making than the Socratic model alone provides.

Despite these critiques, Socrates’ legacy endures as a source of inspiration, challenging individuals to engage in self-examination, question assumptions, and pursue a life guided by ethical principles. The Socratic method, with its emphasis on dialogue and critical thinking, continues to shape educational practices and foster intellectual development.

In the realm of ethics, Socratic inquiries into the nature of virtue, justice, and the examined life remain foundational to discussions about moral philosophy. The enduring relevance of Socratic thought is evident in ongoing debates about the relationship between knowledge and morality, the role of education in ethical development, and the pursuit of a meaningful and purposeful life.

Socrates’ legacy is not confined to the realm of abstract philosophy; it extends into the practical considerations of everyday life. The Socratic commitment to questioning assumptions and seeking deeper understanding can be applied in diverse fields, from business and leadership to interpersonal relationships. The Socratic method, with its capacity to stimulate critical thinking and open dialogue, offers a valuable tool for addressing complex issues and navigating ethical challenges.

The Socratic legacy also serves as a reminder of the value of intellectual humility and the acknowledgment of one’s own ignorance. Socrates’ claim to wisdom lay in his admission that he knew nothing for certain. In a world characterized by uncertainty and rapid change, embracing intellectual humility becomes a means of fostering open-mindedness, adaptability, and a willingness to learn from diverse perspectives.

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

You must be logged in to post a comment.

Explainer: Socrates and the life worth living

Lecturer in Philosophy and History, Bond University

Disclosure statement

Oscar Davis does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

Bond University provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU.

View all partners

Socrates was notoriously annoying. He was likened to a gadfly buzzing around while one is trying to sleep. The Oracle of Delphi declared him the wisest of all human beings. His life and death would go on to shape the history of Western thought.

And yet he proclaimed to know nothing. The genius of Socrates lay in his professed ignorance of what it means to be human.

Socrates (469-399 BCE) grew up in Athens over two and half thousand years ago. At the time, the Athenians were recovering from a devastating war with the Persians. As they rebuilt, the military general and politician, Pericles, championed democracy as the form of government to bring Greece into its Golden Age.

The Athenians practised a direct (as opposed to representative) form of democracy. Any male over the age of 20 was obligated to take part. The officials of the assembly were randomly selected through a lottery process and could make executive pronouncements, such as deciding to go to war or banishing Athenian citizens.

The Athens of Pericles flourished. Bustling crowds of traders from around the Mediterranean gathered at the port of Piraeus. In the Athenian agoras – the central marketplaces and assembly areas – the active social and political lives of the Athenian citizens would inspire the mind of Socrates.

Socrates at war

Alcibiades, who would go on to become a prominent Athenian statesman and general, recounts a story of what might be a pivotal moment in the development of Socrates’ thinking.

One morning during the campaign of Potidaea , Socrates became transfixed by a problem that he could not seem to solve. An entire day passed and Socrates had still not moved. In awe, and probably curious to see how long he could keep it up, his fellow soldiers moved their beds outside to watch him during the night. It was not until dawn the next morning that Socrates said a prayer to the new day and walked away.

Jonathan Lear argues in his Tanner Lectures that Socrates is not just standing still because he is lost in thought; he is standing still because he cannot walk. He is standing “not knowing what his next step should be”. Socrates wants to move in the right direction, but does not know what direction that is.

We will never know what Socrates was thinking about. But after standing still and thinking, he appears to have become invigorated. Alcibiades tells us that in the battle that followed Socrates saved his life. For the remainder of the campaign, Socrates fought with a fierceness and bravery that exemplified true courage.

Read more: What is love? In pop culture, love is often depicted as a willingness to sacrifice, but ancient philosophers took a different view

Socrates the gadfly

Socrates never wrote anything down. He hungered for the lively exchange of ideas and believed that writing only served to imprison a thought in letters. He argued that the written word shared a strange quality with paintings. Both appear to us “like living beings, but if one asks them a question, they preserve a solemn silence”.

Much of what we know of Socrates’ activities and conversations, and his death, was recorded by his devoted student Plato. Scholarly debate continues about just how much of Plato’s written record of Socrates’ interrogations we can attribute to Socrates himself. At some point in the Platonic corpus, Socrates becomes a mouthpiece for Plato’s own ideas, but no one can agree precisely when.

Socrates was unsure of what to make of being called the wisest of all human beings. He dedicated his time to questioning fellow Athenians about the nature of things, interrogating ideas such as friendship, love, justice and piety. He was searching for what he believed to be the highest good: knowledge.

The gadfly could show up anywhere. In Plato’s Euthyphro , for example, Socrates bumps into Euthyphro, who is on his way to court about to prosecute his father:

What strange thing has happened, Socrates, that you have left your accustomed haunts in the Lyceum and are now haunting the portico where the king archon sits?

Socrates is intrigued by Euthyphro’s legal case, and so begins his inquiry:

do you think your knowledge about divine laws and holiness […] is so exact that […] you are not afraid of doing something unholy yourself in prosecuting your father for murder?

Almost every Socratic dialogue is centred around Socrates’ recognition of his own ignorance. In Euthyphro, the subject he interrogates is piety. What follows adheres to a structure shared by most of the other dialogues, which is known as elenchus or the Socratic method.

Its basic form is as follows:

Socrates engages an interlocutor who appears to possess knowledge about an idea

the interlocutor makes an attempt to define the idea in question

Socrates asks a series of questions which test and unravel the interlocutor’s definition

the interlocutor tries to reassemble their definition, but Socrates repeats step three

both parties arrive at a state of perplexity, or aporia , in which neither can any further define the idea in question.

We can gain a sense of the frustration that this caused some of Socrates’ unwilling victims. Take the final lines of his encounter with Euthyphro as an example:

Socrates : Then don’t you see that now you say that what is precious to the gods is holy? And is not this what is dear to the gods? Euthyphro : Certainly. Socrates : Then either our agreement a while ago was wrong, or if that was right, we are wrong now. Euthyphro : So it seems. Socrates : Then we must begin again at the beginning and ask what holiness is. Since I shall not willingly give up until I learn. […] Euthyphro : Some other time, Socrates. Now I am in a hurry and it is time for me to go.

In Meno , another of Plato’s dialogues, Socrates likens the sting of aporia to that of an electric stingray:

I find you are merely bewitching me with your spells and incantations, which have reduced me to utter perplexity. And if I am indeed to have my jest, I consider that both in your appearance and in other respects you are extremely like the flat torpedo sea-fish; for it benumbs anyone who approaches and touches it, and something of the sort is what I find you have done to me now. For in truth I feel my soul and my tongue quite benumbed, and I am at a loss what answer to give you.

Throughout the dialogues, Socrates demonstrates the disruptive and disorientating experience of aporia, which emerges from philosophical activity. Reflecting upon the declaration of the Oracle of Delphi, we learn that Socrates was wise because, unlike his interlocutors, he did not proclaim to know what he was ignorant of.

Read more: Leaders as healers: Ancient Greek ideas on the health of the body politic

Corrupting the youth and replacing the gods

In the early days of democracy and in a society which was rapidly expanding, one would think that a revolutionary thinker like Socrates would be a highly prized instrument of intellectual progress. But not everyone appreciated the disorientating sting of the gadfly’s thinking.

Plato would later comment on how the Athenians – and perhaps societies in general – react when faced with the disruptive force of critical reflection.

His famous allegory of the cave, which forms part of his Republic , is in many ways the story of a philosopher – the story of his great teacher, Socrates.

The allegory begins with prisoners locked in a cave. All the prisoners can see are the shadows of the passing guards reflected on the wall, and the echoes of the world behind them. This is the condition of a society content with the mere illusions of knowledge, a society that is unreflective and stagnant.

One prisoner manages to escape. Turned towards the entry of the cave, he first notices the brightness of the light – like knowledge, the light is uncomfortable and disruptive after years of contentment with shadows.

Escaping the cave, the prisoner

can see the reflections of people and things in water and then later see the people and things themselves. Eventually, he is able to look at the stars and moon at night until finally he can look upon the sun itself.

Only after he is able to look straight at the “sun itself” – i.e. knowledge of what is good – “is he able to reason about it” and what it is. The freed prisoner, argues Plato, would realise that life outside is far superior to being inside the cave. He would return and encourage the prisoners to free themselves and look around. But the comfort of their belief in the world of shadows and echoes is a strong force to overcome.

Plato says that the prisoners, fearing what awaits outside of the cave, would react violently towards the freed prisoner – even killing him in order to keep the peace.

This was Socrates’ fate.

When the citizens of Athens had finally had enough of Socrates’ pestering questions, they banded together and accused him of corrupting the youth and attempting to replace the old gods.

He was imprisoned. His followers planned an escape, but he refused. Socrates questioned what was to be gained by escaping. Life itself is not ultimately valuable – surely, he says, it is a good and just life that we ultimately value. If he were to escape, he would only be tarnishing his good life with an act of vengeance against the misinformed Athenian citizens. He had nothing to gain by escaping. He could only preserve the harmony of his own soul by accepting his fate.

In his final stand in front of the Athenian judges, Socrates denies all charges. His only crime was forcing Athenians to think:

If again I say that to talk every day about virtue and the other things about which you hear me talking and examining myself and others is the greatest good to man, and that the unexamined life is not worth living, you will believe me still less.

If you are to put me to death, warns Socrates, you will not easily find another like me. Striking dead the gadfly of Athens is easy, but “then you would sleep on for the remainder of your lives, unless the god in his care of you gives you another gadfly”.

But the judges had made up their minds. The majority voted that Socrates would be executed by drinking hemlock.

Socrates teaches us that philosophical contemplation prepares us for the good life. The experience of aporia – in all of its discomfort and disruption – is the very catalyst of wonder. The philosopher, the lover of wisdom, is anyone who dares to escape the cave and look upon the sun, anyone who lives for the values Socrates died for.

• Greek philosophers

Faculty of Law - Academic Appointment Opportunities

Operations Manager

Senior Education Technologist

Audience Development Coordinator (fixed-term maternity cover)

Lecturer (Hindi-Urdu)

Profile of Socrates

An Ancient Philosopher and Sage

• Figures & Events
• Ancient Languages
• Mythology & Religion
• American History
• African American History
• African History
• Asian History
• European History
• Latin American History
• Medieval & Renaissance History
• Military History
• The 20th Century
• Women's History
• M.A., Linguistics, University of Minnesota
• B.A., Latin, University of Minnesota

The Greek philosopher Socrates was born c. 470/469 B.C., in Athens, and died in 399 B.C. To put this in the context of the other great men of his time, the sculptor Pheidias died c. 430; Sophocles and Euripides died c. 406; Pericles died in 429; Thucydides died c. 399; and the architect Ictinus completed the Parthenon in c. 438.

Athens was producing the extraordinary art and monuments for which she would be remembered. Beauty, including personal, was vital. It was linked with being good. However, Socrates was ugly, according to all accounts, a fact that made him a good target for Aristophanes in his comedies.

Who Was Socrates?

Socrates was a great Greek philosopher, possibly the wisest sage of all time. He is famous for contributing to philosophy:

• Pithy sayings
• The Socratic method of discussion or dialogue
• "Socratic irony"

A discussion of Greek democracy often focuses on a sadder aspect of his life: his state-mandated execution.

Although we have many details about his death, we know little about the life of Socrates. Plato provides us the names of some of his family members: Socrates' father was Sophroniscus (thought to have been a stonemason), his mother was Phaenarete, and his wife, Xanthippe (a proverbial shrew). Socrates had 3 sons, Lamprocles, Sophroniscus, and Menexenus. The oldest, Lamprocles, was about 15 at the time his father died.

The Council of 500 [see Athenian Officials in the Time of Pericles] condemned Socrates to death for impiety for not believing in the gods of the city and for introducing new gods. He was offered an alternative to death, paying a fine, but refused it. Socrates fulfilled his sentence by drinking a cup of poison hemlock in front of friends.

Socrates as Citizen of Athens

Socrates is remembered chiefly as a philosopher and the teacher of Plato, but he was also a citizen of Athens, and served the military as a hoplite during the Peloponnesian War , at Potidaea (432–429), where he saved Alcibiades ' life in a skirmish, Delium (424), where he remained calm while most around him were in a panic, and Amphipolis (422). Socrates also participated in the Athenian democratic political organ, the Council of the 500.

As a Sophist

The 5th century B.C. sophists, a name based on the Greek word for wisdom, are familiar to us mostly from the writings of Aristophanes, Plato, and Xenophon, who opposed them. Sophists taught valuable skills, especially rhetoric, for a price. Although Plato shows Socrates opposing the sophists, and not charging for his instruction, Aristophanes, in his comedy Clouds , portrays Socrates as a greedy master of the sophists' craft. Although Plato is considered the most reliable source on Socrates and he says Socrates was not a sophist, opinions differ on whether Socrates was essentially different from the (other) sophists.

Contemporary Sources

Socrates is not known to have written anything. He is best known for the dialogues of Plato, but before Plato painted his memorable portrait in his dialogues, Socrates was an object of ridicule, described as a sophist, by Aristophanes. In addition to writing about his life and teaching, Plato and Xenophon wrote about Socrates' defense at his trial, in separate works both called Apology .

The Socratic Method

Socrates is known for the Socratic method ( elenchus ), Socratic irony , and the pursuit of knowledge. Socrates is famous for saying that he knows nothing and that the unexamined life is not worth living. The Socratic method involves asking a series of questions until a contradiction emerges invalidating the initial assumption. Socratic irony is the position that the inquisitor takes that he knows nothing while leading the questioning.

• An Introduction to Plato and His Philosophical Ideas
• Socratic Dialogue (Argumentation)
• Plato's 'Apology'
• Understanding Socratic Ignorance
• The 5 Great Schools of Ancient Greek Philosophy
• Socratic Irony
• Biography of Aristotle, Influential Greek Philosopher and Scientist
• Summary and Analysis of Meno by Plato
• What Was the Charge Against Socrates?
• Most Important Figures in Ancient History
• What Is Rhetoric?
• Biography of Alcibiades, Ancient Greek Soldier-Politician
• The Allegory of the Cave From the Republic of Plato
• What Is Rhetorical Irony?
• Aristophanes, the Ancient Greek Comedy Writer
• Philosophers and Great Thinkers From Ancient Greece

Who was Socrates?

Considered to be the founding father of Western philosophy, Socrates examined all aspects of life in ancient Athens—to his own detriment.

Socrates is considered by many to be the founding father of Western philosophy —as well as one of the most enigmatic figures of ancient history. He wrote nothing himself, so all knowledge of the Greek philosopher has been handed down through the writings of his contemporaries and his students, primarily his star pupil, Plato.

Scholars still grapple with “the Socratic problem”: how to distinguish the historical Socrates from the individual portrayed and interpreted by various authors through the ages. But as any law student will attest, his interrogative “Socratic method” of teaching is as alive and well today as it was when the great thinker questioned everything and everyone in Athens in the fifth century B.C.

Socrates first distinguished himself as a hoplite, or heavily armed infantryman, in the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta . He earned admiration for his ability to endure physical discomfort and for his fearlessness, particularly in saving the life of Alcibiades, a respected Athenian general.

Upon returning from the war to Athens, Socrates quickly gained a reputation as a philosopher, which translates as “a lover of wisdom.” He subscribed to the axiom, attributed to him, that “the unexamined life is not worth living,” and he set about examining all aspects of life in Athens.

In one tale, the Oracle at Delphi supposedly stated that Socrates was the wisest man in Athens. Socrates himself believed it took a wise man to admit his ignorance. Only through the process of continual questioning could a person arrive at understanding and discover truth.

He was reportedly quite a sight, defiantly swaggering through the streets, grilling whomever he encountered about how one could lead a life of integrity. As during battle, he completely disregarded his physical appearance. He would often go out in the day barefoot and unwashed, wearing his bedclothes, his hair long and disheveled.

An array of foes

Socrates attracted many followers among the youth, the powerful, and the wealthy of Athens. But he had detractors as well. He engaged in a war of words with the Sophists, a group of itinerant instructors who, for a fee, taught rich, young Athenian men the rhetorical skills needed in the political arena. Socrates excoriated the Sophists for their pay-to-play philosophy. Their mutual enmity became the subject of Aristophanes’ satirical play The Clouds. The famous playwright lampooned not only Socrates’ appearance—for he was quite an unattractive individual—but also his persona, portraying him as a person who literally had his head in the clouds.

Things soon came crashing down to earth for the philosopher. Political fortunes had changed dramatically in Athens . Socrates became suspect, not only for the actions of some of his associates but because his concepts of individualism seemed too revolutionary in the politically fraught times. In 399 B.C., magistrates charged him with impiety and corrupting the city’s youth.

Rather than fleeing or renouncing his beliefs, Socrates accepted the death sentence he was given. He spent his final days visiting with friends before drinking a cup of poisonous hemlock. As chronicled by Plato, “He appeared happy both in manner and words as he died nobly and without fear.” Socrates had been as bold and inspirational in his death as in his life; both would be well examined in the millennia to come.

FREE BONUS ISSUE

Related topics.

• ANCIENT GREECE
• ANCIENT HISTORY
• PEOPLE AND CULTURE

You May Also Like

These ancient nomads made human leather out of their enemies

Were Alexander the Great and Hephaestion more than friends?

These ancient Greek weapons were quite literally toxic

Who invented the marathon? It’s not as ancient as you think

This ancient Greek warship ruled the Mediterranean

• Environment
• Paid Content

History & Culture

• History & Culture
• History Magazine
• 2023 in Review
• Mind, Body, Wonder
• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• Your US State Privacy Rights
• Children's Online Privacy Policy
• Interest-Based Ads
• About Nielsen Measurement
• Do Not Sell or Share My Personal Information
• Nat Geo Home
• Attend a Live Event
• Book a Trip
• Inspire Your Kids
• Shop Nat Geo
• Visit the D.C. Museum
• Learn About Our Impact
• Support Our Mission
• Advertise With Us
• Customer Service
• Renew Subscription
• Manage Your Subscription
• Work at Nat Geo
• Sign Up for Our Newsletters
• Contribute to Protect the Planet

Copyright © 1996-2015 National Geographic Society Copyright © 2015-2024 National Geographic Partners, LLC. All rights reserved

• The Open University
• Guest user / Sign out
• Study with The Open University

My OpenLearn Profile

Personalise your OpenLearn profile, save your favourite content and get recognition for your learning

The Life of Socrates

Find out more about The Open University's Philosophy courses and qualifications

Socrates was born c. 469/470 BCE to the sculptor Sophronicus and the mid-wife Phaenarete. He studied music, gymnastics, and grammar in his youth (the common subjects of study for a young Greek) and followed his father's profession as a sculptor. Tradition holds that he was an exceptional artist, and his statue of the Graces, on the road to the Acropolis, is said to have been admired into the 2nd century CE. Socrates served with distinction in the army and, at the Battle of Potidaea, saved the life of the General Alcibiades. When he was middle-aged, Socrates' friend Chaerephon asked the famous Oracle at Delphi if there was anyone wiser than Socrates, to which the Oracle answered, "None." Bewildered by this answer and hoping to prove the Oracle wrong, Socrates went about questioning people who were held to be 'wise' in their own estimation and that of others. He found, to his dismay, "that the men whose reputation for wisdom stood highest were nearly the most lacking in it, while others who were looked down on as common people were much more intelligent" (Plato, Apology , 22). The youth of Athens delighted in watching Socrates question their elders in the market and, soon, he had a following of young men who, because of his example and his teachings, would go on to abandon their early aspirations and devote themselves to philosophy (from the Greek 'Philo', love, and 'Sophia', wisdom - literally 'the love of wisdom'). Among these were Antisthenes (founder of the Cynic school), Aristippus (the Cyrenaic school), Xenophon (whose writings would influence Zeno of Cithium, founder of the Stoic school) and, most famously, Plato (the main source of our information of Socrates in his  Dialogues ) among many others. Every major philosophical school mentioned by ancient writers following Socrates' death was founded by one of his followers.

The diversity of these schools is testimony to Socrates' wide ranging influence and, more importantly, the diversity of interpretations of his teachings. The philosophical concepts taught by Antisthenes and Aristippus could not be more different, in that the former taught that the good life was attained by self-control and self-abnegation, while the latter claimed a life of pleasure was the only path worth pursuing. It has been said that Socrates' greatest contribution to philosophy was to move intellectual pursuits away from the focus on 'physical science' (as pursued by the so-called Pre-Socratic Philosophers such as Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, and others) and into the abstract realm of ethics and morality. No matter the diversity of the schools which claimed to carry on his teachings, they all emphasized some form of morality as their foundational tenet. That the 'morality' espoused by one school was often condemned by another, again bears witness to the very different interpretations of Socrates' central message. While scholars have traditionally relied upon Plato's Dialogues as a source for information on the historical Socrates, Plato's contemporaries claimed he used a character he called 'Socrates' as a mouth-piece for his own philosophical views. Notable among these critics was, allegedly, Phaedo, a fellow student of Socrates, whose writings are now lost, and Xenophon, whose Memorablia presents a different view of Socrates than that presented by Plato.

However his teachings were interpreted, it seems clear that Socrates' main focus was on how to live a good and virtuous life. The claim atrributed to him by Plato that "an unexamined life is not worth living" ( Apology , 38b) seems historically accurate, in that it is clear he inspired his followers to think for themselves instead of following the dictates of society and the accepted superstitions concerning the gods and how one should behave. While there are differences between Plato's and Xenophon's depictions of Socrates, both present a man who cared nothing for class distinctions or 'proper behavior' and who spoke as easily with women, servants, and slaves as with those of the higher classes.

Find out more

Socrates - Teacher, Paragon or Chatterbox?

Dr Carolyn Price discusses the legacy of Socrates, the father of moral philosophy.

Great Thinkers: Making the connections

Who were the great thinkers that shaped the way we live today? What connects Nelson Mandela with the feminist-philosopher Simone de Beauvoir? Play this series of games and uncover the connections between influential figures from Charles Darwin to Fidel Castro

Study a free course

Philosophy: the nature of persons

What is a person? This free course, Philosophy: the nature of persons, examines this philosophical question concerning the nature of personhood. You will examine whether a 'person' is the same as a 'human being', and look at whether it is our free will that in the end defines us as a 'person'.

Introducing the philosophy of religion

In this free course, Introducing the philosophy of religion, Timothy Chappell, Professor of Philosophy, asks what the words 'God' and 'religion' mean, and what it means to ask philosophical questions about them.

Introducing philosophy

Ever wondered what it would be like to study philosophy? This free course, Introducing philosophy, will introduce you to the teaching methods employed and the types of activities and assignments you would be asked to undertake should you wish to study philosophy and the human situation.

This article was originally published on  Ancient.eu , written by Joshua J. Mark and released under the  Creative Commons BY-NC-SA 3.0 licence.

Become an OU student

Ratings & comments, share this free course, copyright information, publication details.

• Originally published: Friday, 24 July 2015
• Body text - Creative-Commons : Joshua J. Mark
• Image 'Marcello Bacciarelli - Alcibiades Being Taught by Socrates' - Copyright free
• Image 'Introducing philosophy' - Copyright: Used with permission
• Image 'Philosophy: the nature of persons' - Copyright: Used with permission
• Image 'Socrates - Teacher, Paragon or Chatterbox?' - Copyright free
• Image 'Great Thinkers: Making the connections' - Copyright: The Open University
• Image 'Introducing the philosophy of religion' - Copyright: Used with permission

Rate and Review

Rate this article, review this article.

Log into OpenLearn to leave reviews and join in the conversation.

Article reviews

For further information, take a look at our frequently asked questions which may give you the support you need.

World History Edu

• Greek Philosophers

Socrates: His Beliefs and Philosophy

by World History Edu · May 21, 2019

Socrates was one of the greatest Greek philosophers by a wide margin. He was born in 469 BCE at a place called Deme Alpoece, Athens. For the entirety of his life, this classical Greek philosopher devoted himself to finding the most ideal way of living a moral life. His extensive works in ethics and epistemology are what formed the pillars of Western philosophy. Kind courtesy of the efforts and sheer brilliance of his most famous student, Plato , Socrates’s ideas and philosophy continue to hold significant sway in our world, even after thousands of years. In 399 BCE, Socrates passed away after he was sentenced to death by the Athenians. He was charged with ‘corrupting’ the youth and heresy.

Read the biography below to learn more about Socrates, as well as his beliefs and philosophy.

Early Beginnings

The lack of proper chronicles and autobiography makes it difficult for historians to accurately give details about Socrates’ childhood. What is however known is that, Socrates came from a relatively poor family. His father was a stonemason that went by the name Sophroniscus. Socrates’ mother was Phaenarete- a diligent and hardworking midwife. As a result of his family’s financial hardships, Socrates could not obtain any formal education. He ended up assisting his father at his workshop.

When Socrates attained the age of maturity, it is likely that he served in the military during the Peloponnesian War , which festered between Athens and Sparta. Other specific accounts of the history state that Socrates served in an armored infantry ( hoplite ) during military campaigns in Potidaea, Delium, and Amphipolis. Back then, it was compulsory for all able-bodied men to fight for Athens in times of wars.  It is believed that he dispatched his duties bravely and gallantly.

Socrates certainly had a superior intellect. However, he was not so good looking. His student, Plato, portrayed him as anything but physically handsome.

It must be noted that the history and story surrounding Socrates is not so much straightforward. There have been some levels of contradictions in Plato’s dialogues and among the accounts of Xenophon and Aristotle.

How the world came to know about Socrates

Socrates was a very peculiar Greek philosopher in the sense that he never wrote down any thoughts of his. He simply spoke out his mind and engaged in intellectual discussions with his followers. Socrates would roam the streets of ancient Athens trying to trigger the reasoning capacity of people from all walks of life. For example, he would question them; debate with Athenians about why they held certain beliefs; and ask how those beliefs of theirs shape their lives. Those were his favored methods of expressing and refining his ideas.

The task of writing what this wonderful philosopher thought and spoke about fell to his students and followers. Historians believe that had it not been for the recordings (writings) made by philosophers like Plato (428-348 BCE) , Xenophon (c. 431 – c. 354 BCE) and Aristophanes (c. 460- c. 380 BCE), the world would not have known anything about Socrates. These great philosophers chronicled the life of Socrates as well as his ideas.

For instance, Plato wrote extensive dialogues (Plato’s Dialogues) where the main character in the conversation was his tutor Socrates. With such innovative techniques of writing, Plato was able to use about 36 different dialogues to convey Socratic thoughts and philosophies to the public. Most notable of such dialogues are the Crito, the Apology, Symposium and the Phaedo (Platonic Socrates text).

Socrates’ best-known ideas and thoughts

Exactly when Socrates began thinking deeply about life and morality is unknown. Accounts and dialogues from his students mostly transport us to a time when Socrates was a relatively old man.

His thoughts were usually geared towards the pursuit of ethics and value-laden life. He searched for a set of universal truths that would help Athenian society live a morally upright life. According to him, the physical world we live in was just a mirror image of things that are false. Real truth, to him, is found in justice and the good. Material things like wealth, financial gains and power have not and cannot give us true happiness. Socrates believed that a society that ignored the quest of philosophical constructs and ideas were doomed to be sad and miserable.

All of the above ideas flew right across the faces of the powerful and elite in ancient Athens. Many of those elites considered Socrates’ sayings a threat to the stability of Greece. To say that Socrates’ ideas were radical at that time would be an understatement.

Socrates and the concept of justice

His discussions about virtues and justice quickly caught on with the youths of ancient Athens. Socrates gave them hope; he inspired in them a new way of thinking and viewing the world. Some authors have claimed that Socrates unshackled the chains that hang tight around the young men at that time. He admonished them for taking things on surface-level without questioning people in power or experts in various professions. He called on every Athenian to become a philosopher first and foremost. His discussions were full of questions instead of answers. These questions went a long way in liberating their thought process and giving them suggestive ideas on how best to live a moral life.

Also, Socrates believed that the best form of philosophy is one that probes deep and questions the things in this world. In order to do this, he advocated that one must come with an open mind so as to allow answers flow into the mind. He had this famous saying that read as: “I know that I know nothing”.

Schools of thoughts that existed before Socrates

Prior to Socrates coming onto the scene, the dominant thought or philosophical reasoning is referred to as pre-Socratic. That is how much of an influence Socrates had on Ancient Greek philosophy.

The pre-Socratic philosophers engaged in a different approach that desisted from using mythological analysis of the environment. Examples of such schools were the Milesians, Xenophanes, Pythagorians, Eleatics, Heraclitus, and the Sophists. Their focus of the study was mainly on cosmology, mathematics, and ontology. In sophism, for example, philosophers believed that there are relative ways of explaining the constants in the environment. According to them, the physis (nature) remains unchanged but the nomos (law) is what varies. One of the biggest advocate of sophism was Protagoras.

Socrates, along with Plato, opined that the sophists were radical relativists (‘perspectivists’) that used unjust subjectivity in philosophy.

Socrates’ Approach to Philosophy ( The Socratic Method )

Socratic philosophy sharply differs from its predecessors because it searches for a universal truth. Unlike the sophists, Socrates believed that the law (nomos) never changes. The ideals (FORMS) of justice, beauty, bravery, and honesty remain unchanged. Hence, those truths should be the pursuit of every one of us in order to lead a moral life.

The process of pursuing those truths is what is termed as the Socratic Method. Socrates used a method of self-analysis to explore subjects of the physical world. At the heart of this introspection was engaging first with oneself and then with others. Often times, it started off as a simple question and then it glided into more and more questions. Socrates was less interested in coming up with the answers. On the other hand, the asking questions were what gave him fulfillment and joy.

The reason why there are contradictions in Socrates’ biography

Contradictions in the accounts of what Socrates believed in stem from the writings in Plato’s dialogue. The divergent stories about Socrates lend no help in zooming down on Socrates actual views.

Furthermore, some historians and philosophers have maintained that Plato planted Socrates’ character in his dialogues to accentuate his views about life. They go as far as saying that the ideas purported to be Socrates’ may have not been the views of Socrates himself.

Another reason area of contention is whether or not Socrates accepted payment in exchange for his tutoring. Plato’s Apology and Symposium both claim that Socrates did not accept money or any other payment in kind for his tutoring works. As a result of this, Socrates lived in abject poverty for a great all his life.

However, Aristophanes’ the Clouds begged to differ. Aristophanes wrote that Socrates took payments in exchange for tutoring at a Sophist school. Another student of Plato, Xenophon, expressed similar remarks.

Regardless of such minuscule details, it is evident that Socrates was certainly a real person- not the figment of Plato’s imagination done to propagate his ideas. This is because there are lots of key points about Socrates that have been corroborated by philosophers such as Aristotle and Xenophon. For example, Aristotle made mention of the fact that Socrates utterly believed in virtue being knowledge. Similarly, Xenophon (in his Symposium ) stated that Socrates was obsessed with discussing philosophy.

How Socrates died

Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher, often considered one of the founders of Western philosophy, who lived in Athens during the 5th century BC. Image: A painting by French painter Jacques-Louis David (1787) on the Death of Socrates

Socrates’ death has been described as a very tragic one. It has been retold for a countless number of times over thousands of years. Socrates’ demise happened in a gradual manner. It all started when the political elites of Athenian society got wary of the increased influence Socrates chalked up with the youth.

The philosopher simply became a thorn in the flesh of the ruling elites. Coupled with this, Athens was in a recovery process after the lost to Sparta during the Peloponnesian War. The defeat catapulted a section of elites to power. They were called the Thirty Tyrants . One of Socrates’ students, Critias, was even part of this new ruling class.

The reign of the Thirty Tyrants did not last for long. There was a people revolution in Athens, the tyrants got toppled, and a democratic government was installed.

Shortly after this, the new government started clamping down on all those that were affiliated to the Thirty Tyrants. Socrates was among the people that were taken into custody. The Athenians considered Socrates as someone against democracy. Additionally, there were some of his followers and students that sympathized with the Thirty Tyrant’s cause.

Socrates was put on trial for treason. The exact charges that were levied against him were:

• the corruption of the youth of Athens
• heresy and disregard of the Greek gods and goddesses of Athens

Typical of Socrates, he was not perturbed by those charges. He believed that reasoning and logical discussions would be able to convince the jury that he was innocent of those charges. Plato’s dialogues portrayed him as thoughtfully and very articulate during the trial.

Unfortunately, the jury wanted to have nothing to do with any Socratic Method of analyzing the charges. Who could blame them? They were deeply immersed in a mythological approach of dealing with the physical world.

Socrates lost the trial and was sentenced to death. In 399 BCE, the execution was carried out by means of a drink laced with the poisonous hemlock ( Conium maculatum ). This plant was the go-to-plant for the execution of prisoners in ancient Greece. While in prison, Socrates had the opportunity to break free, however, he chose not to do so.

READ MORE:  How and Why Ancient Greece Fell

Reasons why Socrates chose not to break free from prison

In Plato’s Phaedo , Plato stated that his dear friend and tutor could certainly have avoided this sad fate of his by escaping. One of Socrates’ friends, Crito, made arrangements for Socrates to prison break to freedom. Crito was wealthy and had connections in high places that he could easily bribe in order to secure the escape of Socrates. However, Socrates opted not to do so.

The reasons why he stayed in prison can be inferred from the Phaedo and the Crito as follows:

First and foremost, Socrates was not the type of person to shy away from a fight. And certainly, he wasn’t going to do so even when death stared at him right in the face. He believed that a virtuous soul is one that is brave enough to stand in the face of persecution. In the Phaedo, Socrates believed that his life-long philosophical training had adequately prepared him when for death.

Socrates’ quote about old age

Secondly, Socrates felt that had he escaped, the inquisitive nature of his mind was bound to bring him at odds with another authority elsewhere. Perhaps Socrates felt that his time was up.

The final reason has to do with Socrates’ high sense of “social contract” with the state. He reasoned that his trial and punishment were not something to be frowned upon. Obviously, he did not like the punishment; however, he felt obligated to be subjected to the city’s laws and judicial processes. Besides, had he escaped, those that facilitated in his escape were bound to receive a similar fate as his. Therefore, escaping was far too a heavy price to pay.

Socrates’s last words to his dear friend, Crito

Legacy of Socrates

Socrates’ contribution to philosophy can fully be seen in the accounts of the people that he influenced. The writings of Plato, Xenophon, and Aristotle paint some very ground-breaking reasoning by Socrates. All in all, those teachings served as the foundations for Classical Greek Philosophy. That, in turn, went on to influence the world for the next 2000 or so years.

He was the first moral philosopher of his time. He was a philosopher who used reasoning, and not myths or superstition, to interpret the world. Everything from religion, politics, cosmology, poetry, and mathematics owe the majority of their ideas to Socratic philosophy and methodology.

Interesting Facts about Socrates

This piece on Socrates has been summarized with the following interesting facts about Socrates:

• Contrary to what the likes of Xenophon and Aristotle said, Plato claimed that Socrates did not accept payments for his services
• Socrates married Xanthippe. This marriage produced three children by the names Menexenus, Sophroniscus, and Lamprocles.
• He is credited to have said: “the unexamined life is not worth living”. In this saying Socrates equating self-knowledge and analysis to true happiness.
• He was not solely in favor of democratic principles. Just like his student, Plato, he called for wise and philosophical leaders.
• Socrates spoke to anyone who was interested in having an intellectual conversation. Rather than display to the folks how much he knew, he asked questions (the Socratic Method).
• Socrates mounted a fierce defense during his trial. He shocked the jury by stating that the state should rather pay him for his life-long dedication to Athens.
• The 280 aye votes from the jury members (as against 221 nays) were enough to sentence Socrates to death.
• Chose to remain in prison and see through his death sentence
• Even in his death bed, Socrates appeared very calm and composed. There was no hesitation whatsoever on his part.
• Socrates was a very short and slightly ugly man (in ancient Greek standards). He also had protruding eyes and nose.
• He was not so much enthused about theology and mythical ideas. Therefore, Socrates was not your typical ancient Greek religious guy.
• Right until his death, Socrates maintained that the most virtuous way to respond to injustice was not more injustice. This idea is what forms the basis of the social contract theory that we have today.

Socrates (469-399 BCE)

In the past 24 or so centuries, Socrates’ ideas and sphere of influence have stretched all over the world. As the father of Classical Greek philosophy, he has been portrayed in innumerable art and scientific works. This Athenian-born philosopher is undeniably one of the greatest person and thinker in all of human history.

Frequently Asked Questions about Socrates

These FAQs provide a basic introduction to Socrates, but his life, philosophy, and influence are subjects of deep study and contemplation in academia and beyond.

What is Socrates best known for?

He is best known for his Socratic method of questioning, emphasizing critical thinking and the pursuit of virtue. He did not write any texts; our knowledge of him comes primarily from the writings of his students, notably Plato and Xenophon.

What is the Socratic method?

The Socratic method is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas. It involves asking a series of questions to draw out underlying beliefs and assumptions.

Why was Socrates sentenced to death?

In 399 BCE, Socrates was put on trial and sentenced to death for “corrupting the youth” and “impiety” (not recognizing the gods recognized by the state). Some believe his questioning of traditional beliefs and values threatened the status quo.

How did Socrates die?

He was sentenced to die by consuming a drink containing poison hemlock. He met his end calmly, surrounded by his students.

What are the main sources of information about Socrates?

Most of what we know about Socrates comes from the works of his student Plato, especially the “Dialogues”, and from the writings of Xenophon. He’s also mentioned in the works of the playwright Aristophanes.

Did Socrates have any specific teachings?

Unlike other philosophers, Socrates claimed not to have his own teachings. Instead, he saw himself as a “midwife of ideas,” helping others bring forth their own understanding.

What did Socrates believe about knowledge and wisdom?

One of his most famous sayings is, “I know that I know nothing.” He believed that recognizing one’s own ignorance was the first step to wisdom.

How did Socrates view ethics and virtue?

Socrates believed that virtue was the most valuable of all possessions and that the purpose of life was the pursuit of virtue and ethical knowledge.

How has Socrates influenced modern philosophy and thought?

Socrates’ emphasis on critical questioning and ethical living laid the foundations for Western philosophical thought. His influence is seen in the works of subsequent philosophers, methods of pedagogy, and even in legal questioning techniques.

Tags: Ancient Greek Philosophers Classical Greek Philosophy Plato Plato's Dialogues Socrates Socratic method

You may also like...

Aristotle: Biography, Beliefs and Contributions

May 28, 2019

Interesting Facts about Aristotle

Anaxagoras: History, Achievements & Facts

August 19, 2021

• Pingbacks 1

[…] Plato was born in either 428 or 427 BCE in ancient Athens. Plato was a devout student of Socrates (c. 470-399 BCE). By taking a philosophical approach (the “Socratic Position”),  he […]

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

• Next story  Plato’s Academy: Origin Story, Location, Scholars, & Legacy
• Previous story  Answers to Popular Questions about Plato
• Popular Posts
• Recent Posts

Edward the Black Prince: History, Accomplishments, & Major Facts

What Happened to the Muslim Majority of Portugal and Spain?

History & Important Accomplishments of Sir Walter Raleigh

History of Ghana and how it became an influential player in the decolonization of Africa

History and Major Accomplishments of Nebuchadnezzar II: Why he built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon

Greatest African Leaders of all Time

Queen Elizabeth II: 10 Major Achievements

Donald Trump’s Educational Background

Donald Trump: 10 Most Significant Achievements

8 Most Important Achievements of John F. Kennedy

Odin in Norse Mythology: Origin Story, Meaning and Symbols

Ragnar Lothbrok – History, Facts & Legendary Achievements

9 Great Achievements of Queen Victoria

12 Most Influential Presidents of the United States

Most Ruthless African Dictators of All Time

Kwame Nkrumah: History, Major Facts & 10 Memorable Achievements

Greek God Hermes: Myths, Powers and Early Portrayals

8 Major Achievements of Rosa Parks

How did Captain James Cook die?

10 Most Famous Pharaohs of Egypt

Kamala Harris: 10 Major Achievements

The Exact Relationship between Elizabeth II and Elizabeth I

Poseidon: Myths and Facts about the Greek God of the Sea

Nile River: Location, Importance & Major Facts

Importance and Major Facts about Magna Carta

• Adolf Hitler Alexander the Great American Civil War Ancient Egyptian gods Ancient Egyptian religion Aphrodite Apollo Athena Athens Black history Carthage China Civil Rights Movement Constantine the Great Constantinople Egypt England France Germany Ghana Hera Horus India Isis John Adams Julius Caesar Loki Military Generals Military History Nobel Peace Prize Odin Osiris Pan-Africanism Queen Elizabeth I Ra Ragnarök Religion Set (Seth) Soviet Union Thor Timeline Women’s History World War I World War II Zeus

Socrates: Life, Philosophy and Legacy

Biography | Influences | Core Philosophy | Essential Works | Reception | Criticisms | Legacy

Socrates, the enigmatic philosopher of ancient Athens, laid the foundation for critical thinking, moral reasoning and the pursuit of truth.

To better comprehend Socratic philosophy, we shall examine the historical and intellectual milieu in which he lived, delve into his early life, education, and career, discuss the philosophical framework and core principles that defined Socrates’ thought, and explore his essential works – the main dialogues which serve as invaluable windows into Socratic philosophy and capture the dynamic exchanges that epitomize his unique approach to reason, knowledge and truth.

Furthermore, we review the reception and criticisms he faced during his time and beyond, as well as the inspiring influence he exerted on subsequent philosophers and philosophical schools, uncovering how his ideas continue to shape ethical, epistemological, and metaphysical debates.

Finally, we consider the value and relevance of Socratic philosophy in everyday life.

Table of Contents

Early life, education and career.

Socrates, one of the most influential philosophers in history, was born in Athens, Greece, around 469 BCE. Not much is known about his early life, but he is believed to have come from a modest background and received a standard education, which included instruction in grammar, music, and gymnastics.

During his youth, Socrates displayed a keen interest in acquiring knowledge and engaging in intellectual pursuits. He became acquainted with the works of prominent thinkers of his time, such as Anaxagoras and Parmenides, which greatly influenced his subsequent development. Socrates also studied under Archelaus, a prominent philosopher, and it was during this period that he began to develop his unique approach to philosophical inquiry.

Following in his father’s footsteps, Socrates begun his career as a stonemason. His true passion, however, lay in the pursuit of wisdom and the examination of moral and ethical questions. He devoted his time to engaging in philosophical discussions with fellow Athenians, challenging their beliefs and questioning their understanding of important concepts, and his distinct method of questioning, known as the Socratic method , became a hallmark of his approach.

Despite not writing any works himself, Socrates played a crucial role in the intellectual landscape of Athens, becaming known (even infamous) for his intellectual prowess and his ability to expose the inconsistencies and contradictions in people’s arguments. However, his philosophical activities eventually led to his trial and subsequent execution in 399 BCE, when he was charged with impiety and corrupting the youth of Athens, accusations stemming from his unconventional approach and willingness to openly criticize traditional beliefs. Having been found guilty, he was sentenced to death by ingestion of poison hemlock, immortalizing his legacy.

Socrates’ unwavering commitment to seeking truth and his refusal to compromise his principles, even in the face of death, exemplified his dedication to reason, truth and virtue.

Historical and Intellectual Context

Understanding the historical background and intellectual climate of Socrates’ time, we gain valuable insights into the foundations and significance of his philosophy.

Athens, at the time, was a flourishing city-state that had experienced significant political, cultural, and intellectual developments – a democratic society , the first of its kind, known for its vibrant intellectual and artistic achievements. But Greece had recently undergone transformative events, including the Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War, which had a profound impact on Athenian society, contributing to an atmosphere of dissatisfaction and instability, leading people to question long-held beliefs and previously accepted societal structures.

The intellectual climate of the time was characterized by a rich diversity of philosophical and intellectual traditions. The Pre-Socratic philosophers , such as Parmenides and Heraclitus, had laid the groundwork for speculative metaphysics and the study of nature; while the Sophists, a group of itinerant teachers catering to aspiring politicians, emerged as influential figures offering instruction in rhetoric and persuasive argumentation. Socrates rejected the relativism of the Sophists to seek universal truths through rational inquiry and critical examination, guiding the discussion towards the nature of virtue and justice.

The historical and intellectual context of ancient Athens, with its democratic ideals, social disillusionment and philosophical diversity, played a crucial role in shaping Socrates’ paradigm and worldview, providing a fertile ground for his distinctive dialectic methodology.

Philosophical Framework: Core Principles

Socrates’ philosophy is characterized by several fundamental tenets that form the basis of his distinctive approach to reason, knowledge and virtue. Exploring these core principles – the Socratic method, paradox, and ethical philosophy – provides a focused yet highly relevant illustration of his philosophical framework.

Elenchus: the Socratic Method

At the heart of Socrates’ philosophy lies the Socratic method, also known as elenchus, which entails a rigorous process of questioning and cross-examination aimed at uncovering underlying assumptions, exposing contradictions, and arriving at a deeper understanding.

The Socratic method is not a means of asserting one’s opinion, but rather a method of seeking wisdom through critical inquiry and guided reflection . Through a series of probing questions, Socrates sought to expose contradictions and inconsistencies in people’s beliefs, leading them to recognize their own ignorance.

Knowledge and the Socratic Paradox

Socrates famously declared: “I only know one thing – that I know nothing.”

This statement encapsulates the Socratic paradox, which highlights the importance of recognizing one’s own ignorance as a starting point for genuine knowledge, believing that true wisdom comes from acknowledging one’s lack of knowledge and actively engaging in the pursuit of truth.

Socrates contended that genuine wisdom comes from recognizing the limits of one’s knowledge, emphasizing the importance of humility and self-awareness in the quest for understanding, and being open to continuous learning and self-improvement.

Ethical Philosophy and Virtue

Socrates’ philosophy also delved into ethical questions, particularly the nature of virtue and its connection to knowledge.

He believed that true virtue is based on knowledge and that all wrongdoing stems from ignorance. According to Socrates, individuals act immorally because they lack a true understanding of what is good and just. Through his dialectical method, questioning their beliefs and guiding them toward a deeper understanding of moral principles, he aimed to help individuals discover and cultivate virtue.

Socrates emphasized the importance of virtue as the ultimate goal of human life , believing that the pursuit of knowledge and the development of moral excellence are intertwined, and that a virtuous life is the key to personal fulfillment and the betterment of society.

Socrates’ Essential Works

The primary source for Socrates’ philosophy is the collection of dialogues written by his most famous student, Plato , for these dialogues feature Socrates as the main interlocutor and showcase his unique approach to philosophical inquiry.

To gain a comprehensive understanding of Socratic philosophy, exploring these essential works is recommended. Studying these dialogues in the suggested order, beginners can grasp the essence of Socrates’ philosophical ideas in an accessible manner.

Apology recounts Socrates’ defense speech during his trial, offering insight into his philosophical beliefs and his unwavering commitment to truth, even in the face of imminent death. This dialogue provides a poignant introduction to Socrates’ overall philosophical perspective and way of life.

In Euthyphro , Socrates engages in a conversation with Euthyphro about the nature of piety and the relationship between the gods and morality, illustrating Socrates’ method of questioning in challenging conventional beliefs, setting the stage for further exploration of his logical and ethical philosophy.

In the dialogue known as Meno Socrates and Meno discuss the nature of virtue and whether it can be taught. This dialogue explores Socrates’ distinctive method of inquiry, the concept of the Socratic paradox, and the theory of soul recollection, emphasizing the importance of self-awareness in the pursuit of knowledge.

Phaedo takes place on the day of Socrates’ execution and focuses on the immortality of the soul. It delves into Socrates’ beliefs about the afterlife and his views on the relationship between the body and the soul, offering profound insights into his metaphysical paradigm and philosophy of the self.

Although Symposium is not solely centered on Socratic philosophy, it presents Socrates’ thoughts on love and desire. It explores the nature of love, beauty, and the pursuit of wisdom, providing a deeper understanding of Socrates’ philosophical views on the human condition.

These dialogues by Plato offer an engaging and accessible introduction to Socrates’ philosophy. They showcase his method of inquiry, his ethical and metaphysical beliefs, and his relentless pursuit of knowledge and truth.

Nonetheless, it is necessary to recognize the difficulty in distinguishing Socratic from Platonic philosophy . Not simply because the former influenced the latter, but mainly because Socrates believed in the importance of open dialogue in fostering personal growth and promoting prosperity through knowledge.

Because of this, Socrates himself never wrote down his philosophy, and it was Plato who later recognized the value of preserving his mentor’s ideals for subsequent generations.

Reception and Criticisms

Examining the reception of Socrates’ philosophy in his time and noteworthy criticisms from later eras, we gain a comprehensive understanding of the evolving perspectives and debates surrounding his philosophical legacy, illustrating the ongoing dialogue and diverse interpretations that have emerged.

Initial Reception

In ancient Athens, Socrates’ unorthodox approach and relentless questioning garnered attention and intrigue. Many Athenians were drawn to his intellectual rigor and admired his commitment to seeking truth and moral virtue. His method of engaging in philosophical discussions in public spaces, such as the Agora, invited curiosity and participation from fellow citizens. Socrates attracted a loyal group of followers, including notable figures like Plato, who would later become one of the most influential philosophers in his own right.

However, Socrates also faced considerable opposition and scrutiny. Some Athenians found his questioning unsettling and perceived him as a subversive influence on the youth, as his relentless pursuit of truth often challenged prevailing social and political norms, which lead to accusations of impiety and corrupting the minds of the young.

Notably, he was depicted as a sophist by some of his contemporaries, who believed that his questioning techniques were merely rhetorical exercises intended to deceive and manipulate others. This accusation reflected a significant criticism of Socrates’ philosophy, challenging the sincerity and ethical foundation of his teachings.

Noteworthy Criticisms

Socrates’ philosophy continued to shape philosophical discourse long after his time, inviting analysis and critique from renowned philosophers in subsequent periods, contributing to the ongoing evaluation of his worldview.

One such critic was the renowned philosopher Immanuel Kant . Kant expressed reservations about Socrates’ emphasis on questioning and his approach to moral philosophy. He argued that Socrates’ relentless questioning could lead to an impasse, hindering the establishment of objective moral principles. Kant believed that Socrates’ focus on intellectual inquiry neglected the importance of moral duty and an ethical framework grounded in reason.

Friedrich Nietzsche also responded to Socrates’ philosophy, questioning the value of Socratic rationality and criticizing his ethical approach for suppressing instinct and intuition. He viewed Socrates as representative of a “slave morality” that undermined the flourishing of higher human potential, advocating instead for the importance of embracing passions and creativity.

Influence on Philosophy

Socrates’ philosophical ideas had a profound impact on the development of Western philosophy, and his influence can be seen in the works of famous philosophers and the emergence of noteworthy schools of thought that drew inspiration from his teachings.

Exploring Socrates’ influence on Plato and the Academy, as well as his impact on Stoicism and Cynicism, we gain a glimpse into the far-reaching effects of his philosophy on subsequent philosophical schools and the broader intellectual landscape of Western civilization.

Plato and the Academy

Plato became one of the greatest philosophers in history and the founder of the Academy, an influential institution of higher learning.

Socrates’ emphasis on critical thinking, the pursuit of truth, and the importance of moral and intellectual virtue deeply shaped Plato’s philosophy. His dialogues, featuring Socrates as the main interlocutor, not only preserved Socratic ideas but also expanded upon them and developed Plato’s own metaphysical, epistemological, and ethical theories.

The Academy , established by Plato, continued to uphold the Socratic tradition and became a hub of philosophical inquiry for several centuries. It fostered intellectual exploration, further disseminated Socrates’ teachings and hosted world renowned philosophers, such as Aristotle .

Stoicism and Cynicism

Socrates’ philosophy also had a significant influence on the development of Stoicism and Cynicism, two noteworthy schools of thought that emerged in the Hellenistic period.

Stoicism , founded by Zeno of Citium, embraced many Socratic principles. The Stoics shared Socrates’ belief in the importance of self-examination, the pursuit of wisdom, and the cultivation of virtue. They emphasized the role of reason in guiding human conduct and advocated for the development of inner tranquility in the face of external circumstances. Socrates’ ethical philosophy and his teachings on virtue resonated with the Stoics, and they incorporated these ideas into their own comprehensive system of philosophy.

Cynicism , represented by figures such as Diogenes of Sinope, also drew inspiration from Socrates’ philosophy. The Cynics embraced a radical simplicity of life, rejecting conventional social norms and material possessions. They believed in living according to nature, promoting self-sufficiency, and practicing moral integrity. The Cynics’ commitment to questioning societal conventions and their emphasis on living a virtuous life were influenced by Socratic ideals.

Socrates’ impact on philosophy extended beyond Plato, the Academy, Stoicism, and Cynicism. His ideas and methods of inquiry inspired countless philosophers and thinkers throughout history. His commitment to intellectual honesty, critical examination, and the pursuit of wisdom left an indelible mark on the development of philosophical thought.

Intellectual Legacy

Socrates profoundly influenced philosophical discourse during his time and beyond, introducing groundbreaking methods of inquiry and laying the foundation for Western philosophical thought.

Socrates’ impact on philosophy is primarily attributed to his unique approach of engaging in dialectic conversations, known as the Socratic method . By engaging in rigorous questioning and critical examination of beliefs, Socrates sought to uncover truth and expose the limitations of human knowledge. This method not only challenged the prevailing wisdom and beliefs of his time but also encouraged individuals to question their own assumptions and engage in introspection.

Socrates’ teachings and methods had a significant influence on his contemporaries, most notably his student Plato, who further developed and expanded upon Socratic ideas in his own philosophical works. Through Plato, Socrates’ legacy was preserved and disseminated, ensuring his enduring impact on Western philosophy.

Furthermore, Socrates’ emphasis on ethics and moral philosophy was groundbreaking. He believed that the pursuit of knowledge and self-examination are intricately linked to leading a virtuous life. His emphasis on the importance of virtue and the examination of one’s own beliefs continues to be relevant in contemporary discussions of ethics and moral philosophy.

Despite not leaving behind any written works himself, Socrates’ ideas and methods have been extensively documented by his students and subsequent philosophers. His relentless pursuit of truth, commitment to critical thinking, and encouragement of self-reflection laid the groundwork for the development of philosophy as a distinct discipline.

The Value of Insight

Understanding and applying the key principles of Socrates’ philosophy can benefit individuals in everyday life, leading to intellectual growth, self-examination and ethical decision-making.

Engaging in intellectual dialogue and embracing the Socratic method of inquiry, individuals expand their intellectual horizons, challenge preconceived notions, and develop a more nuanced understanding of complex issues. This commitment to intellectual growth fosters curiosity, open-mindedness, and a lifelong love of learning.

Recognizing that wisdom is a lifelong pursuit and that knowledge is always evolving, we approach discussions and debates with an open mind, valuing diverse perspectives and engaging in constructive dialogue. Socrates’ intellectual humility fosters empathy, promotes comprehension and encourages collaboration.

Furthermore, his philosophy emphasizes self-examination as a means to gain a deeper understanding of oneself and the world. Critically questioning one’s own beliefs, values, and assumptions, we cultivate self-awareness, recognize our limitations, and identify areas for personal growth. This process of introspection allows us to live more purposefully and authentically, aligning our actions with our true values and aspirations.

Socrates emphasized the connection between knowledge and virtue , asserting that true wisdom lies in knowing what is morally right. Applying Socratic principles, individuals cultivate a strong ethical framework, making informed decisions that prioritize the well-being of oneself and others. This ethical consciousness fosters integrity, empathy, and a sense of social responsibility, leading to more harmonious relationships and a positive impact on society.

Embracing Socrates’ philosophy in everyday life empowers individuals to nurture intellectual growth, practice humility, engage in self-examination and make ethical decisions that contribute positively to communities and the world at large.

For Socrates, philosophy was not simply an academic discipline but a way of life and a path towards a meaningful and fulfilling existence .

Similar Posts

[full text] plato’s apology.

The Apology, otherwise known as The Apology of Socrates, is Plato’s account of Socrates’ legal defense against the charges of impiety – asbeia in ancient Greek – and corrupting the youth in 399 BCE. Plato’s Apology, along with Xenophon’s Apology of Socrates to the Jury, are the only two primary sources of information about Socrates’…

[Modernized] Plato’s Apology

The Apology, otherwise known as The Apology of Socrates, is Plato’s account of Socrates’ legal defense against the charges of impiety and corrupting the youth before a jury of Athenian citizens in 399 BCE. Believed to have been written in the early 4th century BCE, The Apology was translated by Benjamin Jowett into English in…

Plato’s Republic: A Comprehensive Summary

Chapter-by-chapter summary of Plato’s Republic, clearly explained.

Plato’s Theory of Forms

Plato’s theory of Forms, essentially, says that the physical world we perceive is an imperfect manifestation of eternal Forms. These Forms are the ultimate reality, and understanding the Forms is the key to genuine knowledge and wisdom.

[Full Text] Xenophon’s Memorabilia | Book I

The Memorable Thoughts of Socrates by Xenophon Translated by Edward Bisshe Book I Xenophon (c. 430 – 354 BCE), a Greek historian, philosopher and soldier, was a student of Socrates and contemporary of Plato. His “Memorabilia” defends Socrates’ moral teachings, countering misconceptions. This work offers a unique perspective on Socrates and Socratic philosophy, and its…

Søren Kierkegaard: Life, Philosophy and Legacy

1.3 Socrates as a Paradigmatic Historical Philosopher

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain Socrates’s appreciation for the limits of human knowledge.
• Identify Socrates’s primary moral principles.
• Describe Socrates’s life, death, and philosophical interests.
• Compare Socrates’s moral philosophy with classical Indian philosophy.

Socrates is a foundational figure for Western philosophy. Even though he did not write any works himself, his life and thought are captured by three different, contemporary sources whose works we still have. Socrates is depicted in several of Aristophanes’s comedic plays. Aristophanes , an accomplished Athenian playwright, won several dramatic competitions of his day. Eleven of his 40 plays survive, and in three of them— The Clouds, The Frogs, and The Birds —Socrates appears as a main character. Aristophanes’s depiction of Socrates is ridiculous, and Plato appears to think that this depiction is partially responsible for Socrates’s ultimate trial and death. Another contemporary of Socrates, the historian Xenophon, wrote an account of Socrates’s trial and death in his Memorabilia . Finally, and most important, Socrates’s student and friend Plato made Socrates the central figure in nearly all of his dialogues. Plato and Aristotle are the most influential of the Athenian philosophers and have had a profound influence on the development of Western philosophy. Plato wrote exclusively in the form of dialogues, where his characters engage in discussion centered on philosophical issues. Most of what we know about Socrates is derived from Plato’s depiction of him as the primary questioner in most of the dialogues. Therefore, even though Socrates did not write works of his own, his life—and death—remain a testament to his profound and impactful philosophical life. For that reason, it is useful for us to consider the figure of Socrates as a paradigm of the philosophical life.

In particular, Socrates’s defense of himself during his trial is in many ways a defense of the philosophical life. Socrates was accused by a young, upstart politician named Meletus of corrupting the youth and undermining the gods of the city. These crimes were considered to be a kind of treason that undermined the legitimacy and future of Athenian democracy. The speech Socrates gave in his own defense to the Athenians, as recorded by Plato, remains a vivid and compelling defense of the sort of life he lived. In the end, his defense was not successful. He was convicted, imprisoned, and killed in 399 BCE. Plato provides accounts of the trial and death, not only in the Apology , but also in the Crito , where Socrates argues with his friend Crito that it would be unjust for him to escape from prison, and in the Phaedo , where Socrates engages in a debate with several close friends, arguing in his jail cell just before he dies that the soul is immortal.

Read Like a Philosopher

This excerpt from Plato’s Apology , translated by Benjamin Jowett, records one account of Socrates’s defense at his trial. He is responding to accusations made against him in front of the Assembly, which was the main governing body and jury for trials in Athens. This body was composed of 500 citizens.

I dare say, Athenians, that someone among you will reply, “Why is this, Socrates, and what is the origin of these accusations of you: for there must have been something strange which you have been doing? All this great fame and talk about you would never have arisen if you had been like other men: tell us, then, why this is, as we should be sorry to judge hastily of you.” Now I regard this as a fair challenge, and I will endeavor to explain to you the origin of this name of “wise,” and of this evil fame. . . . I will refer you to a witness who is worthy of credit, and will tell you about my wisdom—whether I have any, and of what sort—and that witness shall be the god of Delphi. You must have known Chaerephon; he was early a friend of mine, and also a friend of yours, for he shared in the exile of the people, and returned with you. Well, Chaerephon, as you know, was very impetuous in all his doings, and he went to Delphi and boldly asked the oracle to tell him whether—as I was saying, I must beg you not to interrupt—he asked the oracle to tell him whether there was anyone wiser than I was, and the Pythian prophetess answered that there was no man wiser. Chaerephon is dead himself, but his brother, who is in court, will confirm the truth of this story. Why do I mention this? Because I am going to explain to you why I have such an evil name. When I heard the answer, I said to myself, “What can the god mean? and what is the interpretation of this riddle? for I know that I have no wisdom, small or great. What can he mean when he says that I am the wisest of men? And yet he is a god and cannot lie; that would be against his nature.” After a long consideration, I at last thought of a method of trying the question. I reflected that if I could only find a man wiser than myself, then I might go to the god with a refutation in my hand. I should say to him, “Here is a man who is wiser than I am; but you said that I was the wisest.” Accordingly I went to one who had the reputation of wisdom, and observed to him—his name I need not mention; he was a politician whom I selected for examination—and the result was as follows: When I began to talk with him, I could not help thinking that he was not really wise, although he was thought wise by many, and wiser still by himself; and I went and tried to explain to him that he thought himself wise, but was not really wise; and the consequence was that he hated me, and his enmity was shared by several who were present and heard me. So I left him, saying to myself, as I went away: “Well, although I do not suppose that either of us knows anything really beautiful and good, I am better off than he is—for he knows nothing, and thinks that he knows. I neither know nor think that I know. In this latter particular, then, I seem to have slightly the advantage of him.” Then I went to another, who had still higher philosophical pretensions, and my conclusion was exactly the same. I made another enemy of him, and of many others besides him. After this I went to one man after another, being not unconscious of the enmity which I provoked, and I lamented and feared this: but necessity was laid upon me—the word of God, I thought, ought to be considered first. And I said to myself, “Go I must to all who appear to know, and find out the meaning of the oracle.” And I swear to you, Athenians, by the dog I swear!—for I must tell you the truth—the result of my mission was just this: I found that the men most in repute were all but the most foolish; and that some inferior men were really wiser and better. I will tell you the tale of my wanderings and of the “Herculean” labors, as I may call them, which I endured only to find at last the oracle irrefutable. When I left the politicians, I went to the poets; tragic, dithyrambic, and all sorts. And there, I said to myself, you will be detected; now you will find out that you are more ignorant than they are. Accordingly, I took them some of the most elaborate passages in their own writings, and asked what was the meaning of them—thinking that they would teach me something. Will you believe me? I am almost ashamed to speak of this, but still I must say that there is hardly a person present who would not have talked better about their poetry than they did themselves. That showed me in an instant that not by wisdom do poets write poetry, but by a sort of genius and inspiration; they are like diviners or soothsayers who also say many fine things, but do not understand the meaning of them. And the poets appeared to me to be much in the same case; and I further observed that upon the strength of their poetry they believed themselves to be the wisest of men in other things in which they were not wise. So I departed, conceiving myself to be superior to them for the same reason that I was superior to the politicians. At last I went to the artisans, for I was conscious that I knew nothing at all, as I may say, and I was sure that they knew many fine things; and in this I was not mistaken, for they did know many things of which I was ignorant, and in this they certainly were wiser than I was. But I observed that even the good artisans fell into the same error as the poets; because they were good workmen they thought that they also knew all sorts of high matters, and this defect in them overshadowed their wisdom—therefore I asked myself on behalf of the oracle, whether I would like to be as I was, neither having their knowledge nor their ignorance, or like them in both; and I made answer to myself and the oracle that I was better off as I was. This investigation has led to my having many enemies of the worst and most dangerous kind, and has given occasion also to many calumnies, and I am called wise, for my hearers always imagine that I myself possess the wisdom which I find wanting in others: but the truth is, O men of Athens, that God only is wise; and in this oracle he means to say that the wisdom of men is little or nothing; he is not speaking of Socrates, he is only using my name as an illustration, as if he said, “He, O men, is the wisest, who, like Socrates, knows that his wisdom is in truth worth nothing.” And so I go my way, obedient to the god, and make inquisition into the wisdom of anyone, whether citizen or stranger, who appears to be wise; and if he is not wise, then in vindication of the oracle I show him that he is not wise; and this occupation quite absorbs me, and I have no time to give either to any public matter of interest or to any concern of my own, but I am in utter poverty by reason of my devotion to the god.

“The Life Which Is Unexamined Is Not Worth Living”

After Socrates is convicted and has a chance to address the jury to persuade them to offer him a sentence or punishment other than death, he considers and then rejects the idea of exile. If he lived in exile, Socrates believed he would no longer be able to carry on his work as a philosopher because a foreign city would be even less welcoming of his strange questioning than his hometown. In speaking about this alternative, he says the following:

Someone will say: “Yes, Socrates, but cannot you hold your tongue, and then you may go into a foreign city, and no one will interfere with you?” Now I have great difficulty in making you understand my answer to this. For if I tell you that this would be a disobedience to a divine command, and therefore that I cannot hold my tongue, you will not believe that I am serious; and if I say again that the greatest good of man is daily to converse about virtue, and all that concerning which you hear me examining myself and others, and that the life which is unexamined is not worth living—that you are still less likely to believe. (Plato, Apology )

This idea—that a life that is “unexamined” is not worth living—strikes at the heart of what Socrates tells us motivates him to live a philosophical life. The statement ought to make us pause and reflect, not only because Socrates himself demonstrates his commitment to a particular kind of life, to the point of accepting death, but also because the charge that an unexamined life is not worth living rightly seems like such a serious thing. To have lived a life that is not worth living: What could be worse? Given the stakes, we ought to wonder, what does Socrates mean by an unexamined life? Or, alternatively, what would it look like to examine one’s life in the appropriate way?

Examination of the Self

The first form of examination that Socrates clearly advises is self-examination. At the temple to the oracle at Delphi, one of three maxims engraved in stone is the phrase “know thyself.” Like most oracular statements, it is not clear what is meant by this phrase. Plato suggests it may be a kind of warning to those who enter the oracle: “Know your position relative to the gods!” Alternatively, it may be a command to understand your own nature and your own mind before you seek to understand other people or the things of the world. Based on our reading of Socrates’s life and works, we can assume that he considers this saying to be a command to investigate our beliefs and knowledge, to appreciate the limits of our own knowledge, and to strive to eliminate inconsistencies. After all, Socrates’s method of questioning as it is described in Plato’s dialogues (and as Socrates himself describes in the excerpted passage) is exactly such an inquiry.

Socrates questions others about whether their beliefs are consistent and whether they have adequate justification for the beliefs they hold. This line of questioning suggests that Socrates holds such consistency and internal justification in high regard. We can imagine that Socrates considers an unexamined life to be one in which a person holds beliefs without justification or holds beliefs that are inconsistent with one another. We may then speculate that an unexamined is not worth living because it is dictated by beliefs and ideas that have never been tested, justified, or accounted for. You might respond that endless questioning is boring or difficult, or you may respond that “ignorance is bliss.” For a philosopher, this attitude is not only undesirable, but it also approaches irrationality. It seems that, whatever makes life worth living for creatures capable of rational thought, a minimum requirement is that we believe things worth believing in, hold positions we can defend, and understand why we do what we do. To do that, we need to engage in self-examination.

Examination of Nature

Even though Socrates himself did not develop an account of nature and the cosmos like many of the pre-Socratic philosophers , we may imagine that living an examined life requires us to understand the world around us. Socrates himself was well aware of the various natural philosophical accounts that were prominent in his day. Plato frequently records Socrates quoting or citing another philosopher’s account of the planets and stars, natural change, or other natural phenomenon when he is questioning others. Indeed, several of the dialogues place Socrates in conversations about the nature of the soul, the nature of causality, the classification of animals and plants, and so forth, all of which could fall under the examination of nature. Why might such a process of examination be important for a life worth living? We might speculate that it is important for us remain curious. The capacity to reason gives human beings the ability to investigate how things work—to discover truths about the world around them. Neglecting that drive to understand the world around us is like neglecting a natural skill. Methods of philosophical reflection can help us make sense of the world around us. Such investigation is characteristic of the ancient philosophers and may be considered part of a life worth living.

Human Wisdom Is Worth Little or Nothing

In the excerpt from Plato’s Apology , Socrates investigates the oracle’s strange response that he is the wisest of men. First, Socrates attempts to prove the oracle wrong by finding someone wiser than he. But, after a time, he comes to realize that the oracle’s response was a kind of riddle. He interprets the oracle as saying that Socrates is wisest because he alone realizes that human wisdom is worth little or nothing. This realization is important for Socrates’s own self-examination and provides an important lesson for philosophy students.

Understanding the Limits of Knowledge

Perhaps one of the greatest lessons you can learn from a well-rounded college education is just how much more there is to know about the world. Even the most respected scientists, philosophers, mathematicians, and historians recognize that the scope of their expertise is extremely limited. A lifetime of study can, at best, give a person deep insight into a tiny fraction of the universe of human knowledge. Beyond that, there is a vast domain of things that no human has yet discovered or understood. Consequently, it is a good idea to practice Socrates’s advice: to be aware of what you do not know and not to assert knowledge where you lack it. People are often resistant to taking this position because they want answers. Someone who can convince others that they know the solution to their problems or personal dilemmas can exert a great deal of power over them. But we ought to recognize the dangers of asserting knowledge where we lack it. In technical areas, a refusal to admit ignorance can result in the failure of equipment, the malfunctioning of machines, and in the worst cases, injury and loss of life. In the moral and political arenas, asserting knowledge where you lack it may lead to unnecessary disagreements and polarization, or it may result in ill-considered actions that result in ethical mistakes or harm to others. Most importantly, if you are not aware when you lack knowledge, you will not seek to acquire the knowledge you lack. If you believe you already know something, you will not listen to the evidence that disproves what you believe. As a result, you will miss out on learning the truth.

The Socratic Method

Socrates engaged in a particular method of questioning, sometimes known as the Socratic method , that was characterized by his asking questions of others rather than explaining his own beliefs. Socrates is typically hesitant to offer his own ideas about the topic under discussion. Instead, he asks the people he is questioning to supply the subject matter for their discussion. Socrates’s use of this strategy may be puzzling. One explanation may be that he is following the god’s command, as he says in the Apology . Another explanation is that he does not claim to have knowledge about the topic in question and is genuinely happy to learn from others. Yet another possibility is that Socrates feigns ignorance and is being insincere. Perhaps his true goal is to trap or humiliate the other person by discovering some inconsistency or obvious falsehood in what they believe. It is hard to know which of these is the most likely explanation, but we will focus for a moment on a fourth possibility, namely, a pedagogical one.

In two different Platonic dialogues, Socrates explains what he is doing by using an analogy: he compares his method of questioning to the role taken by a midwife during childbirth. In fact, Plato tells us that Socrates’s mother was a midwife and that he assumes her role in philosophical conversation. The goal of Socratic questioning, then, is to assist the person being questioned in discovering the truth on their own. By asking questions and examining the claims made by another person, Socrates allows that person to go through a process of self-discovery. This method provides an interesting lesson for teaching and learning. Often, students believe that their role is to simply receive knowledge from the teacher. But Socrates reminds us that real learning comes only through self-discovery and that the role of the teacher is to be an assistant, providing the kind of critical examination and evaluation necessary to help the student discover truth on their own.

The Importance of Doing No Harm

Even though many early philosophers were concerned with understanding nature, Socrates is much more concerned with ethics, or how to live a good life. He considers the primary purpose of philosophy to make one’s life better by making the philosopher a better person. Even though Socrates rarely claims to have knowledge about anything at all, the few instances where he does profess knowledge relate directly to morality. In particular, Socrates asserts a pair of moral principles that are quite controversial and may appear at first glance false. However, upon closer inspection, you may find that these principles bear some truth that is worth consideration.

Socrates’s Harm Principle

Socrates’s harm principle claims the following:

• No one willingly chooses what is harmful to themselves.
• When a person does harm to others, they actually harm themselves.

The first principle is sometimes stated as “no one intentionally chooses evil,” but for the purposes of this discussion, it will be clearer to consider the above formulation. The important thing to understand about the first principle is that Socrates believes that when people choose bad things, they do so out of ignorance. The reason he thinks so is that he believes all people desire what is good. For Socrates, it is intuitively true that whatever someone desires, that desire is always directed at something that appears good to them, which means a person cannot choose what is harmful for its own sake. Instead, Socrates reasons, when individuals do harmful things, they believe that what they are doing will bring about some good for them. In other words, when people choose evil, they do so in the belief that it is good or will bring about something good. If, in fact, they are wrong, then that was the fault of ignorance, not a desire to do evil. If they had better understood the consequences of their actions, Socrates reasons, they would not have chosen something harmful.

The second principle derives from the fact that Socrates thinks the greatest harm that can come to anyone is for their soul—or their character—to become corrupted. Since a corrupted soul is the result of making the kinds of choices that produce harm, it follows that whenever someone does something harmful, they corrupt their soul, so they harm themselves. At the end of the Apology , Socrates argues that it is not possible to harm a good man because, even though you might kill him, you cannot harm his character or make him do evil. Socrates seems to regard physical suffering, and even death, as a temporary and minor harm. Moreover, he regards the harm to one’s character by living a life of ignorance or malevolence as far worse than physical death.

Think Like a Philosopher

• Do you agree with the first principle of Socrates, which leads him to claim that no one willingly does harm? Why do you agree or disagree with him?
• Can you think of examples from your own life or experience that demonstrate that people deliberately do harm for harm’s sake?
• Is the second claim true or false? Can you think of examples to prove the second claim true? False?
• Why might Socrates believe that harm to one’s character is more significant than even death? Is Socrates mistaken? If you believe he is mistaken, on what do you base your claim?

When you answer these questions, be sure to give Socrates the benefit of the doubt. After all, there is no question that Socrates was a smart person. He lived at a different time and may appear strange to you, but you will find that his ideas are still relevant if you give them some consideration. After you take Socrates seriously, can you still find an error in Socrates’s thinking?

Comparison of Socrates’s Harm Principle with Ahimsa in the Indian Tradition

It may be instructive to consider the possible connection between the core concept of ahimsa in classical Indian philosophy and Socrates’s harm principle as discussed above. Etymologically, the word ahimsa , in Sanskrit, literally means “the absence of doing injury or harm.” The concept is found throughout Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist texts and likely has its origins deep in classical Indian thought. A well-known illustration of ahimsa comes from Jainism, where the concept is taken to what most of us would consider to be extreme measures—at least in the case of Jain ascetics observing ahimsa as one of the “great vows.” Such ascetic Jains must take the greatest possible care not to cause harm, intentionally or unintentionally, to any creature, including insects, plants, and microbes. At the end of their lives, a devout Jain may even fast to death (stop eating) in one final renunciation of doing harm. Another well-known example of ahimsa can be seen the philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi , who used the concept to establish a nonviolent civil disobedience movement that some say helped speed the colonial British departure from India.

Ahimsa is identified as one of the highest virtues in the Vedic tradition (the Vedas are the most sacred scriptures of India) and is one of the loftiest teachings in Indian philosophy. The idea of ahimsa informs animal ethics, just-war theory, and interpersonal relations. On a metaphysical level, ahimsa is connected with karma—the causal law that links causes to effects, even across lifetimes. This informs the belief that an individual will bear a future burden for harms committed in the present through the process of samsara , or transmigration and rebirth of the soul. According to this religious and philosophical theory, the soul brings both its good and bad karma (fruit of action) with it from life to life and will either enjoy the fruits of prior good actions or suffer the consequences of bad ones. Because of the laws of karma and reincarnation, any action resulting in violence, injury, or harm has the direct consequence of chaining an individual’s soul to a process of rebirth and material suffering. Insofar as a person causes injury and suffering to others, they increase the total negative effects in nature. In summary, the individual creates bad effects for themselves by acting badly. From the perspective of Indian philosophy, there is a natural connection among all beings, so causing harm or injury to one entity is like harming a family member or even a part of oneself. Additionally, because individual experience is governed by the laws of karma, harm and injury to others has the result of causing injury to oneself.

However, ahimsa does not focus only on the problem of causing harm. The practice of ahimsa also calls for the practice of love and compassion toward all beings. Following the same principles of karma and samsara, acts of love, kindness, and generosity have the effect of increasing the total amount of good in the world, of recognizing that we are, in the words of Martin Luther King Jr., “caught in an inescapable network of mutuality” and “tied in a single garment of destiny” (1963). The practice of love and compassion increases the possibility of liberation from material suffering.

It may be useful to consider possible comparisons between the Indian notion of ahimsa and Socrates’s harm principle. Both doctrines teach that by causing harm, acting through violence, or causing suffering to others, we actually harm ourselves. They describe different mechanisms for how that harm comes to us. Which do you think sounds more likely to be true? Are there other advantages or disadvantages to either view?

Additionally, Socrates says that no one directly desires to cause harm or do evil; harm is the product of ignorance. For Indian philosophers, there is a connection between harm or suffering and ignorance as well. For them, suffering is caused by attachment to temporary things, both material and immaterial, including feelings, goals, or ideals. The remedy for attachment is enlightenment, which comes from recognizing that all perceptions, feelings, and desires emerge from prior causes and that the chain of causes continues without end. All things that are part of the chain of causes, according to Indian philosophers, are temporary. Once a person has this realization, they ought to recognize the harm that comes from attachment, from trying to hold on to any product of the unending chain of causes. The connection between ignorance and harm is quite different for each philosophy, but it may be worthwhile to consider how and why they are different. It may also be worthwhile to reflect on whether there is a connection between harm and ignorance and what it might be.

As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases.

This book may not be used in the training of large language models or otherwise be ingested into large language models or generative AI offerings without OpenStax's permission.

Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax.

Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/introduction-philosophy/pages/1-introduction

• Authors: Nathan Smith
• Publisher/website: OpenStax
• Book title: Introduction to Philosophy
• Publication date: Jun 15, 2022
• Location: Houston, Texas
• Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/introduction-philosophy/pages/1-introduction
• Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/introduction-philosophy/pages/1-3-socrates-as-a-paradigmatic-historical-philosopher

© Dec 19, 2023 OpenStax. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University.

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons
• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

2.1: The Life of Socrates

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 47313

The Life of Socrates

Socratic problem.

As Socrates did not write down any of his teachings,[13][14] secondary sources provide the only information on his life and thought. The sometimes contradictory nature of these sources is known as the Socratic problem,[15] or the Socratic question.[16][17]

Plato and Xenophon's dialogues provide the main source of information on Socrates's life and thought.[18][19] These writings are the Sokratikoi logoi, or Socratic dialogues, which consist of reports of conversations apparently involving Socrates.[20][21]

As for discovering the real-life Socrates, the difficulty is that ancient sources are mostly philosophical or dramatic texts, apart from Xenophon. There are no straightforward histories, contemporary with Socrates, that dealt with his own time and place. A corollary of this is that sources that do mention Socrates do not necessarily claim to be historically accurate, and are often partisan. For instance, those who prosecuted and convicted Socrates have left no testament. Historians therefore face the challenge of reconciling the various evidence from the extant texts in order to attempt an accurate and consistent account of Socrates's life and work. The result of such an effort is not necessarily realistic, even if consistent.

Two factors emerge from all sources pertaining to the character of Socrates: that he was ugly (at least as an older man), and had a brilliant intellect.[22][23] He lived entirely within ancient Athens (at least from his late 30s, and other than when serving on military campaigns in Potidaea, Delium, etc.), he made no writings (at least not about philosophy – only a single verse of poetry composed by him survives),[24] and he was executed by being made to drink hemlock.[25]

Socrates as a figure

The character of Socrates as exhibited in Apology, Crito, Phaedo and Symposium concurs with other sources to an extent to which it seems possible to rely on the Platonic Socrates, as demonstrated in the dialogues, as a representation of the actual Socrates as he lived in history.[26] At the same time, however, many scholars believe that in some works, Plato, being a literary artist, pushed his avowedly brightened-up version of "Socrates" far beyond anything the historical Socrates was likely to have done or said. Also, Xenophon, being a historian, is a more reliable witness to the historical Socrates. It is a matter of much debate over which Socrates it is who Plato is describing at any given point—the historical figure, or Plato's fictionalization. As British philosopher Martin Cohen has put it, "Plato, the idealist, offers an idol, a master figure, for philosophy. A Saint, a prophet of 'the Sun-God', a teacher condemned for his teachings as a heretic."[27]

It is also clear from other writings and historical artefacts, that Socrates was not simply a character, nor an invention, of Plato. The testimony of Xenophon and Aristotle, alongside some of Aristophanes's work (especially The Clouds), is useful in fleshing out a perception of Socrates beyond Plato's work.

According to one source, the name Σωκρᾰ́της (Sōkrátēs), has the meaning "whole, unwounded, safe" (the part of the name corresponding to σῶς, sôs) and "power" (the part of the name corresponding to κράτος, krátos).[28][29]

Socrates as a philosopher

The problem with discerning Socrates's philosophical views stems from the perception of contradictions in statements made by the Socrates in the different dialogues of Plato; and in later dialogues Plato used the character Socrates to give voice to views that were his own. These contradictions produce doubt as to the actual philosophical doctrines of Socrates, within his milieu and as recorded by other individuals.[30] Aristotle, in his Magna Moralia, refers to Socrates in words which make it patent that the doctrine virtue is knowledge was held by Socrates. Within the Metaphysics, he states Socrates was occupied with the search for moral virtues, being the "first to search for universal definitions for them".[31]

The problem of understanding Socrates as a philosopher is shown in the following: In Xenophon's Symposium, Socrates is reported as saying he devotes himself only to what he regards as the most important art or occupation, that of discussing philosophy. However, in The Clouds, Aristophanes portrays Socrates as running a Sophist school with Chaerephon. Also, in Plato's Apology and Symposium, as well as in Xenophon's accounts, Socrates explicitly denies accepting payment for teaching. More specifically, in the Apology, Socrates cites his poverty as proof that he is not a teacher.

Two fragments are extant of the writings by the Pyrrhonist philosopher Timon of Phlius pertaining to Socrates.[32] Both appear to be from Timon's Silloi in which Timon ridiculed and lampooned dogmatic philosophers.[33][34]

Details about the life of Socrates are derived from both contemporary sources, and later ancient period sources. Of the contemporary sources, the greater extent of information is taken from the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon (both devotees of Socrates), and the testaments of Antisthenes, Aristippus, and Aeschines of Sphettos, and the lesser[24] from the plays of Aristophanes.[35] Later ancient period sources include Aristoxenus, Apollodorus of Athens[36][37] (alive during the second century BC),[38][39] Cicero[24] (alive 106–43 BC),[40] and Diogenes Laërtius[41] (alive probably in the earlier half of the third century AD).[42]

The sources are thought to have in part or wholly made use of the factual information of the life of Socrates available to each of them, to give their own interpretation of the nature of his teaching, giving rise to differing versions in each case. For example,[24] in Aristophanes's play The Clouds, Socrates is made into a clown of sorts, particularly inclined toward sophistry, who teaches his students how to bamboozle their way out of debt. However, since most of Aristophanes's works function as parodies, it is presumed that his characterization in this play was also not literal.[43] In Phaedo, which is the only attested source describing the death of Socrates, Plato is thought to have selected and omitted details to provide material for his argument for the existence of the liberation of the soul from the body,[44] an argument he possessed from learning of the ideas of Pythagoras[45] (born sometime after 606 and died sometime after 510 BC).[46][47][48][49]

The year of birth of Socrates stated is an assumed date,[50] or estimate,[51] given the fact of the dating of anything in ancient history in part being sometimes reliant on argument stemming from the inexact period floruit of individuals.[52] Diogenes Laërtius stated Socrates birth date was "the sixth day of Thargelion, the day when the Athenians purify the city".[53] Contemporaneous sources state he was born not very much later than sometime after the year 471,[54] his date of birth is within the period of years ranging 470 to 469 BC,[55] or within a range 469 to 468 BC (corresponding to the fourth year of the 77th Olympiad).[36][37]

Socrates was born in Alopeke, and belonged to the tribe Antiochis. His father was Sophroniscus, a sculptor, or stonemason.[56][57][58] His mother was a midwife named Phaenarete.[59] In his 50s Socrates married Xanthippe, who is especially remembered for having an undesirable temperament.[60] She bore for him three sons,[61] Lamprocles, Sophroniscus and Menexenus; though Aristotle claimed that the latter two were his sons by another (presumably earlier) wife, Myrto, daughter of Lysimachus (a close friend of Socrates' father, which means Myrto is likely to have been roughly of Socrates' own age).

Socrates is likely to have been trained as a stonemason, and there was a tradition in antiquity, not credited by modern scholarship, that Socrates crafted the statues of the Charites, which stood near the Acropolis until the 2nd century AD.[62]

Xenophon reports that because youths were not allowed to enter the Agora, they used to gather in workshops surrounding it.[63] Socrates frequented these shops in order to converse with the merchants. Most notable among them was Simon the Shoemaker.[64]

Military service

Battle of Potidaea (432 BC): Athenians against Corinthians (detail). Scene of Socrates (center) saving Alcibiades. 18th century engraving.

For a time, Socrates fulfilled the role of hoplite, participating in the Peloponnesian War—a conflict which stretched intermittently over a period spanning 431 to 404 BC.[65] Several of Plato's dialogues refer to Socrates's military service.

In the monologue of the Apology, Socrates states he was active for Athens in the battles of Amphipolis, Delium, and Potidaea.[66] In the Symposium, Alcibiades describes Socrates's valour in the battles of Potidaea and Delium, recounting how Socrates saved his life in the former battle (219e–221b). Socrates's exceptional service at Delium is also mentioned in the Laches by the General after whom the dialogue is named (181b). In the Apology, Socrates compares his military service to his courtroom troubles, and says anyone on the jury who thinks he ought to retreat from philosophy must also think soldiers should retreat when it seems likely that they will be killed in battle.[67]

Epistates at the trial of the six commanders

During 406, he participated as a member of the Boule.[68] His tribe the Antiochis held the Prytany on the day it was debated what fate should befall the generals of the Battle of Arginusae, who abandoned the slain and the survivors of foundered ships to pursue the defeated Spartan navy.[57][69][70]

According to Xenophon, Socrates was the Epistates for the debate,[71] but Delebecque and Hatzfeld think this is an embellishment, because Xenophon composed the information after Socrates's death.[72]

The generals were seen by some to have failed to uphold the most basic of duties, and the people decided upon capital punishment. However, when the prytany responded by refusing to vote on the issue, the people reacted with threats of death directed at the prytany itself. They relented, at which point Socrates alone as Epistates blocked the vote, which had been proposed by Callixeinus.[73][74] The reason he gave was that "in no case would he act except in accordance with the law".[75]

The outcome of the trial was ultimately judged to be a miscarriage of justice, or illegal, but, actually, Socrates's decision had no support from written statutory law, instead being reliant on favouring a continuation of less strict and less formal nomos law.[74][76][77] One of the generals executed was Pericles the Younger, son of Pericles by Aspasia of Miletus.

Arrest of Leon

Plato's Apology, parts 32c to 32d, describes how Socrates and four others were summoned to the Tholos, and told by representatives of the oligarchy of the Thirty (the oligarchy began ruling in 404 BC) to go to Salamis, and from there, to return to them with Leon the Salaminian. He was to be brought back to be subsequently executed. However, Socrates returned home and did not go to Salamis as he was expected to.[78][79]

Trial and death

Socrates lived during the time of the transition from the height of the Athenian hegemony to its decline with the defeat by Sparta and its allies in the Peloponnesian War. At a time when Athens sought to stabilize and recover from its defeat, the Athenian public may have been entertaining doubts about democracy as an efficient form of government. Socrates appears to have been a critic of democracy,[80] and some scholars interpret his trial as an expression of political infighting.[81]

Claiming loyalty to his city, Socrates clashed with the current course of Athenian politics and society.[82] He praised Sparta, archrival to Athens, directly and indirectly in various dialogues. One of Socrates's purported offenses to the city was his position as a social and moral critic. Rather than upholding a status quo and accepting the development of what he perceived as immorality within his region, Socrates questioned the collective notion of "might makes right" that he felt was common in Greece during this period. Plato refers to Socrates as the "gadfly" of the state (as the gadfly stings the horse into action, so Socrates stung various Athenians), insofar as he irritated some people with considerations of justice and the pursuit of goodness.[83]

According to Plato's Apology, Socrates's life as the "gadfly" of Athens began when his friend Chaerephon asked the Oracle at Delphi if anyone were wiser than Socrates; the Oracle responded that no one was wiser. Socrates believed the Oracle's response was not correct, because he believed he possessed no wisdom whatsoever. He proceeded to test the riddle by approaching men considered wise by the people of Athens—statesmen, poets, and artisans—in order to refute the Oracle's pronouncement. Questioning them, however, Socrates concluded: while each man thought he knew a great deal and was wise, in fact they knew very little and were not wise at all. So Socrates interpreted the meaning of the Oracle thus: while so-called wise men thought themselves wise and yet were not, he himself knew he was not wise at all, which, paradoxically, made him the wiser one since he was the only person aware of his own ignorance. Socrates's paradoxical wisdom made the prominent Athenians he publicly questioned look foolish, turning them against him and leading to accusations of wrongdoing. Socrates defended his role as a gadfly until the end: at his trial, when Socrates was asked to propose his own punishment, he suggested a wage paid by the government and free dinners for the rest of his life instead, to finance the time he spent as Athens's benefactor.[84]

Robin Waterfield suggests that Socrates was a voluntary scapegoat; his death was the purifying remedy for Athens's misfortunes. In this view, the token of appreciation for Asclepius (the Greek god for curing illness) – the cockerel that he speaks of to Crito – would represent a cure for Athens's ailments.[83] However, because a cockerel was a common thanks-offering and of no great value, this interpretation has been disputed; Socrates may only have been asking Crito to remember to fulfil a vow taken for the sake of an (unnamed) friend who had recovered from illness.

In 399 BC, Socrates went on trial[85] and was subsequently found guilty of both corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens and of impiety (asebeia,[86] "not believing in the gods of the state"),[87] and as a punishment sentenced to death, caused by the drinking of a mixture containing poison hemlock.[88][89][90][91]

Socrates's death is described at the end of Plato's Phaedo, although Plato was not himself present at the execution. As to the veracity of Plato's account it seems possible he made choice of a number of certain factors perhaps omitting others in the description of the death, as the Phaedo description does not describe progress of the action of the poison (Gill 1973) in concurrence with modern descriptions.[92] Phaedo states, after drinking the poison, he was instructed to walk around until his legs felt numb. After he lay down, the man who administered the poison pinched his foot; Socrates could no longer feel his legs. The numbness slowly crept up his body until it reached his heart.

Socrates chose to cover his face during the execution (118 a6 Phaedo).[93]

According to Phaedo (61c–69e),[94] Socrates stated that "[a]ll of philosophy is training for death".[95][96]

Socrates's last words are thought to be ironic (C. Gill 1973),[44] or sincere (J. Crooks 1998).[97] Socrates speaks his last words to Crito; there are several different translations:

    Crito, we owe a rooster to Asclepius. Please, don't forget to pay the debt.[98]

    Crito, we owe a cock to Asclepius, Pay it and do not neglect it.[97]

    Crito, we owe a cock to Asclepius, make this offering to him and do not forget.[99]

Refusal to escape

Socrates turned down Crito's pleas to attempt an escape from prison. Xenophon and Plato agree that Socrates had an opportunity to escape, as his followers were able to bribe the prison guards. There have been several suggestions offered as reasons why he chose to stay:

1.      He believed such a flight would indicate a fear of death, which he believed no true philosopher has.

2.      If he fled Athens his teaching would fare no better in another country, as he would continue questioning all he met and undoubtedly incur their displeasure.

3.      Having knowingly agreed to live under the city's laws, he implicitly subjected himself to the possibility of being accused of crimes by its citizens and judged guilty by its jury. To do otherwise would have caused him to break his "social contract" with the state, and so harm the state, an unprincipled act.

4.      If he escaped at the instigation of his friends, then his friends would become liable in law.[100]

The full reasoning behind his refusal to flee is the main subject of the Crito.[101][102] In as much as Socrates drank hemlock willingly without complaint (having decided against fleeing), R.G. Frey (1978) has suggested in truth, Socrates chose to commit suicide.[103][104]

Socratic method

Perhaps his most important contribution to Western thought is his dialectic method of inquiry, known as the Socratic method or method of "elenchus", which he largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts such as the Good and Justice. It was first described by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues. To solve a problem, it would be broken down into a series of questions, the answers to which gradually distill the answer a person would seek. The development and practice of this method is one of Socrates's most enduring contributions, and is a key factor in earning his mantle as the father of political philosophy, ethics or moral philosophy, and as a figurehead of all the central themes in Western philosophy. The Socratic method has often been considered as a defining element of American legal education.[105]

To illustrate the use of the Socratic method, a series of questions are posed to help a person or group to determine their underlying beliefs and the extent of their knowledge. The Socratic method is a negative method of hypothesis elimination, in that better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. It was designed to force one to examine one's own beliefs and the validity of such beliefs.

An alternative interpretation of the dialectic is that it is a method for direct perception of the Form of the Good. Philosopher Karl Popper describes the dialectic as "the art of intellectual intuition, of visualising the divine originals, the Forms or Ideas, of unveiling the Great Mystery behind the common man's everyday world of appearances."[106] In a similar vein, French philosopher Pierre Hadot suggests that the dialogues are a type of spiritual exercise. Hadot writes that "in Plato's view, every dialectical exercise, precisely because it is an exercise of pure thought, subject to the demands of the Logos, turns the soul away from the sensible world, and allows it to convert itself towards the Good."[107]

The beliefs of Socrates, as distinct from those of Plato, are difficult to discern. Little in the way of concrete evidence exists to demarcate the two. The lengthy presentation of ideas given in most of the dialogues may be the ideas of Socrates himself, but which have been subsequently deformed or changed by Plato, and some scholars think Plato so adapted the Socratic style as to make the literary character and the philosopher himself impossible to distinguish. Others argue that he did have his own theories and beliefs.[108] There is a degree of controversy inherent in the identifying of what these might have been, owing to the difficulty of separating Socrates from Plato and the difficulty of interpreting even the dramatic writings concerning Socrates. Consequently, distinguishing the philosophical beliefs of Socrates from those of Plato and Xenophon has not proven easy, so it must be remembered that what is attributed to Socrates might actually be more the specific concerns of these two thinkers instead.

The matter is complicated because the historical Socrates seems to have been notorious for asking questions but not answering, claiming to lack wisdom concerning the subjects about which he questioned others.[109]

If anything in general can be said about the philosophical beliefs of Socrates, it is that he was morally, intellectually, and politically at odds with many of his fellow Athenians. When he is on trial for heresy and corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, he uses his method of elenchos to demonstrate to the jurors that their moral values are wrong-headed. He tells them they are concerned with their families, careers, and political responsibilities when they ought to be worried about the "welfare of their souls". Socrates's assertion that the gods had singled him out as a divine emissary seemed to provoke irritation, if not outright ridicule. Socrates also questioned the Sophistic doctrine that arete (virtue) can be taught. He liked to observe that successful fathers (such as the prominent military general Pericles) did not produce sons of their own quality. Socrates argued that moral excellence was more a matter of divine bequest than parental nurture. This belief may have contributed to his lack of anxiety about the future of his own sons.

Also, according to A. A. Long, "There should be no doubt that, despite his claim to know only that he knew nothing, Socrates had strong beliefs about the divine", and, citing Xenophon's Memorabilia, 1.4, 4.3,:

    According to Xenophon, he was a teleologist who held that god arranges everything for the best.[110]

Socrates frequently says his ideas are not his own, but his teachers'. He mentions several influences: Prodicus the rhetor and Anaxagoras the philosopher. Perhaps surprisingly, Socrates claims to have been deeply influenced by two women besides his mother: he says that Diotima (cf. Plato's Symposium), a witch and priestess from Mantinea, taught him all he knows about eros, or love; and that Aspasia, the mistress of Pericles, taught him the art of rhetoric.[111] John Burnet argued that his principal teacher was the Anaxagorean Archelaus but his ideas were as Plato described them; Eric A. Havelock, on the other hand, did not accept the view that Socrates's view was identical with that of Archelaus, in large part due to the reason of such anomalies and contradictions that have surfaced and "post-dated his death."[clarification needed][112]

Many of the beliefs traditionally attributed to the historical Socrates have been characterized as "paradoxical" because they seem to conflict with common sense. The following are among the so-called Socratic paradoxes:[113]

    No one desires evil.

    No one errs or does wrong willingly or knowingly.

    Virtue—all virtue—is knowledge.

    Virtue is sufficient for happiness.

The term, "Socratic paradox" can also refer to a self-referential paradox, originating in Socrates's utterance, "what I do not know I do not think I know",[114] often paraphrased as "I know that I know nothing."

The statement "I know that I know nothing" is often attributed to Socrates, based on a statement in Plato's Apology.[115] The conventional interpretation of this is that Socrates's wisdom was limited to an awareness of his own ignorance. Socrates considered virtuousness to require or consist of phronēsis, "thought, sense, judgement, practical wisdom, [and] prudence."[116][117] Therefore, he believed that wrongdoing and behaviour that was not virtuous resulted from ignorance, and that those who did wrong knew no better.[118]

The one thing Socrates claimed to have knowledge of was "the art of love" (ta erôtikê). This assertion seems to be associated with the word erôtan, which means to ask questions. Therefore, Socrates is claiming to know about the art of love, insofar as he knows how to ask questions.[119][120]

The only time he actually claimed to be wise was within Apology, in which he says he is wise "in the limited sense of having human wisdom".[121] It is debatable whether Socrates believed humans (as opposed to gods like Apollo) could actually become wise. On the one hand, he drew a clear line between human ignorance and ideal knowledge; on the other, Plato's Symposium (Diotima's Speech) and Republic (Allegory of the Cave) describe a method for ascending to wisdom.

In Plato's Theaetetus (150a), Socrates compares his treatment of the young people who come to him for philosophical advice to the way midwives treat their patients, and the way matrimonial matchmakers act. He says that he himself is a true matchmaker (προμνηστικός promnestikós) in that he matches the young man to the best philosopher for his particular mind. However, he carefully distinguishes himself from a panderer (προᾰγωγός proagogos) or procurer. This distinction is echoed in Xenophon's Symposium (3.20), when Socrates jokes about his certainty of being able to make a fortune, if he chose to practice the art of pandering. For his part as a philosophical interlocutor, he leads his respondent to a clearer conception of wisdom, although he claims he is not himself a teacher (Apology). His role, he claims, is more properly to be understood as analogous to a midwife (μαῖα maia).[122][123]

In the Theaetetus, Socrates explains that he is himself barren of theories, but knows how to bring the theories of others to birth and determine whether they are worthy or mere "wind eggs" (ἀνεμιαῖον anemiaion). Perhaps significantly, he points out that midwives are barren due to age, and women who have never given birth are unable to become midwives; they would have no experience or knowledge of birth and would be unable to separate the worthy infants from those that should be left on the hillside to be exposed. To judge this, the midwife must have experience and knowledge of what she is judging.[124][125]

Bust of Socrates in the Palermo Archaeological Museum

Socrates believed the best way for people to live was to focus on the pursuit of virtue rather than the pursuit, for instance, of material wealth.[126] He always invited others to try to concentrate more on friendships and a sense of true community, for Socrates felt this was the best way for people to grow together as a populace.[127] His actions lived up to this standard: in the end, Socrates accepted his death sentence when most thought he would simply leave Athens, as he felt he could not run away from or go against the will of his community; as mentioned above, his reputation for valor on the battlefield was without reproach.

The idea that there are certain virtues formed a common thread in Socrates's teachings. These virtues represented the most important qualities for a person to have, foremost of which were the philosophical or intellectual virtues. Socrates stressed that "the unexamined life is not worth living [and] ethical virtue is the only thing that matters."[128]

It is argued that Socrates believed "ideals belong in a world only the wise man can understand",[129] making the philosopher the only type of person suitable to govern others. In Plato's dialogue the Republic, Socrates openly objected to the democracy that ran Athens during his adult life. It was not only Athenian democracy: Socrates found short of ideal any government that did not conform to his presentation of a perfect regime led by philosophers, and Athenian government was far from that. It is, however, possible that the Socrates of Plato's Republic is colored by Plato's own views. During the last years of Socrates's life, Athens was in continual flux due to political upheaval. Democracy was at last overthrown by a junta known as the Thirty Tyrants, led by Plato's relative, Critias, who had once been a student and friend of Socrates. The Tyrants ruled for about a year before the Athenian democracy was reinstated, at which point it declared an amnesty for all recent events.

Socrates's opposition to democracy is often denied, and the question is one of the biggest philosophical debates when trying to determine exactly what Socrates believed. The strongest argument of those who claim Socrates did not actually believe in the idea of philosopher kings is that the view is expressed no earlier than Plato's Republic, which is widely considered one of Plato's "Middle" dialogues and not representative of the historical Socrates's views. Furthermore, according to Plato's Apology of Socrates, an "early" dialogue, Socrates refused to pursue conventional politics; he often stated he could not look into other's matters or tell people how to live their lives when he did not yet understand how to live his own. He believed he was a philosopher engaged in the pursuit of Truth, and did not claim to know it fully. Socrates's acceptance of his death sentence after his conviction can also be seen to support this view. It is often claimed much of the anti-democratic leanings are from Plato, who was never able to overcome his disgust at what was done to his teacher. In any case, it is clear Socrates thought the rule of the Thirty Tyrants was also objectionable; when called before them to assist in the arrest of a fellow Athenian, Socrates refused and narrowly escaped death before the Tyrants were overthrown. He did, however, fulfill his duty to serve as Prytanis when a trial of a group of Generals who presided over a disastrous naval campaign were judged; even then, he maintained an uncompromising attitude, being one of those who refused to proceed in a manner not supported by the laws, despite intense pressure.[130] Judging by his actions, he considered the rule of the Thirty Tyrants less legitimate than the Democratic Senate that sentenced him to death.

Socrates's apparent respect for democracy is one of the themes emphasized in the 2008 play Socrates on Trial by Andrew David Irvine. Irvine argues that it was because of his loyalty to Athenian democracy that Socrates was willing to accept the verdict of his fellow citizens. As Irvine puts it, "During a time of war and great social and intellectual upheaval, Socrates felt compelled to express his views openly, regardless of the consequences. As a result, he is remembered today, not only for his sharp wit and high ethical standards, but also for his loyalty to the view that in a democracy the best way for a man to serve himself, his friends, and his city—even during times of war—is by being loyal to, and by speaking publicly about, the truth."[131]

In the Dialogues of Plato, though Socrates sometimes seems to support a mystical side, discussing reincarnation and the mystery religions, this is generally attributed to Plato.[132] Regardless, this view of Socrates cannot be dismissed out of hand, as we cannot be sure of the differences between the views of Plato and Socrates; in addition, there seem to be some corollaries in the works of Xenophon. In the culmination of the philosophic path as discussed in Plato's Symposium, one comes to the Sea of Beauty or to the sight of "the beautiful itself" (211C); only then can one become wise. (In the Symposium, Socrates credits his speech on the philosophic path to his teacher, the priestess Diotima, who is not even sure if Socrates is capable of reaching the highest mysteries.) In the Meno, he refers to the Eleusinian Mysteries, telling Meno he would understand Socrates's answers better if only he could stay for the initiations next week. Further confusions result from the nature of these sources, insofar as the Platonic Dialogues are arguably the work of an artist-philosopher, whose meaning does not volunteer itself to the passive reader nor again the lifelong scholar. According to Olympiodorus the Younger in his Life of Plato,[133] Plato himself "received instruction from the writers of tragedy" before taking up the study of philosophy. His works are, indeed, dialogues; Plato's choice of this, the medium of Sophocles, Euripides, and the fictions of theatre, may reflect the ever-interpretable nature of his writings, as he has been called a "dramatist of reason". What is more, the first word of nearly all Plato's works is a significant term for that respective dialogue, and is used with its many connotations in mind. Finally, the Phaedrus and the Symposium each allude to Socrates's coy delivery of philosophic truths in conversation; the Socrates of the Phaedrus goes so far as to demand such dissembling and mystery in all writing. The covertness we often find in Plato, appearing here and there couched in some enigmatic use of symbol and/or irony, may be at odds with the mysticism Plato's Socrates expounds in some other dialogues. These indirect methods may fail to satisfy some readers.

Perhaps the most interesting facet of this is Socrates's reliance on what the Greeks called his "daimōnic sign", an averting (ἀποτρεπτικός apotreptikos) inner voice Socrates heard only when he was about to make a mistake. It was this sign that prevented Socrates from entering into politics. In the Phaedrus, we are told Socrates considered this to be a form of "divine madness", the sort of insanity that is a gift from the gods and gives us poetry, mysticism, love, and even philosophy itself. Alternately, the sign is often taken to be what we would call "intuition"; however, Socrates's characterization of the phenomenon as daimōnic may suggest that its origin is divine, mysterious, and independent of his own thoughts.

Socrates practiced and advocated divination.[134] Xenophon was thought skilled at foretelling from sacrifices, and attributed many of his knowledges to Socrates within his writing "The Cavalry Commander".[134]

Socrates – Ancient Greek Philosopher: A Comprehensive Summary

• Author: K.L. Woida
• Last Updated: February 9, 2024
• First Published: January 19, 2023
• Publisher: Crunch Learning
• Ancient Greece

Table of Contents

Socrates is widely regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of all time, known for his contributions to the field of ethics and moral philosophy. He was born in Athens, Greece in 470 BCE and lived until 399 BCE. He is known for his teaching style that encouraged individuals to question their beliefs and values, and to think critically about the world around them. This method of teaching is now referred to as the Socratic Method. Historians consider him to be one of the most significant people in ancient Greek philosophy and his ideas had a profound impact on the development of ancient Greek culture .

Early Life and Career of Socrates

As stated above, Socrates was born in 470 BCE. He was born into a working-class family and grew up in Athens during a time of great political and social upheaval. Despite his humble beginnings, he developed a strong passion for philosophy and eventually became a well-known teacher and intellectual. He spent much of his life engaged in philosophical discussions with his fellow Athenians, encouraging them to think deeply about their beliefs and values.

The Socratic Method

Socrates is known for his method of questioning, called the Socratic Method, which involves asking a series of questions to stimulate critical thinking and to arrive at a deeper understanding of the subject at hand. He believed that the pursuit of wisdom and virtue was the most important goal of human life. He also believed that the greatest evil was ignorance, and that the only way to overcome it was through questioning and self-examination. This method of teaching is still widely used today, particularly in the fields of philosophy, law, and education. As such, many historians view the Socratic Method as a major contributor to philosophy.

Socrates never wrote anything down and most of what we know about him comes from the writings of his students, Plato and Xenophon, and from the philosopher Aristotle .

Death of Socrates

Socrates lived during a time of great political and social change in Athens . He was critical of the Athenian democracy and the way it was being administered. This, along with the fact that he was seen as a troublemaker, led to him being brought to trial on charges of impiety (a lack of respect for god) and corrupting the youth. He was sentenced to death by drinking poison and died in 399 BCE.

Significance and Legacy of Socrates

Socrates’ legacy is that his ideas and methods continue to be studied and discussed today. The Socratic Method is still used in teaching and learning, and his ideas about the pursuit of wisdom and virtue continue to be relevant. Socrates is also considered an important figure for freedom of thought and expression, and his death has been seen as a symbol of the struggle between the individual and the state.

His contributions to philosophy in ancient Greece are significant and he is often considered to be one of the most important thinkers from the time. His impact was incredible and left a mark on ancient Greek culture .

RELATED ARTICLES

Democracy in Ancient Greece: A Comprehensive Summary

Democracy was an important part of Ancient Greece, especially in the city-state of Athens.

Farming in Ancient Greece: A Comprehensive Summary

Farming in ancient Greece was an important part of the daily life for most Greeks and played a significant role in the economy of ancient Greece.

Men in Ancient Greece: A Comprehensive Summary

Men in ancient Greece carried out many different roles but generally centered on public life and civic responsibilities.

12 Main Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Greece: A Comprehensive Summary

There were 12 main gods and goddesses of ancient Greece, which were referred to as the ‘Olympians’. These gods and goddesses were important to ancient Greek mythology.

Poseidon – Ancient Greek God: A Comprehensive Summary

Poseidon was one of the main gods of ancient Greek mythology and played an important role in Greek culture.

Literature and Theatre in Ancient Greece: A Comprehensive Summary

Literature and Theatre in ancient Greece were important aspects of life and culture to the Ancient Greek people.

• Corrections

Socrates’ Philosophy: The Ancient Greek Philosopher and His Legacy

Socrates’ philosophy had a profound effect on western thought; the Ancient Greek philosopher spent his life examining the meaning of virtue.

Getting a straight answer from the philosopher Socrates was almost impossible. When asked by a wealthy young man, “Is being good something that can be taught?” Socrates replied, “Far from whether it is teachable, I haven’t the faintest idea of what being good is.” Instead of answering, they investigate the problem together. Socrates questions, the young man answers, the discussion moving round and round until finally, they reach a conclusion. But with one final salvo from Socrates, the conclusion crumbles and they are back where they started. As the bewildered young man leaves, Socrates says, “Go tell what you have learned.” According to Socrates’ philosophy, it is in examining life that you learn something, not in reaching an answer.

The Importance of Socrates’ Philosophy

Socrates and his method of examining life had such an impact on philosophy that philosophy is divided into what came before him and what came after. The philosophers that came before him are termed the pre-Socratics for precisely this reason, and although we don’t call the philosophers that came after him post-Socratics, it has been said that “all philosophy is a footnote to Plato.” And Plato was Socrates’ most revered pupil and the primary disseminator of Socrates’ philosophy.

Socrates himself never wrote anything, and in Plato’s writing, where he uses Socrates as the main character in his dialogues, it can be difficult to tell how much is the historical Socrates and how much is Plato. Nonetheless we can get an idea of what Socrates was like. In Meno , one such Platonic dialogue alluded to above, Socrates and the title character sit down to discuss what it means to be good. The discussion is lively, and together they arrive at two competing conceptions of what good is, without ever reaching a definite conclusion. This is typical Socrates, always questioning, often ironic, and never settling for the easy answer.

The Death of Socrates and Athenian Politics

Get the latest articles delivered to your inbox

Please check your inbox to activate your subscription.

What we do know about the historical Socrates is that he was born in 469 B.C.E. and condemned to death at the age of seventy in 399. He was a citizen of Athens and practiced philosophy for his entire life, except for a brief excursion abroad with the Athenian military. At age seventy he was tried and found guilty by his fellow Athenians for impiety to the state gods, introducing new gods, and corrupting the youth. Although the charges weren’t completely spurious, they likely belied the real motivations for Socrates’ trial .

At the time of the trial, Athens had only just recovered its democracy. Some years earlier Athens had lost the brutal Peloponnesian War to the Spartans. The Spartans installed an authoritarian government that came to be known as the Thirty Tyrants, under whose rule there was considerable bloodletting. Unfortunately for Socrates, the leader of the tyrants, a man named Critias, and at least one other member, were formerly his students. Additionally, another former student, Alcibiades, had at some point defected to the Spartans. From a political perspective, Socrates was tainted by these undemocratic associations, and while he couldn’t be prosecuted directly due to an amnesty, it seems likely his accusers used his trial to prosecute him for his political connections.

The Development of Reasoned Argument in Socrates’ Philosophy

As democracy developed in Athens, so did the need for persuasive argument. This resulted in a veritable industry within education taught by people called Sophists . They taught rhetoric, oratory, and logical argument for a price. The Sophists came in for much criticism. It was considered uncouth in Athenian society to pay for education, and today the phrase “mere sophistry” is indeed still used pejoratively for arguments lacking in substance.

Socrates criticized what the Sophists did and often engaged them in debate. But Socrates himself was arguably a sophist too; he followed in that tradition, except that he didn’t charge for what he taught and was more interested in uncovering genuine knowledge than simply teaching logical argumentation. Although he was undoubtedly a master of that art.

By all accounts, Socrates was a witty, ironic, eloquent speaker, one who had cutting insight and thought incredibly deeply. As the story goes, the Delphic Oracle, who the Greeks believed spoke directly for the gods, said that Socrates was the wisest man alive. This was something that Socrates’ initially found hard to believe. He set out to test whether it was true by questioning all the people he thought were wise or knowledgeable and engaging them in discussion. He came away disappointed — each professed their own wisdom, yet none of them seemed to know what they were talking about. Socrates concluded that he wasn’t the wisest man alive because he knew a lot, but because he knew that he knew nothing .

The Socratic Method of Philosophy

Although the story above is not quite true, Socrates’ humility goes some way to explain why he was so successful and influential as a thinker. Starting from a place of ignorance allowed him to question his own assumptions and those of others. His claims of ignorance also helped to disarm his interlocutors. As was suggested above, Socrates proceeded in his investigations by asking questions of his conversation partner until he was able to find some logical inconsistency or paradox that disproved their answers. This dialectic method is at the centre of Socrates’ philosophy and has since become known as the Socratic Method, which, although made famous by Socrates, is believed to have begun with Zeno , a student of Parmenides .

The dialectic method is also well-suited to the literary dialogues in which Socrates’ conversations are presented. The earlier Platonic dialogues are thought to best reflect Socrates’ philosophy and each dialogue typically finds Socrates asking questions and examining different kinds of virtue. In Charmides, Socrates discusses temperance and self-control, in Crito , justice, and in Symposium, love. The curious thing is that Socrates rarely reaches any firm conclusions, although he and his companions are wiser than they were prior to the conversation.

The Defence of a Great Philosopher

It is difficult to piece together the real Socrates. Most of what we know about him comes from Plato. The later Platonic dialogues are not an accurate depiction of Socrates’ philosophy, since in them Socrates has become a mouthpiece for Plato’s own ideas. Plato was at the trial of Socrates, and his first dialogue, the Apology, might be a fairly accurate account of Socrates’ arguments. But Plato was also a literary genius; he didn’t simply document what Socrates said but turned it into a highly readable, informative, and thought-provoking defence of the great philosopher.

Another source of information about Socrates was the historian Xenophon . He had also been a student of Socrates at some point and was eager to defend his former teacher in his writings. Doubts persist as to whether he could have been at Socrates’ trial as he was apparently in exile from Athens at the time and, moreover, he lacked the literary flair and philosophical wit of Plato. Nonetheless, his memoirs provide another perspective on Socrates’ philosophy and there are points of agreement between his writings and Plato’s. However, it is believed that Plato’s account of Socrates is more accurate, something that was confirmed and moderated by Aristotle.

Examining the Virtues

Socrates was a moral philosopher. He was not interested in mathematics or science but was concerned with the quality of his soul and that of others. Socrates’ philosophy examines how we should live. This led him to discussions on various virtues, things like wisdom, justice, courage, piety , and so on. Socrates saw his mission as one of correcting false beliefs. He taught that people should care less about their bodies and possessions and more about their souls, saying, “wealth does not bring goodness, but goodness brings wealth.” As such he believed he was serving the city of Athens and its citizens by highlighting their incorrect thinking.

Socrates was a man of principle. He lived according to what he believed. He was not interested in material possessions or physical beauty – he was well known to be poor and ugly — and he took no money for his teaching as the Sophists did. He dedicated his whole life to understanding the virtues so that he could be more virtuous and educate others on how to be virtuous too, which he thought led to true happiness. He was uncompromising in his beliefs about the right way to live, which is part of the reason why he ended up being condemned to death.

The Legacy of Socrates’ Philosophy

What is Socrates’ legacy? He is often called the “first” philosopher, not in the sense that he came first, but in the sense that he is top of the pile. Yet in some ways, he was more of a sage than a philosopher. He can be compared with Buddha, who died ten years before Socrates was born. Both led a life of contemplation and investigation into how to live, and both gathered many followers who later spread their teachings. But whereas Buddha founded a purely spiritual practice, Socrates inspired a method of using reason to uncover truths about life, or at the very least, highlight where our thinking is deficient, a method that is at the heart of western philosophy.

The legacy of Socrates was helped in no small part by dying a martyr’s death and by having Plato as a student. Even though Socrates could have escaped the charges against him, he wouldn’t have compromised his beliefs. It was this courage that gave an added integrity and weight to his teachings, beyond his wit and wisdom. Plato was inspired by what he saw and heard in Socrates’ philosophy, and his writings immortalized Socrates to such an extent that he profoundly shaped western cultural and intellectual history.

But why did Socrates never reach any conclusions? The main point of Socrates’ philosophy can be glimpsed in what he says to Meno at the close of their conversation: “And as for you, go and tell others what you yourself have been convinced of.” It is this call to investigate what it means to live, think for yourself, and not expect any simple answers, that is Socrates’ greatest legacy, and it is one that has inspired all philosophers since.

Michel de Montaigne and Socrates on ‘Know Thyself’

By Tim Lake MA & BA Jazz Studies, w/ studies in Philosophy Tim is a musician, educator, and writer who is originally from the UK but now based in Tokyo. He holds a BA and MA in Jazz studies and has also studied philosophy at an undergraduate level. He plays drums, buys too many books, and uses interesting things to teach English to adults. His areas of interest range widely from ancient philosophy to jazz history to the Japanese concept of wabi-sabi.

Frequently Read Together

13 Most Important Greek Philosophers Before Socrates (Presocratics)

Plato’s Philosophy: 10 Breakthroughs That Contributed to Society

Plato’s Meno: What is Virtue, and Can it Be Taught?

Reason and Meaning

Philosophical reflections on life, death, and the meaning of life, summary of socrates’ teachings.

© Darrell Arnold Ph.D .

Socrates’ biography

Socrates was of humble roots. In Nietzsche’s eyes: He was born of the rabble. His father was a stonemason, his mother was a midwife. As a young man, he is thought to have studied Greek natural philosophy. But he found the views of the natural philosophers too obscure and unsubstantiated. He thus, like the sophists, turned against natural philosophy to questions of morality and justice.

In Athens, he lived a life of simple means, married Xanthippe, with whom he had three children. He fought, evidently heroically, in the Peloponnesian war against Sparta. He was known in Athens for gathering and speaking in the Agora, the market place. He was known as unkempt, often unwashed, and for being quite homely … Yet many were attracted to him. He … gathered support from some Athenians who had been members and associates of the Thirty Tyrants, who had early led a bloody coup against the government in Athens and who were bitterly opposed to its democratic government.

According to Plato’s account, he … was motivated to his public discourse by an early Oracle of Delphi , which had indicated that no one in Greece was wiser than Socrates. In what we may take to be an ironic court defense, he maintains that he found this unbelievable so set out questioning the learned in Athens to find someone wiser than himself. In Plato’s account, Socrates’ questioning was unsettling to authorities in Athens, who thought that he was undermining the civic religion of Athens and corrupting the youth. Socrates was thus brought to court, where he was found guilty and sentenced to death. Socrates’ thus became a celebrated martyr for philosophy.

The examined life

Among the views for which Socrates is most famous is that “the unexamined life is not worth living.” The ability to think, in Socrates’s view, is our unique human capacity. To live a life devoid of thinking — where we simply accepted what tradition and authority told us — was thus to live a less than fully human life. But what does an examined life, the fully human life, entail? For Socrates, it entailed questioning especially the moral and religious views of his tradition. In Socrates’ view, this examination is to be done as a form of moral or spiritual development — it is done with the intention of moral improvement both to oneself and ultimately to one’s community.

While it was traditionally thought that the existing laws of a polis were identified with the will of the gods, Socrates questions this. There were hints already in Heraclitus and others of a view like this — that there is another law a law above the city’s laws to which one had a greater alliance. Socrates’ life and death is a testimony to a belief in such a law and to a sensibility that adherence to that other law is imperative.

The clarification of concepts

Socrates is invested in the clarification of concepts, even if he does not always finish the job (or hardly ever does) and provides us with a clearly satisfying definition or description, even if often we need to look to what he does — as a character in Plato’s dialogues — if we want to answer some of the questions he poses.

Socrates engaged in his own self-examination with the clear conviction that he could come to understand truth, and that the means to do so was through the clarification of concepts, achieved not through individual self-reflection but through dialogue. This indeed is so marked in him that Aristotle thought it fundamental to the shift in ancient philosophy from the Presocratics to a new era in Greek thought. We see hints of it in thinkers previous to Socrates who are thinking of metaphysics — Parmenides being the main case in point. But it becomes full-blown and receives a new focus on questions of justice in Socrates. What is justice? What is piety? As individuals, living in a society, we have internalized views about what these things are. [But] Socrates thinks that self-examination involves us in a process of thinking through our own beliefs on these questions …

The Socratic method

Socrates maintained that he did not teach anyone. What he did was facilitate their own self-reflection through public dialogues. The disputational method Socrates used in the public forum led to his reputation as a gadfly, for his logic was often stinging. Taking some proposed general definition to a question like what is justice, he was merciless in criticizing its weaknesses, often indirectly and with irony. And he did not hesitate to embarrass the most recognized of the citizens of Athens.

This dialogical approach, [today] described as the Socratic method, was used not to propose his own views. Socrates was not a guru who answered the most obscure of metaphysical questions and sought adherents to the system he constructs. Rather his method was to engage in an exploration and to get those involved to reflect on their own views, on the culturally accepted views they had largely adopted. It focused on clarifying what the concepts under discussion meant, what presuppositions they entailed. It typically started with a definition of a concept, which would then be analyzed, broke into discrete parts; then on the basis of the analysis, the ideas were synthesized.

In his public dialogues, Socrates appears to be motivated by a faith that the analysis of concepts should lead to positive results. Yet curiously perhaps, Socrates did not develop a set of clear ideas about what justice is, what piety is or the other things that he discussed so enthusiastically. He deconstructs much more than he constructs.

Socratic wisdom

Indeed, this [is] even fundamental to what becomes known as Socratic wisdom. In Plato’s rendering of Socrates’ story in  The Apology , when … Oracle of Delphi [told Socrates]  … that none was wiser than him, Socrates [was] skeptically. He claims it inspired him to begin to discuss ideas in public. Not feeling wise at all, he was sure — he says with some irony — there must have been others wiser than himself. In the court case where he discusses this, he notes however that after years of such questioning and public conversation he did come to recognize that there was some truth to the Oracle. He had a kind of wisdom. His wisdom, which others lacked, was simply in knowing the limitations of his own knowledge. Socrates’s wisdom consisted in knowledge of his own ignorance.

It is an interesting paradox perhaps that one of the individuals most celebrated for his wisdom in world history in fact baldly claimed that this wisdom consisted in so little. The fact is that those who have viewed Socrates as wise have never really taken this explicit statement of what his wisdom was to be the complete story. Socrates was trying to clarify concepts, but as a statement even of what his own wisdom was, this is quite incomplete — a negative definition only.

If that is all there were to Socratic wisdom, then we might have imagined this serving as a footnote in Ancient philosophy. But of course, much of what we have taken to be Socratic wisdom has consisted not in what was said, but in what was unsaid. It comes from an examination of how Socrates lived his life. And here there is much more indeed than is summarized in the negative description of wisdom.

Is his statement that he is wise because he recognizes what he does not know simply a case of irony? Is it likely not offered as a definition at all? In any case, if we want to know what Socrates wisdom consists in then an examination of his life offers us something much richer to work with than his negative definition. In his life, … Socrates is someone deeply curious, conscientious about self-examination, which he engaged in as a practice of self-improvement. Socrates is wise because of his care for the soul, because of his questioning whether his own priorities in life were rightly ordered and whether his own life was just and good … when it comes to understanding what he thinks, we have to do more than examine what he says. We must see how he lives.

Share this:

5 thoughts on “ summary of socrates’ teachings ”.

Thanks for writing this. Reading it provides me with an insight I lacked, first into Socrates and then into implications for modern philosophy. Modern philosophy, following Socrates, is perhaps as much about deconstructing as constructing. That in part may explain why communicating about my own area of interest, the science of socially moral behaviors (behaviors advocated by past and present moral codes and motivated by our moral sense), is so difficult. The science is about constructing a coherent understanding of morality as natural phenomena. A philosopher might be thinking, at least in part, of “deconstructing” morality as natural phenomena (“But what makes it ‘moral’?”) which, as a kind of category error, may be innately incoherent.

No disagreement with the Examined Life. Yet, looking at both ‘sides’, there is something to be said for ignorance is bliss:

“It is an interesting paradox perhaps that one of the individuals most celebrated for his wisdom in world history in fact baldly claimed that this wisdom consisted in so little.”

No mystery about it: knowledge/wisdom are necessary for progress. But the unintended consequence is, merely for starters, that the more complex, the more the deceit. Simplicity is honesty– and vice versa. Complexity, complication = obfuscation, subterfuge. Necessary but not good, save for someone with no conscience.

Thus wisdom does consist in so little. To throw out a number, say that wisdom is 95% of nothing; 5% of something. The 5% of wisdom being something, makes it worthwhile. After all we are here in this moment at the Reason and Meaning site, reading or writing. The [hypothetical] 5% value of wisdom must in fact mean something to us.

Mark and Alan: Thanks for the comments. It is important, I think, to highlight the deconstructive character of Socrates’ as opposed to Plato’s views. Mark, I think you’re right to see parallels with today’s deconstructivists. We can see how they also follow the ancient skeptics, who also took their lead from Socrates. The skeptics would famously construct arguments, rather like Kantian antinomies, but on a wide variety of issues, showing mutually attractive but ultimately not fully compelling arguments on both sides of important issues. Maybe the ancient skeptics follow more closely in his footsteps than his most famous student and he wouldn’t have been all that pleased with his student and system builder.

PS, not that ignorance is bliss albeit ignorance can be bliss. For starters, with today’s information overload, who would want to have a comprehensive knowledge (leaving aside wisdom) of what is going on in the world?

In Socrates time information overload did not present the difficulty it does in the 21st century. During all of BCE, one could master mathematics, science as it were– and all the rest with requisite intelligence and patience.

As for wisdom?: that would take a book merely to begin with.

“You will know you are wise, when you are calm , happy, joyful, and unshaken; you will live on the plane of the gods” Seneca

Leave a Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Notify me of new posts by email.

This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Learn how your comment data is processed .

Advertisement

Supported by

The Life of O.J. Simpson: A Timeline

He was a football star, actor, commercial pitchman, and a defendant in a gruesome double murder whose trial gripped the nation.

• Share full article

By Victor Mather

O.J. Simpson, who died on Wednesday at 76 , lived a life that made him one of the most famous people in America, as well as, at various times, the most celebrated and most reviled.

A Heisman Trophy winner when he played football at the University of Southern California, he reached superstar status as a running back with the Buffalo Bills. As a commercial pitchman and a Hollywood actor, he became a household name across much of America.

But fame turned to infamy when he was charged in the 1994 double murder of his former wife and her friend. He was acquitted after a trial that riveted the nation.

Here is a look at a man who never seemed to stop making news, for good and ill.

Heisman Trophy Winner

Mr. Simpson, who was born in San Francisco in 1947, first came to the attention of many Americans as a football star at the University of Southern California. In his two years playing for the Trojans, he was the game’s best running back, and tallied 33 touchdowns.

As a junior in 1967, he was the runner-up for the Heisman Trophy as the college game’s best player, then won the award in 1968, his second and final year at U.S.C.

Professional Stardom

Mr. Simpson was drafted first overall by the Buffalo Bills in 1969, and by his fourth season he was a superstar. In 1973, he ran for 2,003 yards , which stood as a record for more than a decade, and won the N.F.L.’s Most Valuable Player Award; he was in the Top 5 in M.V.P. voting three other times as well.

He became known as the Juice, and his talent and likability propelled him to even greater notoriety. His on-field accomplishments and fame were all the more impressive given that he seldom played for good teams; his only playoff game, a loss, came in 1974.

He retired in 1979 after playing his final two seasons for the San Francisco 49ers.

Even those who knew little about football got to know the Juice as he began appearing in television advertisements, notably a series of ads for Hertz starting in 1975, in which he dashed through airports on his way to get his rental car. “Nobody has more of what it takes to rent you a Fairmont, Mustang, LTD or other fine car faster,” he said in one ad .

He also tried his hand at announcing, including a stretch from 1983 to 1985 on “Monday Night Football.”

Hollywood Calls

Mr. Simpson began appearing in television and movie roles even as his football career continued, including some big budget projects like “The Towering Inferno” in 1974, in which he played the building’s chief of security, and the blockbuster mini-series “Roots” in 1977.

His biggest success, though, came in the three “Naked Gun” films, in which he played Detective Nordberg. In a running series of gags, Nordberg was continuously injured, often in scenes played for broad laughs. In one particularly memorable scene , at the end of the first film, Nordberg is seen flying down stadium steps in a wheelchair before being catapulted off a ledge and flipping into the air.

June 12, 1994

Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman Are Murdered

Mr. Simpson’s ex-wife Nicole Brown Simpson and a friend, Ronald L. Goldman, were stabbed to death at her home in Los Angeles on June 12, 1994.

Mr. Simpson was questioned and charged with murder. But he did not turn himself in initially. Instead, five days after the killings, he led the police on a bizarre, hourslong low-speed chase in a white 1993 Ford Bronco driven by his friend and former teammate, Al Cowlings. The chase was shown live on nearly every television network, even pre-empting the N.B.A. Finals.

‘The Trial of the Century’

Mr. Simpson’s trial lasted for nine months and gripped the nation for all that time. Multiple television networks broadcast the trial every day, and minor figures, like Kato Kaelin, who was staying in Mr. Simpson’s guesthouse at the time of the killings, became celebrities.

In one of the most riveting moments, Mr. Simpson was asked to try on bloody gloves found at the crime scene. Mr. Simpson claimed the gloves were too tight; his lawyer Johnnie L. Cochran Jr. alluded to this in his closing argument, saying, “If it doesn’t fit, you must acquit.”

The verdict, despite significant DNA and other evidence, was not guilty on both counts. The result divided Americans: A majority felt it was a miscarriage of justice and continued to assume that Mr. Simpson was guilty, while some, including many Black Americans, believed the verdict to be justified.

Civil Judgment

After the acquittal, the parents of Ms. Simpson and Mr. Goldman filed a wrongful-death lawsuit against Mr. Simpson. The jury found Mr. Simpson liable and ordered him to pay more than $30 million.

But Mr. Simpson said that his no longer having acting and endorsement work meant he was broke. The families ultimately received only a small fraction of the judgment.

Theft Charges and Prison

Mr. Simpson and several other men entered a hotel room in Las Vegas in 2007; Mr. Simpson claimed they were seeking sports memorabilia that had been stolen from him. A gun was brandished.

Mr. Simpson was arrested and in 2008 and was found guilty of armed robbery and kidnapping. He was released on parole in 2017 after serving nine years of a 33-year sentence.

Release and Later Life

Upon his release from prison in 2017, Mr. Simpson settled in Florida and led what was, for him, a relatively low-key life. He played a lot of golf and posted videos regularly on Twitter, generally opening with “It’s me, yours truly,” offering thoughts on professional sports and frequently urging his 800,000 followers to get vaccinated against the coronavirus.

In his final post , on Feb. 11, Mr. Simpson, as usual looking relaxed, spoke optimistically about his health and incorrectly predicted that the 49ers would win the Super Bowl.

Victor Mather covers sports as well as breaking news for The Times. More about Victor Mather