youth work essay

education, community-building and change

What is youth work? Exploring the history, theory and practice of work with young people

What is youth work? Where did it come from? What is the state of youth work practice today? We explore the development of the theory and practice of youth work in Britain and Northern Ireland – and its uncertain future.

Contents : introduction · early stirrings · the development of youth work · uniformed youth work · youth work, youth clubs and the youth service · the decline of state-sponsored youth work · the re-emergence of faith-based youth work · defining youth work · conclusion – from youth work to working with young people · further reading and references · how to cite this article.

The meaning of the term ‘youth work’ is difficult to pin down. When people talk about youth work they can mean very different things. For example, they might be describing work with a group of Guides; running a youth club; making contact with different groups of young people on an estate; mentoring a young person; or facilitating a church fellowship; or tutoring on a mountain walking course. Over the years contrasting traditions of youth work have emerged and developed (see Smith 2008). When we explore the theory and practice involved with these we can find some key elements that define youth work. In this piece we look to five dimensions:

Focusing on young people , their needs, experiences and contribution.
Voluntary participation , young people choose to become involved in the work.
Fostering association, relationship and community, encouraging all to join in friendship, to organize and take part in groups and activities and deepen and develop relationships and that allow them to grow and flourish.
Being friendly, accessible and responsive while acting with integrity. Youth work has come to be characterized by a belief that workers should not only be approachable and friendly; but also that they should have faith in people; and be trying, themselves, to live good lives.
Looking to the education and, more broadly, the welfare of young people. (See Jeffs and Smith 2010)

Central to understanding this way of working is an appreciation that historically what we know as ‘youth work’ has taken place through the action of volunteers and workers in local groups. As Jeffs and Smith (2010) have argued ‘Youth work was born, and remains fundamentally a part, of civil society. It is wrapped up with associational life, community groups and voluntary organizations’. This is recognized in Ireland where youth work is defined in law. It is to be provided ‘primarily by voluntary youth work organizations’ (Government of Ireland 2001).

The benefits of this way of working are great. We know, for example, that those who belong to groups are happier and healthier than those who do not; and that neighbourhoods where there is community activity tend to be safer and economically active. We also know that the relationships that workers form with young people – because they are born out of spending time together, a willingness to have fun as well as educate, and of involvement in local community life – can be incredibly powerful (Jeffs and Snith 2010). Indeed, the research shows that they are much more powerful than many other mentoring relationships (see, for example Hirsch 2005).

We start with some history.

Youth work – early stirrings

For those looking for the origins of what we now know as ‘youth work’, a common starting point is the development of Sunday Schools associated with churches and chapels in last few years of the eighteenth century, and, in particular, the activities of pioneers such as Robert Raikes and Hannah More as an important forerunner of the work. Sunday Schools schools often used more informal ways of working and later developed a range of activities including team sports and day trips. It is also possible to look to ragged schools in the first half of the nineteenth century as precursors of youth work. Run by volunteers, these schools were aimed at the many children and young people who, by virtue of poverty, could not access other forms of education. They often met in far from ideal settings like stables, under railway arches, church halls and run-down houses. Again, they were a lot more informal than mainstream schools. Another important landmark in the emergence of youth work was appearance of young men’s associations. Indeed, it could be said that the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA ), set up in 1844, was the first dedicated youth organization.

These innovations largely grew from the activities of evangelical Christians. They were a response to the social and spiritual situation that the pioneers found. The poverty and deprivation of the Mendip Hills, for example, motivated Hannah More ; the squalor and lack of hope and opportunity in the dock areas of Portsmouth animated John Pound to set up a ‘ragged school’. Some schemes flowed from very conservative views, others sought radical social change. As a result, there were some tensions and conflicts between different groupings.

A further, important, factor in the emergence of youth work was that people began to talk about ‘youth’. In other words, the significance of ‘youth’ as a category began to be recognized. There were growing numbers of articles in newspapers, for example, about the problems facing young men and women – and the issues they presented to society. As public interest in ‘youth’ developed, by the 1890s psychologists such as G. Stanley Hall began to build theories of ‘adolescence’. However, it was around the mid-century people began consciously working with ‘youths’ as a separate grouping with specific needs.

The development of youth work in Britain

One of the key moments in the establishment of youth work was the development of youth’s institutes and clubs in the 1850s in Britain. Here the work of the Reverend Arthur Sweatman is of special note. Involved in setting up and running a youth’s institute, he looked at the activities of similar initiatives. In a paper read to the Social Science Association in Edinburgh in October 1863 he made one of the first cases for specific provision for youth (via clubs and institutes) (the full text of the paper is in the informal education archives ). He argued that lads and young men have ‘special wants and dangers’, which call for an agency such as a Youths’ Institute:

Their peculiar wants are evening recreation, companionship, an entertaining but healthy literature, useful instruction , and a strong guiding influence to lead them onward and upward socially and morally ; their dangers are, the long evenings consequent upon early closing, the unrestraint they are allowed at home, the temptations of the streets and of their time of life, and a little money at the bottom of their pockets. (Sweatman 1867)

In the basic form that some of these Institutes initially took we see some familiar youth work elements. There was as a large room or church hall where young men could read, talk, play games, get a cup of tea or cocoa and take part in various classes and activities.

What follows is an account of the Latymer Road Ragged School Youths’ Institute from the The RSU Quarterly Record in April 1881:

Every evening between 100 and 200 young fellows quietly interest themselves with books, draughts, carpentry tools and games of various sorts. The name of Coffee House has been dropped and that of Evening Shelter substituted. The boys, in fact, make the place a kind of club and are sadly distressed when they are unable to obtain entrance, which sometimes happens on the occasion of a public meeting. There is a weekly service on Wednesdays at 7.30pm and the boys, by their quiet demeanour, show that they appreciate the service and the kindness which prompts it. There were evening classes twice a week, the three ‘R’s were taught to those who needed it (and wanted it), and one of the main features of the shelter were fortnightly cocoa concerts. The Quarterly Record reported that ‘admission is one penny, which is returned in the shape of hot cocoa and a price of a cake’.

In the 1880s and 1890s there was a marked growth in club provision for young people. Of particular note here was the pioneering of lads’ clubs by many Catholic and Anglican priests. There was a parallel growth in girls’ clubs and groups. From 1880 onwards we see a number of girls clubs being established, some with hostels, some with a range of rooms and facilities. There were also other important developments in Christian work with young women, including the founding of the Anglican, Girls Friendly Society in 1875. Its purpose was to ‘unite girls and women in a fellowship of prayer, service and purity of life, for the glory of God’. By 1885 there were 821 branches in England and Wales. We can also chart the development of outreach work to young people by district visitors linked to churches and religious groups (see, for example, Maud Stanley and work around the Five Dials or the activities of Thomas Barnardo in east London).

By the late 1880s and in the 1890s, more radical forms of ‘youth work’ had begun to be noticed. One of the most interesting examples here was the work of Emmeline Pethick and Mary Neal. They started a club – the Espérance – and then, disturbed by the exploitation of young women by the West End dress trade, a tailoring co-operative (the Maison Espérance – described in Pethick 1898). Their particular contribution to what we now know as ‘youth work’ was the recognition of a social and political dimension to work with young women. Emily Pethick (who later went on to become the treasurer and key organizer with the Pankhursts of the English Suffrage Union) wrote:

The conditions, not only of the home, but of the factory or workshop had to be taken into account. It became our business to study the industrial question as it affected the girls’ employments, the hours, the wages, and the conditions. And we had also to give them a conscious part to take in the battle that is being fought for the workers, and will not be won until it is loyally fought by the as well (Pethick 1898: 104).

Quite a number of the women involved in setting up girls clubs were concerned about the exploitation of young women at work, and the problems they faced in their leisure. Part of the purpose of earlier girls organizations such as the National Organization of Girls Clubs (founded in 1911 and now known as Youth UK) was to put pressure on the government for reforms in these areas. Most of these initiatives, for all their differences, emerged out of the work of evangelical Christians. However, there began to be a significant shift away from evangelicalism in great swathes of youth work. Workers with very different religious views had begun to come into the work. For some there was a stronger emphasis on fellowship and social justice. We can also see the beginnings of youth work in other faiths. Of greatest significance here is the pioneering of of Jewish youth work by Lily Montagu and others through various forms of club and settlement.

Uniformed work

While there were shifts away from evangelical youth work, there continued to be developments. The most significant innovation began in Glasgow in the early 1880s. William Smith started to experiment with the idea of uniformed youth groups as a means of evangelism. ‘By associating Christianity with all that was most noble and manly in a boy’s sight’, he wrote, ‘we would be going a long way to disabuse his mind of the idea that there is anything effeminate or weak about Christianity’ (quoted by Springhall 1777: 22). It was out of these activities that the Boys Brigade emerged (there were around 800 units by the end of the nineteenth century). Local brigades typically involved a mix of drill and instruction plus a range a range of other activities including camping, music, first aid and clubrooms. Others quickly imitated Smith’s vision. In 1891 an Anglican version, the Church Lads’ Brigade, began in London and by 1893 had a membership of 8,000 boys. The Jewish Lads’ Brigade was founded in 1895 and the Catholic Lads’ Brigade in 1896. Girls’ Brigades also began to be established.

The emphasis on drill, evangelicalism and regimentation in the Boys’ Brigade worried a number of commentators. Of most significance was Robert Baden-Powell who was to found Scouting. While applauding certain aspects of the work, he was deeply suspicious of formal religion and ‘hymn-singing dissenters’ and of the numbing effects on creativity of drill. Baden Powell was concerned about the well-being of young people. The poor physical condition of the young men attempting to join the army during the Boer War was a factor in his championing and fashioning of Scouting. However, he was equally worried about people’s mental well-being. He began to explore different schemes and educational forms and to write up his own vision. In August 1907 he conducted the famous Brownsea Island Experimental Camp – and this experience confirmed his initial views. The result was Scouting for Boys (first published in in parts in 1908). It is difficult now to appreciate the impact of Scouting for Boys – it sold in thousands and resulted in the establishment of a large number of Scouting groups. Baden-Powell had planned to set up a separate movement, but events overtook him. By 1912 there were some 128,000 Scouts and nearly 5000 Scoutmasters. By 1930 there were nearly 390,000 Scouts and cubs and nearly 35,000 Scout leaders. Baden-Powell had also responded to requests to young women and had established the Guides (formally in 1910). It many respects, Scouting could claim to be the first mass youth movement in Britain. It also involved major innovations in practice. Robert Baden-Powell took various elements from other schemes and programmes and moulded them into a form that caught many people’s imagination. Today we can easily overlooked his concern with the social lives and imagination of young people, and how he was able to build on this to develop an educational form that looked to association (see below). He placed a special value on adventure; on children and young people working together – and taking responsibility (his ‘patrol’ building on the idea of ‘natural’ friendship groups and ‘gangs’); on developing self-sufficiency; and on ‘learning through doing’ (he was deeply suspicious of curriculum forms).

Youth work, youth clubs and the youth service

Following the First World War, there were some stuttering steps toward state funding and involvement in youth work, for example the granting of powers to local education authorities to establish ‘Juvenile Organizing Committees’ (Board of Education Circular 86, 1921). Up until this point it was still normal to talk about work with or among boys and girls (or young men and women or youth). In the late 1920s we see the growing use of the term ‘youth work’. The first booklet in the UK appeared with it in its title: Methods in Youth Work (Walkey et al 1931).

However, it was with onset of the Second World War and In the Service of Youth (Circular 1486, 1939) that we see the beginnings of an organized service to deal with the situations arising in wartime Britain. In the interim there had been some interesting developments in church-based youth work (see, for example, Leonard Barnett and the church youth club ), around old scholars clubs in schools, and in work on new housing estates (detailed in Jeffs 1979, and Smith 1988). But with the outbreak of war, and the need for more imaginative youth work, a number of interesting forms gathered pace including the ‘open’ club, and ‘detached’ youth work. With the ending of hostilities government enthusiasm for youth work waned, and it needed the ‘discovery’ of teenagers (and various moral panics surrounding their behaviour) to gain attention to the work.

With the publication of the Albemarle Report in 1960 there followed something of a golden age for youth work in England and Wales. In particular the Report heralded the heyday of the large youth club or youth centre. It famously declared that the primary aims of the youth service should be association, training and challenge ( ibid.: 36 – 41 and 52 – 64).

To encourage young people to come together into groups of their own choosing is the fundamental task of the Service… (W)e want to call attention to: a) an opportunity for commitment…. b) an opportunity for counsel…. c) an opportunity for self-determination. (1960 52-54).

The Albemarle Report was the trigger for a significant expenditure on youth centres, an expansion of training, and the development of project work (especially around detached youth work and coffee bars). In addition, there was a flourishing in the literature of the field and a particular interest in social education as the organizing idea for the work (See Davies and Gibson 1967; Davies 1999; Smith 1980; 1982).

Well into the 1970s youth workers were benefiting from a ‘bulge’ in the numbers of young people. However, the demographic tide was running against them – the number of young people was dropping significantly. This reflected in a significant decline in the membership of youth organizations by those over the age of 11 years. But there were also further factors at work including the rise of the home as a centre for entertainment. With television, video, computer gaming and the like there was a variety of different possibilities for entertainment in many homes. Increased participation in education both meant that larger numbers of young people had the opportunity to meet each other) and that there were pressures on young people’s time to complete course work. There was also a massive growth in alternative commercial leisure opportunities (Smith 1991). The youth club, like the public house, declined in significance as a place where people met and spent time.

The decline of state-sponsored youth work

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s there was continuing pressure on state funding for youth work. Social work, criminal justice, schools and further education were seen as higher priorities. In addition there was still a significant demographic factor – a drop in the numbers of young people. One response by youth workers and youth services to was to move to alternative ways of working – in particular detached youth work , issue-based projects and, in Scotland, youth cafes . With numbers attending youth clubs and centres in decline there was a domino effect. It was hard to make the case for dedicated buildings, a struggle to generate sufficient numbers of participants for groups and special activities, and often demoralizing for workers who had nobody to talk to but themselves for much of the time. It was also increasingly difficult to find people ready to volunteer to work in local groups. The traditional youth club seemed doomed to extinction. The final blow was delivered by a combination of an increasing interest in issue-based work by youth workers; a movement away from locating workers within civil society organizations into teams with state organizations; and a growing emphasis upon concrete outcomes by policymakers. To sustain funding for youth work there was a shift from ‘open’ provision toward working with groups of young people deemed to be ‘at risk’ in some way.

This trend was heightened by the coming to power of the Labour Government in 1997. Their emphasis on dealing with social exclusion, and their focus on services for youth rather than youth service, pointed to some profound shifts (see Jeffs and Smith 2001 ). These culminated in England in the establishment of the Connexions Service and the development of the role of the personal advisor . Subsequently, with Youth Matters and the following strategy document (HM Teasury 2007) there was a move away from the Connexions approach into locating the work within children’s trusts. Some elements of the Connexions strategy remained, and the role of schools in provision was strengthened (via extended schooling and the need for a greater range of services within schools). Against this there was a belated attempt by central government to create a limited number of high profile youth hubs via the myplace programme – but there were a number of fundamental problems with the basic idea and made little sense against the background of cuts that faced this area of work (see Spence et. al. 2011].

The overall effect of these movements was to radically alter the shape of many jobs within youth services and those agencies tied to Connexions and similar funding. Many jobs involved what we have come to know as youth work, but a growing proportion of workers’ time was eaten up by increased paperwork, the management of staff and in ‘co-ordinating’ activity. This form of work with young people often involved an increasing amount of formal teaching or tutoring linked to accreditation targets. There was also a significant increase in the amount of one-to-one work or casework.The role of youth work within state-sponsored services was, in effect, downgraded and increasingly marginalized.

The decline of youth work in state-sponsored services in England was further accelerated by austerity measures following the banking crisis of 2008. With large cuts in funding and increased demand on that diminishing pot of money from adult social care any area of expenditure that was not ring-fenced or a full-blown statutory was vulnerable. The result was a further major reduction in the support of work with young people outside schooling and social care and an accelerated dismantling of local state services. Much of the remaining and diminished support for other work with young people was outsourced to non-governmental organizations and social enterprises.

In Wales youth work gained some recognition in policy debates – but has suffered a similar fate to that experienced in England. With the advent of the Scottish Assembly, events have taken a different direction in Scotland. There was a renewed interest in youth work (and, arguably, an associated movement away from community-based learning and education ). However, Scotland has not escaped the movement away from association and the growing emphasis upon targeting services. Indeed, more recent strategy documents contain similar rhetoric to that found in England (see Scottish Executive 2007; HM Treasury 2007).

The re-emergence of faith-based youth work

A contrasting picture emerged in many churches and faith groups (see Jeffs and Smith 2010). From the early 1990s onwards there was marked development of interest in work with young people. The English Church Attendance Survey in 1998, for example, found that some 21 per cent of churches had a full-time salaried youth worker. Even allowing for some mis-categorization this represented a major shift . Later figures suggested that there were around 5,500 fte youth workers employed by churches and Christian agencies, more than the statutory youth service (Centre for Youth Ministry 2006). There were also said to be around 100,000 volunteers. Churches had become the largest employer of youth workers in the country. Alongside this came a major flourishing in the literature including a growing concern with theological questions – especially under the influence of the north American tradition of youth ministry (see the Christian youth work and youth ministry ). A number of specifically Christian youth work training programmes appeared. Within Protestant churches this development was largely associated with the rise of evangelicalism since the 1960s. As Jeffs and Smith (2010) have noted:

‘One of the most important aspects of this development is that the money to employ workers and fund the work is generated almost wholly from within the Church. As a result, this work is not susceptible to the same sort of lever-pulling as those receiving state funding. Crucially, its language and forms retain continuity with what we have explored here as youth work. Furthermore, a strong emphasis upon calling and service remains part of practice. However, this is at a cost. Pay is frequently low when compared with the state sector, and conditions can be variable. Unfair expectations are often placed upon workers.

Over the last ten years there appears to have been a movement in local churches into more community-based provision i.e. catering across the age range. In part this has flown from a recognition of changing needs. A classic example of this has been the involvement of religious organizations in initiatives like food banks. In addition, with significant drops in real incomes in the aftermath of the banking crisis of 2008, the capacity of congregations and members to sustain big youth projects has dropped (Smith forthcoming).

We have also seen significant developments in the work with young people undertaken by mosques and local Muslim organizations. More recently some of this work has been supported by state funding to counter ‘violent extremism’, but there had been a growing involvement of local Muslim civil society organizations. Alongside this has also come an interesting exploration of thinking and practice that has looked at what might constitute a specifically Muslim way of working with young people (see, for example, Khan 2006).

Defining youth work

So what implications does this history have for the way we define youth work? The first thing to say is that it is helpful to think of there being different forms of youth work rather than a single youth work with commonly agreed characteristics (Smith 1988: 51). However, it is possible to identify some key dimensions that have been present to differing degrees in the central discourses of practice since the early 1900s. Youth work involves:

Focusing on young people . Although there have been various shifts in the age boundaries, youth work has remained an age-specific activity. Its practitioners claim some expertise in both in making sense of the experiences of youth, and in being able to work with young people (Jeffs 2001: 156). While there may be problems around how we talk about and define youth – and around the sorts of expertise we can claim – there can be no doubting that many young people both view their experiences as being different to other age groups, and seek out each other’s company. ( Jeffs and Smith 1999 b, 2001a). Many youth workers have traditionally responded to this – and top the ways of understanding the world that people bring.

Emphasizing voluntary participation . The voluntary principle, as Tony Jeffs (2001: 156) has commented, has distinguished youth work from most other services provided for this age group. Young people have, traditionally, been able to freely enter into relationships with workers and to end those relationships when they want. This has fundamental implications for the way in which youth workers operate and the opportunities open to them. It can encourage youth workers to think and work in rather more dialogical ways ( op. cit. ). It also means that workers either have to develop programmes that attract young people to a youth work agency, or they have to go to the settings where they are.

Association, community and relationship. Association – joining together in companionship or to undertake some task, and the educative power of playing one’s part in a group or association (Doyle and Smith 1999: 44) – has been a defining feature of much youth work since its inception. This interest in association was, perhaps, most strongly articulated in the Albemarle Report (HMSO 1960). However, of late the notion has come under considerable threat. The shift away from clubs to targeted groups has been one factor here. Another has been a growing emphasis by policymakers on the gaining of skills and knowledge by individuals (as against the enhancement of the abilities of groups to work together). ‘ Building relationships ‘ has been central both to the rhetoric and practice of much youth work. Our relationships are seen as a fundamental source of learning. By paying attention to the nature of the relationship between educators and learners, it is argued, we can work in ways more appropriate to people’s needs (Smith 2001b).

Being friendly, accessible and responsive while acting with integrity . Youth work has come to be characterized by a belief that workers should not only be approachable and friendly; but also that they should have faith in people; and be trying, themselves, to live good lives. In other words, the person or character of the worker is of fundamental importance. As Basil Henriques put it (1933: 60): ‘However much self-government in the club may be emphasized, the success of the club depends upon the personality and ingenuity of the leader’. The head of the club, he continued, must ‘get to know and to understand really well every individual member. He must have it felt that he is their friend and servant’ ( ibid. : 61). Or as Josephine Macalister Brew (1957: 112-113) put it, ‘young people want to know where they are and they need the friendship of those who have confidence and faith’. It follows from this that the settings workers help to build should be convivial, the relationships they form honest and characterized by ‘give and take’; and the programmes they are involved in, flexible. ‘A youth leader must try not to be too concerned about results’, Brew wrote, ‘and at all costs not to be over-anxious’ ( ibid. : 183).

Only by the slow and tactful method of inserting yourself unassumingly into the life of the club, not by talking to your club members, but by hanging about and learning from their conversation and occasionally, very occasionally, giving it that twist which leads it to your goal, is it possible to open up a new avenue of thought to them (Brew 1943: 16).

In short, youth work is driven by conversation and an evolving idea of what might make for the well-being and growth.

Being concerned with the education and, more broadly, the welfare of young people. Historically, youth work did not develop to simply ‘keep people off the streets’, or to provide amusement. As we have seen, a lot of the early clubs grew out of Sunday schools and ragged schools – and much provision has retained an educative orientation . Training courses and programmes, classes, discussions, libraries and various opportunities to expand and deepen experience have been an essential element of youth work since its beginnings. This interest in learning – often of the most informal kind – was augmented by a concern for the general welfare of young people. We can find many examples in youth work of clubs providing a range of services including health care, wash and bathrooms, clothing stores, and income support. With developments and changes in state support mechanisms, and the identification of other needs, the pattern of welfare provision has shifted – but has remained a significant element of youth work.

It is through these five elements that we can begin to make sense of the dominant discourses of youth work over the last 100 years (Smith 1988; Jeffs and Smith 2012).

Conclusion – from youth work to working with young people

Just how what we have known as ‘youth work’ will fare in Britain and Northern Ireland over the next few years is a matter for some debate. It is clear that state support for this way of working with young people will not recover in the dominant forms that previously existed. It is also clear that there remains a significant demand for certain forms of work – especially where it is clearly identified with civil society and social movements or with particular leisure interests. Guiding and Scouting are prime examples of the former; outdoor learning and community sports development of the later. In addition, schools, children and young people services and housing providers stay important employers of workers.

Schools, children and young people services, and supported housing

Within the schooling sector – with a continuing need to work with disengaged young people; changing emphases around inclusion; and the failure of many children’s services around early intervention – schools, colleges and Pupil Referral Units and the like have turned to qualified youth workers. Crucially though, they are employed under different titles.

There looks to be a continuing demand for practitioners who can work alongside young people in more everyday situations within children and young people services. This tends to fall into three main categories:

residential care (and here some employers are moving towards social pedagogues).
general information, advice and work around specific concerns (e.g. parenting, ‘risky’ behaviour and NEET (not in employment, education and training).
work with identified individuals and families.

Again only a limited number of these workers are described as youth workers – and linked to this a number of local state employers have moved away from JNC qualification requirements around the employment of those working with young people.

In housing work – especially in hostels and supported housing – there has been a continuing demand for practitioners who can work in a sophisticated way in everyday situations and who can deal with conflicts and complex situations that occur. The particular orientation and skill-mix of professionally qualified youth workers has meant that significant numbers are employed as support workers. In addition some housing associations continue to employ y0uth and community workers.

From youth work to working with young people?

One of the most obvious changes that will occur is in the language of the area – and how we describe this area of activity. ‘Youth work’ grew as a term with the emergence of local Youth Services. With their demise fewer and fewer practitioners have the words ‘youth work’ in their job titles. We have seen a growing adoption of the term ‘work with young people’ in place of ‘youth work’ by funders and agencies. At the same time there has been an increasing interest in alternative ways of describing the work – particularly in the mainland Europe notion of social pedagogy (which of course links back to earlier interest in social education within youth work).

From state to civil society

Perhaps the most significant change is related to the withdrawal of the state from a large swathe of local provision – especially in England and Wales. Initially state-sponsorship of provision involved the giving of general grants and the secondment of workers to local community groups and organizations. It was the eating away of this that weakened local work and the civil society organizations linked to it. This was achieved through bringing workers directly into local state control in more centralized teams, a focus on central state targets especially around intervention with particular groups; and the use of local service-level agreements and the like. Unfortunately, more recent use of commissioning and contracting weakened local community providers and favoured larger organizations with a bid-making infrastructure. There is considerable anecdotal evidence of the quality of the work offered to local people declined as a result. One upside is there is more space for renewal and innovation – crucially through the return of this form of working with young people to its roots in local civil society organizations. They still often have considerable expertise and the networks necessary to make a difference (see Rogers and Smith 2011; Hemmings 2011).

Histories of youth work

Bunt, S. (1975) Jewish Youth Work. Past, present and future , London: Bedford Square Press. 240 pages. Provides a good introduction to Jewish youth work. While there is substantial material exanmining the then current state of the work, the bulk of the book is devoted to tracing the emergence and development of the work.

Bunt, S. and Gargrave, R. (1980) The Politics of Youth Clubs , Nuneaton: National Association of Youth Clubs. 182 pages. Useful, but oddly constructed review that is stronger on earlier girls and mixed club work.

Davies, B. (1999) From Voluntaryism to Welfare State. A history of the Youth Service in England. Volume 1: 1939 – 1979 , and From Thatcherism to New Labour. A history of the Youth Service in England. Volume 2: 1979 – 1999: Leicester: Youth Work Press. A useful review and analysis of the development (and decline) of the youth service with a focus on central organizational change and policy shifts. Good on the national reports etc. and policy shifts but does not bring out the changing shape of practice and the movements at the local level.

Dawes, F. (1975) A Cry from the Streets. The Boys’ Club movement in Britain from the 1850s to the present day , Hove: Wayland. 192 pages. Readable overview that helps fill in the gap where Eagar left off (see below).

Eagar, W. McG (1953) Making Men. A history of boys clubs and related movements , London: University of London Press. 437 pages. Quite the best historical treatment of UK youth work. Eagar begins by discussing the recognition of adolescence; the development of church and philanthropic concern around youth; the emergence of ragged schooling, clubs, settlements and missions and then charts the history of the boys’ clubs movement. There is some material on girl’s clubs. He is particularly strong on the idea of the club, linkages into schooling and rescue, and how these related to other Victorian institutions and concerns. Thoroughly recommended.

Evans, W. M. (1965) Young People in Society , Oxford, Blackwell.

Hubery, D. S. (1963) The Emancipation of Youth , London, The Epworth Press.

Nicholls, D. (1997) An Outline History of Youth and Community Work and the Union 1834 – 1997, Birmingham, Pepar Publications. Just what the title says – a brief outline.

Percival, A. C. (1951) Youth Will Be Led. The story of the voluntary youth organizations , London: Collins. 249 pages. Useful overview of the development of voluntary work. Percival sets out to ‘give an idea of how one impulse after another urged men and women to be come workers in the field, answering the need that seemed most pressing their day; to show how the founders of various associations often “builded better than they knew” and to indicate the characteristics, the problems and the philosophy that lie behind the work being done’ (p. 12). Chapters on early history; middle class needs (YMCA & YWCA); the Brigades; the village girls’ club (GFS); clubs (lay and church); scouts and guides; ‘common interest’ associations (young farmer’s etc.); federation and partnership; state intervention; present trends; characteristics and motives; conclusion.

Saunders, H. St. George (1949) The Left Handshake. The Boy Scout Movement during the War 1939-1945, London, Collins.

Springhall, J., Fraser, B. and Hoare, M. (1983) Sure and Stedfast. A history of the Boys Brigade 1883 to 1983 , London: Collins. 297 pages. Comprehensive history that is not the usual centenary celebration. Rather it examines the development of ‘the world’s first successful voluntary uniformed organization’. The writers attempt to correct ‘false assumptions’ about the Brigade’s historical links with militarism and evangelicalism. The Brigade’s is set in a broader social and historical context. [Out of print]. See also John Springhall’s (1977) Youth, Empire and Society. British youth movements, 1883-1940 , Beckenham: Croom Helm. 163 pages. This is a useful exploration of the emergence of uniformed youth organizations. There is no separate, substantial academic history of Scouting and Guiding.

In addition there is an excellent series of books based on material emerging from the Youth and Policy History of Youth and Community Work:

Gilchrist, R., Jeffs, T. and Spence, J. (2001). Essays in the History of Community and Youth Work. Leicester: Youth Work Press.

Gilchrist, R. Jeffs, T. and Spence, J. (2003). Architects of Change: Studies in the History of Community and Youth Work. Leicester: The National Youth Agency.

Gilchrist, R., Jeffs, T. and Spence, J. (2006). Drawing on the Past: Studies in the History of Community and Youth Work. Leicester: The National Youth Agency.

Gilchrist, R., Jeffs, T., Spence, J. and Walker, J. (2009). Essays in the History of Youth and Community Work: Discovering the past. Lyne Regis: Russell House Publishing.

Gilchrist, R., Hodgson, T.; Jeffs, T., Spence, J., Stanton, N. and Walker, J. (2011). Reflecting on the Past. Essays in the history of youth and community work. Lyme Regis: Russell House Publishing.

Youth work: official reports

Here I have listed four documents – two major reports, an excellent, short exploration of youth work by HM Inspectors, and a recent, rather thin green paper.

Department of Education and Science (1969) Youth and Community Work in the 70’s , ( The Fairbairn-Milson Report ), London, HMSO.

Department of Education and Science (1987) Effective Youth Work. Education Observed 6 , London: Department of Education and Science. 23 + iv pages. This booklet draws on the experience of (old-style) inspections to set out some dimensions of good practice. Has sections on the development of individuals through activity; learning from the surroundings; decision making – learning from the group; obstacles and barriers: learning to cope and challenge; and outcomes and results: learning from taking action. A concise statement of developmental youth work. [Out of print].

H. M Government (2005) Youth Matters , London: The Stationery Office. This paper looked to extend the remit of Every Child Matters and to continue the broad redefinition of youth services that had taken place under New Labout.

Ministry of Education (1960) The Youth Service in England and Wales (‘ The Albemarle Report ‘), London, HMSO. The classic expression of youth work as association, challenge and training.

For a fuller listing: government reports and circulars .

Brew, J. Macalister (1943) In The Service of Youth. A practical manual of work among adolescents , London: Faber.

Brew, J. Macalister (1946) Informal Education. Adventures and reflections , London: Faber.

Brew, J. Macalister (1957) Youth and Youth Groups, London: Faber & Faber.

Booton, F. and Dearling, A. (eds.) (1980) The 1980s and Beyond . The changing scene of youth and community work , Leicester: National Youth Bureau.

Cohen, P. and Ainley, P. (2000) ‘In the Country of the Blind?: Youth Studies and Cultural Studies in Britain’ Journal of Youth Studies 3(1).

Davies, B. (1999) From Voluntaryism to Welfare State. A history of the youth service in England. Volume 1: 1939-1979 , Leicester: Youth Work Press.

Department for Education and Employment (2001) Transforming Youth Work. Developing youth work for young people , London: Department for Education and Employment/Connexions.

Doyle, M. E. and Smith, M. K. (1999) Born and Bred? Leadership, heart and informal education , London: YMCA George Williams College/Rank Foundation.

Government of Ireland (2001) Youth Work Act 2001 . [ http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/2001/en/act/pub/0042/print.html#parti-sec3 . Accessed April 2, 2007].

Hemmings, H. (2011). Together: How small groups achieve big things . London: John Murray.

Henriques, B. (1933) Club Leadership , London: Oxford University Press.

HM Treasury (2007) Aiming high for young people. A ten year strategy for positive activities . London: HM Treasury/Department for Children, Schools and Families.

Hirsch, B. J. (2005) A Place to Call Home. After-school programs for urban youth , New York: Teachers College Press.

Illich, I. (1974) Tools for Conviviality , London: Fontana.

Illich, I. et al (1977) Disabling Professions , London: Marion Boyars.

Jeffs, T. J. (1979) Young People and the Youth Service , London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Jeffs, T. (1996) ‘The hallmarks of youth work’, YMCA George Williams College Induction Studies Unit 7.

Jeffs, T. (2001) ‘”Something to give and much to learn”: Settlements and youth work’, in R. Gilchrist and T. Jeffs (eds.) Settlements, Social Change and Community Action , London: Jessica Kingsley.

Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. (eds.) (1987) Youth Work , London: Macmillan.

Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. (eds.) (1988) Youth Work and Welfare Practice , London: Macmillan.

Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. (eds.) (1990) Young People, Inequality and Youth Work , London: Macmillan.

Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. K. (1994) ‘Young people, youth work and a new authoritarianism’, Youth and Policy 46

Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. K. (1996) ‘“Getting the dirtbags off the streets” – curfews and other solutions to juvenile crime’, Youth and Policy 52.

Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. M. (1999a) Informal Education . Conversation, democracy and learning, Ticknall: Education Now.

Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. K. (1999b) ‘The problem of “youth” for youth work’ Youth and Policy No 62, http://www.infed.org/archives/youth.htm .

Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. K. (2001a) ‘Youth’ in M. Haralambos (ed.) Developments in Sociology 17, Ormskirk: Causeway Press.

Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. K. (2001b) ‘Social exclusion, joined-up thinking and individualization – new labour’s connexions strategy’ The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education , http://www.infed.org/personaladvisers/connexions_strategy.htm .

Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. K. (2002) ‘Individualization and youth work’, Youth and Policy 76: 39-65.

Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. K. (eds.) (2010) Youth work practice . Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Khan, J. (2006). Muslim Youth Work (A special edition of Youth and Policy 92). [ http://www.youthandpolicy.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/youthandpolicy92.pdf. Retrieved October 12, 2013].

Kuenstler, P. H. K. (ed.) (1955a) Spontaneous Youth Groups, University of Bristol Institute of Education Publications 8, London, University of London Press.

Ministry of Education (1960) The Youth Service in England and Wales (‘The Albemarle Report’), London: HMSO.

Scottish Executive (2007) Moving Forward. A strategy for improving young people’s chances through youth work . Edinburgh: Scottish Executive.

Smith, M. (1981) Creators Not Consumers. Rediscovering social education 2e, Leicester: National Association of Youth Clubs. Available as an e-text: Creators not Consumers .

Smith, M. (1988) Developing Youth Work. Informal education, mutual aid and popular practice , Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Available as an e-text: developing youth work .

Smith, M. K. (2001) ‘Young people, informal education and association’, the informal education homepage , www.infed.org/youthwork/ypandassoc.htm . Last updated: December 2001.

Spence, J. et. al. (2011). myplace evaluation – final report. London: Department for Education. [ https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/181645/MYPLACE-FIN-REP.pdf . Retrieved September12, 2012]

Welsh Assembly Government (2007) Young people, youth work, Youth Service. National Youth Service Strategy for Wales . Cardiff: Welsh Assembly Government.

To cite this article : Smith, M. K. (2013) ‘What is youth work? Exploring the history, theory and practice of youth work’, The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education , www.infed.org/mobi/what-is-youth-work-exploring-the-history-theory-and-practice-of-work-with-young-people/ . Retrieved: insert date ].

Last Updated on May 22, 2020 by infed.org

Home > Articles > A Relationship Framework for Youth Work Practice

Article: A Relationship Framework for Youth Work Practice

A relationship framework for youth work practice.

First Published: 11th October 2022 | Author: Dr Kath Hennell | Tags: conceptual framework , positive youth development , relational practice , socio-ecological theory , youth work practice

Kath Hennell outlines the theoretical underpinnings and the resulting relationship based conceptual framework devised to provide a foundational context, parameters and purpose to youth work.

The basis for the framework is supporting young people to build, develop and maintain positive relationships within the social context of their lives. This approach blends positive youth development (Benson et al. , 2006) and socio-ecological theories (Mcgregor, 2015) of youth work. It is viewed as appropriate for young people particularly those living in communities facing multiple challenges such as low socio-income status, high crime rates, illegal drug use, low educational achievement and high levels of social vulnerability. This article documents the theoretical underpinnings of this conceptual framework and details its constituent components.

Introduction

Developing positive relationships has long been a bastion of youth work with the relationship between youth worker and young person receiving considerable attention (Davies, 2010; Young, 2005). But two youth organisations are taking this a step further and building a conceptual framework for youth work based on the principles of young people building positive relationships not just with their youth workers, but also with themselves, their peers, their wider networks, and their communities. This article reviews this conceptual framework and make a case for how it is underpinned by established theoretical conceptualisations of youth work and youth work practice. Devoting a paper to this offers an opportunity to document and share the thinking more widely, gives space to think about the potential for the framework, embedding it in practice and the possibilities for evaluation.

The idea for the relationship framework originally came from Paul Oginsky, a youth sector influencer and leading character development specialist with over 30 years in the sector. Currently the framework is being operationalised by two organisations: Vibe based in the Northwest of England and Youth First based in Lewisham, London. Both organisations work in deprived areas where young people grow up having often experienced trauma, adversity and negative influences and often live in very chaotic environments. Youth services in these areas like many parts of England have, in the main, offered a neo-liberal model of youth work practice to young people (Taylor et al. , 2018) that is frequently restricted and governed by funding criteria in addition to the local and national, political and policy context. Youth work organisations across England find themselves working in a context of delivering outputs and outcomes of funders, services, and Government priorities within often a very challenging local context of funding cuts, deprivation, child poverty, increasing knife crime and mental ill-health and a national context of changing employment patterns and the international context of a global pandemic. However, youth workers within both these organisations have taken on a challenge to re-imagine the way they undertake youth work and in doing so develop an underlying framework for their practice that has the potential to underpin future programmes, service delivery and inform all new work.

This relationship framework did not emerge from a particular theoretical perspective but rather is rooted in many as explained below. It is an experiential, culturally relevant, grassroots response to the lived experience of being and working with young people in deprived and challenging circumstances. The ‘theory of change’ that articulates the vision and values within the conceptual framework is a strength-based youth development model that draws on young people’s positive characteristics and develops emotional competence by supporting and enabling the building, maintaining and managing of positive relationships in all aspects of life. A body of research exists that supports the case that positive relationships with caring adults, peers and social connectedness contribute to a number of positive outcomes for young people, including improved wellbeing, positive development, mental well-being, academic attainment and sense of self whilst also protecting young people from poor health and social outcomes (Fullerton, Bamber and Redmond, 2021; Green, Mitchell and Bruun, 2013). It is relationships that are regarded as the golden principle that underpins this conceptual framework, and the development of these relationships that gives the youth work its context, parameters, and fundamental purpose.

This theory of change is congruent with both a social and emotional learning model (Riley, 2019) that seeks to build emotional competence defined as emotion-related skills (Lau and Wu, 2012) and with the National Youth Agency (2022) youth work values; particularly those of ‘ Seeking to develop young people’s skills and attitudes rather than remedy problem behaviours ’ and ‘ Helping young people develop stronger relationships and collective identities’ . Fundamentally the framework blends together elements of positive youth development and socio-ecological theories of youth work. Positive youth development is an umbrella term that covers a number of different approaches (Benson et al. , 2006), although all positive youth development approaches generally emphasise strengths, developmental assets or protective factors with a clear focus on individual development as the key to producing desired outcomes and optimal development (Dickson, Vigurs and Newman, 2013; Damon, 2004). This type of strengths-based youth work is about building relationships and trust with young people to instil hope and belief in moving forward and increasing their sense of agency (Dickson, Vigurs and Newman, 2013; Mcgregor, 2015). A socio-ecological model believes that youth work needs to reflect and address the myriad of relationships that young people have with others within the wider socio-geographic context of their lives focusing on their ‘multiple selves’ within these contexts (Mcgregor, 2015).

Furthermore, a growing body of research has linked social and emotional learning and the development of emotional competence to positive outcomes for young people including regulating emotions, increasing pro-social behaviours, reducing problem behaviours and decreasing internalised problems (OECD, 2015; Riley, 2019). Emotional competence as conceptualised by Lau and Wu (2012) is transactional with both self and others and is gained through the development of skills and knowledge acquired by both contextual, cultural and relational related experiences with others. Learning and developing emotional competencies are key to this approach and are based on the belief that these skills and competences can be learnt and practiced in a safe setting. These learning experiences can be offered to young people through comprehensive experiential learning programmes designed to offer opportunities for participants to learn to manage their own emotions, to develop relationships with others and persevere despite the challenges they may be facing.

The following conceptual framework has been developed by drawing on these theoretical underpinnings and clarifies how relationship building and maintaining is at the heart of the framework.

The framework

The conceptual framework is a combination of the following zones: 1) Relationship with self; 2) Relationship with others; 3) Supporting the relationships of others; and finally, 4) Relationships with and within the community. However, it should be noted that it is recognised that youth work is not a linear process; it is a dynamic and complex process that starts where the young person is, is voluntary and does not have a pre-defined end point (Davies, 2010). It is expected therefore that the journey young people embark on will be complex and they are likely to travel back and forth as they negotiate these zones.

The first zone of the framework relates to developing a sense of self (Dickson, Vigurs and Newman, 2013). Within this zone young people will be supported to build a positive relationship with themselves through the relational experience they have with their youth worker (Davies, 2010). Young people will participate in experiential learning and self-execution of tasks designed to enable them to understand themselves better, improve their self-esteem, their self-awareness and start to learn how to regulate their own emotions and develop understandings of their own emotional competence. They are encouraged to explore their own beliefs and value base and develop understandings of how their actions are aligned to these beliefs and values. Importantly they will be encouraged to address any difficulties or challenges to emotional growth including identifying personal barriers or ‘baggage’ as conceptualised by Davies (2010 p5). This includes understanding any triggers to certain behaviours and learning techniques for managing stress and emotions.

Relationships with others is the second zone of the framework; still focusing on self but also providing space and activities for young people to develop, build and maintain positive and meaningful relationships and constructive interactions with others (Dickson, Vigurs and Newman, 2013). Young people are supported to further develop their emotional competence with a particular focus on empathy and developing critical thinking and effective communication skills, including active listening and reflective practice (Taylor et al. , 2018). Confidence is built through social interactions, social bridging and developing, and building and maintaining positive relationships with peers and family members. Young people are challenged and supported to exchange and explore opinions, co-operate, negotiate, compromise and deflect pressure whilst also building trust and accountability. Developing the ability to notice change in relationships, to give and receive feedback and understand and interpret the actions of others whilst managing tensions within relationships (Abdallah, 2017).

The penultimate zone is about supporting the r elationships of others; this relates to those relationships around young people that are not necessarily directly with them. The young people are supported and encouraged to identify the importance of relationships around them, for example how their peers relate to each other; analysing what these relationships mean, the impact they have and what role the young person plays or can play within them. Learning at this level relates to how to build and maintain a positive culture and mediate these relationships around them, become a critical thinker and recognise the agendas of other people. Young people are encouraged to help those around them, to build and maintain positive relationships with each other and to develop higher level skills around working together.

Finally, on the framework is r elationships with and within the community. In other words, the relationships individuals have with the world around them; locally, nationally and globally. Young people develop the skills to connect with local people, places and organisations in their local community and start thinking about wider issues and what the global community means to them. A sense of belonging and purpose and playing a central role in creating strong and vibrant community networks is key to this advanced level.

Where to next?

A comprehensive evaluation will of course help to determine over the longer term the value of this framework. However, in the meantime it will be useful for organisations thinking of adopting the framework to consider how it could work across the youth sector for example in detached settings, street-based projects, open access, anti-oppressive and fixed length programmes. In addition, some thought needs to be given (by organisations) to how young people can connect and make relationships with their communities bearing in mind how they are frequently negatively labelled and stigmatised by adults (de St Croix, 2016). To enable young people to connect with and have a relationship with adults in their communities there needs to be space for young people in those communities. The delivery of this framework needs to interconnect with community organisations and members who are committed to opening up spaces for and having conversations with young people. Some thought also needs to be given to children’s and young people’s voice; who decides what a good relationship looks like? Is it youth workers? Other adults? Or the young people themselves? Consideration needs to be given within the framework to how genuine democratic voice is integrated and that sessions and evaluation are not controlled and directed by adults.

This article has presented a conceptual framework that draws on existing youth work theory and practice, but also clarifies how the relationship framework can underpin youth work. These zones are based on the principle of building, developing and maintaining positive and meaningful relationships. By sharing this thinking more widely it is hoped that other youth workers, academics and researchers will consider the value of this way of working. The next step is grounding this conceptual framework in youth work practice and adapting existing programmes and services to embed the conceptual framework and to use the relationship framework to develop new programmes and services. A process that has already started.

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Last Updated: 7 November 2022

References:

Abdallah, S. (2017) ‘Struggles for success: Youth work rituals in Amsterdam and Beirut’.

Benson, P. L., Scales, P. C., Hamilton, S. F. and Sesma, A. (2006) ‘Positive Youth Development: Theory, Research and Applications’, in Lerner, R.M. (ed.) Handbook of child psychology . New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 894-941.

Damon, W. (2004) ‘What is positive youth development?’, The ANNALS of the American Academy of political and social science, 591(1), pp. 13-24.

Davies, B. (2010) ‘What do we mean by youth work’, in Batsleer, J. and Davies, B. (eds.) What is youth work . Exeter: Sage Publications, pp. 1-6.

de St Croix, T. (2016) Grassroots youth work: Policy, passion and resistance in practice. Bristol: Policy Press.

Dickson, K., Vigurs, C.-A. and Newman, M. (2013) Youth work: A systematic map of the research literature : Lenus: The Irish Health Repository (1406427489. Available at: https://www.lenus.ie/bitstream/handle/10147/306851/YouthWorkFinal260613.pdf.pdf?sequence=1 (Accessed: 24/05/2022).

Fullerton, D., Bamber, J. and Redmond, S. (2021) Developing effective relationships between youth justice workers and young people: a synthesis of the evidence, REPPP review : University of Limerick, School of Law. Available at: https://ulir.ul.ie/bitstream/handle/10344/10045/Developing_Effective_Relationships_May2021.pdf?sequence=4 (Accessed: 24/05/2022).

Green, R., Mitchell, P. and Bruun, A. (2013) ‘Bonds and bridges: perspectives of service-engaged young people on the value of relationships in addressing alcohol and other drug issues’, Journal of youth studies, 16(4), pp. 421-440.

Lau, P. S. and Wu, F. K. (2012) ‘Emotional competence as a positive youth development construct: A conceptual review’, The Scientific World Journal, 2012.

Mcgregor, C. (2015) Universal Youth Work: A Critical Review of the Literature : University of Edinburgh. Available at: https://www.youthlinkscotland.org/media/1112/youth-work-literature-review-final-may-2015.pdf (Accessed: 20/05/2022).

NYA (2022) What is Youth Work? Available at: https://www.nya.org.uk/career-in-youth-work/what-is-youth-work/ (Accessed: 06/0602021 2021).

OECD (2015) Skills for social progress: The power of social and emotional skills : Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Publishing (9264226141. Available at: https://www.oecd.org/education/ceri/skills-for-social-progress-executive-summary.pdf (Accessed: 01/05/2022).

Riley, A. (2019) ‘Social and emotional learning in practice: A resource review’, Journal of Youth Development, 14(3), pp. 212-216.

Taylor, T., Connaughton, P., de St Croix, T., Davies, B. and Grace, P. (2018) ‘The impact of neoliberalism upon the character and purpose of English youth work and beyond’, The SAGE handbook of youth work practice , pp. 84-97.

Young, K. (2005) The Art of Youth Work. 2nd edn. Lyme Regis: Russell House Publishing.

Kath Hennell has worked in the youth sector for over 30 years and has a wealth of experience of working and researching with children and young people, including evaluating a knife crime intervention programme and undertaking research on young people’s activism. Her PhD research focused on exploring young people’s alcohol consumption practices and how they relate to ‘risk’ and ‘risk’ practices using Social Practice theory.

Community and Youth Work in Context

This essay aims to look at the key historical, social, political and economic forces that have shaped Christian youth work and the impact Albemarle had on voluntary organisations. I will then look at where the style and approach that I use to deliver the aims of the youth group I work with. I will finish by outlining our future plans for the group.

To look at where Christian youth work originated you have to go back to the Bible. Here you can see how young people were valued and very often used to do some very significant things. For example, Jesus’ mother, Mary, was a young girl when she became pregnant. Josiah became King at the age of eight. At sixteen he was seriously worshipping God, then at twenty he became so concerned about his nations bad choices he began to remove the places where idols were worshipped. In the Great Commission Jesus commanded all his disciples to “go, then to all peoples everywhere and make them my disciples” (Mt 28:19 GNB). Jesus went out of his way to meet with the undesirable characters of society. In Luke 5:27-39 he ate with Levi who was a tax collector, spoke up for the woman caught in the act of adultery (John 8:1-11), touched lepers (Matthew 8:1-17) and feed 5,000 people (John 6:1-14). Jesus was concerned with everyone not just the nice people but those who were on the edges of society or very often outcast. He looked at the person holistically; he would heal the sick, feed the hungry and give guidance to those who asked or chose to listen (Centre for Youth Ministry 2002). This lead too churches and Christian people trying to make a difference in the lives of young people through a combination of practical help and spiritual development.

It was during the late 18th centaury that a number of developments took place in Christian work amongst children and young people. The Methodist Movement lead by Wesley was raising spiritual awareness. This was at the time the Industrial Revolution was in full swing, the number of factories were growing as was the mining industry. Many people moving away from Agriculture and the land opting for town life instead. This lead to the poor getting poorer and the rich getting richer. As the Christian community grew more concerned for the poor, Robert Raikes in 1780 decided to start the first Sunday school. His aim was to provide both secular and religious education to children who were working in factories and unable to attend school. Over the next few years the number of Sunday schools grew rapidly and it was thought by 1786 250,000 children went to Sunday School. This was very significant as the church was doing something new, as well as providing for the poor children’s needs.

The French Revolution in 1789 had the mainly Protestant people of England in a panic about the possible French Catholicism invading England. This meant that as the century turned the English were the most God-fearing they had ever been.

Schooling children and young people was still playing a major role in society with two new schools being established. The British and Foreign School Society set up in 1807 by the non-conformists and the National School Society in 1811 set up by the Church of England.

The 7th Earl of Shaftesbury laws put through Parliament that changed the working practices for women and children in the coal mines and factories. He also championed the construction of model schools which were called ragged schools, for poor children.

The Young Men’s Christian Association better known as the YMCA was formed in 1844. This group started out with some friends in the Drapery Trade in London meeting together to pray and study the Bible. This came out of their concern for the spiritual welfare of others in the Drapery Trade as well as other Trades around. This was new a development and it saw men from different denominations working together for the first time.

1867 saw Dr Barnado open his First Children’s home. A new act of Parliament allowed the Anglican church hold special service aimed at specific group like children and young people.

When the government passed the National Education Act in 1870, a school system was put into place throughout the whole country. While this was a step forward, people still had to pay to go to school until 1880 when free education became compulsory for those under twelve.

At the end of the 19th Century church was the centre piece of many people’s lives. There were many people attending church on a Sunday as well as some midweek meeting. Sunday schools were still very popular and continued to work with those from poor backgrounds. An organisation known as Scripture Union stared working the middle-upper class young people who were being left out. William Smith founded the Boys Brigade in 1883 to deal with the increasing behaviour problems he encountered in a Sunday school class. The Boys Brigade focused on Bible teaching and discipline. Christian Endeavour was setup to meet the needs of those who had outgrown Sunday school and those who had been challenged by the mission work lead by people like D.L.Moody. This was at a time when there were growing numbers of young people involved in the Church. Which resulted in many different denominations starting their own youth work projects.

1902 saw the next Education Act establishing Local Education Authorities and Secondary Education. At the end of the First World War the Fisher Education Act went through parliament and introduced compulsory schooling for all aged 5-15.

Pathfinders, a group for Young people, was set up by the Anglican Church in 1935. In 1939 World War Two broke out. In the United States of America a new type of evangelism was starting to take off through what was called the “rally”. Youth for Christ officially began in 1944 and had Billy Graham as there first secretary. Whilst this was happening in America, R A Butler piloting an Act that would introduce Religious Education to the secondary school curriculum for those aged 11-15 years. It was about this time that companies started to see young people as a new target market as many young people had some disposable income and did not have any major financial responsibilities. The term “teenager” came to be buzz word. There was an improvement in education and health for all of society.

The 1960’s society re-examined its values. This lead to many opting out of church. Sunday schools and Christian youth work went into decline. On the flip side there was an increase in the number of organisations been set up alongside churches which did see growth. Frontier Youth Trust started with the aim to reach youth people on the margins of society. To tackle the lack of young people going to church, Youth for Christ began to work in schools in the 1970’s. They would take part in formal lessons and assemblies giving young people the chance to learn about faith again (Centre for Youth Ministry 2002).

From the above you can see that the there was a lot happening in youth work amongst Christian Organisations, churches and individuals. This meant that Christian Organisations had a lot of credibility. Fourteen of the largest Voluntary organisations, which included a number of Faith Groups were asked by official to provide representatives to help with the development of youth work provision in their local areas (Davis 1999).

When the Albemarle Report was presented in 1960 the government were expecting the report to recommend the “winding down” (Davis 1999: ) of the youth service as it was. But instead they got a series of recommendations to turn the youth service around and see it grow. The report had a number of things to say about how voluntary groups were to be involved in these changes. These included

“a committee to negotiate salaries and conditions for full-time workers in both the statutory and voluntary sector”;
“more cooperation between LEAs and the voluntary organisations to organise part-timers training”;
“Ministry of Education grants to national voluntary organisations both for headquarters and for ‘experimental and pioneering work’”;
“Capital grants by LEAs to local voluntary bodies, and increased and more consistent LEA revenue support to the voluntary sector” (Davis1999: 37).

The proposed close working relationship between the youth service and voluntary sector would not be straight forward. There was a growing concern that the voluntary sector was out dated and the moral values they held so strongly were pushing young people away. There were questions asked about the set up of many and whether it would be wise for them to just wind up and start afresh. With this in mind a number of voluntary organisations began to review their work with young people. There were some groups who felt this criticism was unjustified and argued that they were still the ones developing new practices. 1961 saw the Church of England Youth Council publish a policy statement. Some Christian groups who were not prepared to dilute their core values and were quite open about this. There was still a feeling that young people needed to belong to a religious group. Despite all the changes that were taking place in the years after Albemarle the voluntary sector held out through the storm and in some cases used these changes to their advantage. The most significant change that occurred from Albemarle was that the statutory sector would now lead the way in youth work instead of the voluntary sector.

Kerry Young describes relationships as central to youth work. These relationships give young people the opportunity in a safe in environment to challenge and be challenged in a safe environment, thus enabling them to discover more about themselves and their community. It is therefore vital for youth worker to have the skills to build relationships, as this will lead to trust and respect which in turn will help the young person to explore their own values. Relationships are complex and take time to build which is why a long term commitment to young people is required. Neal Terry in The Art of Youth Work by K Young says “in the Christian context, the whole idea of an incarnate God is a central theme which speaks of ‘being with’ and ‘sharing with’ as a means by which people test the accuracy of their values”. This is the model of youth work we use in the group I work with. Our aim is to ‘build community and share the message of the Bible with young people and their families on their terms through example, debate, discussion, pastoral care and fun’. The Incarnational Approach as discussed by Pete Ward in his book Youthwork and the Mission of God, breaks in down into five stages; contact work, extended contact, proclamation, nurture and church. Contact work describes the initial contact made with young people. This contact can occur in a variety of ways, either by the youth worker choosing to go out on to the young peoples turf and make contact with them there; or by the young people choosing to come to an activity we have up and running for them to engage with. With either of these initial contact situations there are things that need to be considered. I am going to focus on the young people who attend our Pathfinder group. The young people who come to us usually hear about us from a friend and then come along with that friend to our session. In addition to this we invite those who attend the children’s work when they reach the age of 10. Typically our first contact with them is either by phone call to invite or home visit. The purpose of the home visit is to introduce ourselves and give the young person and their parents the chance to ask any questions. It also gives us a chance to explain what the group is about and fill in the necessary paper work etc. Before any meeting meeting we will post a newsletter explaining what is happening during the next week or so. Good and on going communication is important. When there arrive at the group we will go and introduce ourselves and introduce them to other members of the group. During their first evening we will make a point to initiate a conversation with them to find out a bit more about them and their interests. It is important that we listen to the young person and they are accepted no matter what they believe or their opinion about God is. We are very clear about the purpose of the group as we do not want people to think we are trying indoctrinate them into the Christian faith, we are aiming to give them the chance to explore the big questions in life and see how the Christian faith might fit into it. This first stage requires us to be available and ready to talk when they are, greet them when they arrive and say goodbye when they leave and encourage them in the activity taking place. Our session always include a short discussion on topical issues and what the Bible has to say about it. It is important that everyone feels able to express their opinion and not feel judged or wrong for doing so. This requires us as youth leader to be non judgemental and objective. While the young people know that we are Christians and that our faith comes with certain values, we would never put a young person down for what they believe. We may however challenge where this opinion comes from and encourage them to think about why they believe what they do.

Extended contact requires us to look beyond and see how the relationship can be deepened. We know from our own friendships that this happens when we spend time with people. So for us to develop this on a regular meeting night can be quite difficult as we are often busy getting the activity going and supervising it, making sure everyone is ok and knows what is going on. This is why we will often try to take the young people out bowling, swimming and on night walks or residential's so we are able to get way from all the activity organising and are able to just spend time talking and having fun with them. We have found that these activities giving opportunities to talk in smaller groups and find out how they are doing and what they are concerned with or thinking about. We have found that these shared experience lead to more conversation as they we come back and say do you remember when we did x. These shared experiences build up the relationship as you remember funny things that happened and times enjoyed together. It is during these times that the young people enquire about our home lives, our values and interests. I have found young people asking me also sorts of questions ranging from my sex life to why I believe in God and other questions like why do I go to church, isn’t it boring? These activities have required us to enforce more strict rules because of the responsibility we have for they safety. This takes the contact to the next stage because the young people to choose to take on some of our rules and values to take part in the activity.

The third step is proclamation. As we have got to know the young people better and they have got to know us, we learn more about them and they discover more about us and what we believe. By this stage they might recognise some of Gods nature in us. Each year we give the young people the chance to go away on a weekend call Fort Rocky lead by Youth for Christ. The aim of the weekend is to challenge them both physically and spiritually through activities such as climbing, zip wires and high rope course as well as presenting the gospel message to them. We have found these weekends a turning point for many young people as the shared experience of conquering a fear or encouraging each other to complete a difficult task goes a long way in relationship and trust building. We have more time on our hands to sit and talk with them over meals and whilst waiting for sessions to start. The programme also has time set aside for us to get our group together and find out what they are making of the weekend and provides an opportunity for them to ask any questions they might have. The Youth for Christ team lead road shows throughout the weekend that get the young people thinking about the gospel and what that might mean to them. The young people are given a chance to stay back at the end of the road show to discuss how this relates to them. Proclamation of the gospel needs to be handled sensitively and with enough detail for the young people to understand what the basis meaning is.

The next stage, nurture, gives the young person the chance to explore the Bible and what the Christian faith is for themselves. This will typically require some group work to enable the young people to explore the meaning and help it make sense to them. This exploration is often difficult for the young people as the Bible is difficult to read and they don’t know where they should start. Nurturing gives the chance to talk about how to read the Bible what is prayer about why should they bother with church. All of this is about helping the young person explore the Christian faith for themselves. It gives the young person the chance to explain how they see the Bible and give us insight as to how this plays out for them in their everyday lives. For the young person to have their own real faith it can not be spoon feed from the youth leader. We can however, present some arguments, theological views, and give techniques and explanations but ultimately they need to draw their own conclusions. We are able to offer them a safe environment in which they can do this without feeling under pressure or embarrassed.

The final part of the equation is church. For many young people church will conjure up images of pews, boring hymns, vicar talking for ages and old people. So engaging young people in church can be difficult. It may be the case that we need to look outside of our local area to what is happen in the next town to find an expression of church that suits the young people we work with. In some cases this may mean settling up their own church community linked to the parent church and along with support from some of the church members. We do not have any young people at this stage, but as a church community we are currently thinking about the direction of the church and how we make church assessable to all. This is difficult as one model does not suit everyone (Ward 1997).

Jeffs and Smith talk about the importance of the relationship with young people in The Art of Youth Work. They talk about “accepting and valuing young people, honesty, trust, respect and reciprocity” (Jeff and Smith cited in Young 1999: 65-66). All of these principles are found in the Incarnational model of Christian youth work.

So how do the current developments in the youth service affect the youth work I do? Transforming youth work talks about the involvement Voluntary and community groups should have with the decision making and evaluating process within their local authority area. I am aware that my colleague has attended some of these meetings for voluntary groups in the area, but did not feel that he was involved in needs assessment, decision making or evaluating of services. It would be good for us to find out more of what is being planned and to see if there is any consultation going in our area. I feel that now I have a better understanding of the current government papers that I would understand what is going on and would be able to contribute to this process. The paper refers to the fact we should be promoting “social, moral, cultural, emotional, and physical development of young people” (Transforming Youth Work). I did notice that the spiritual development of young people is not mentioned. We are always looking for new ways to tackle these subjects with young people. To do this we attend conferences, training days and read books to keep up with new developments. This helps us with our continuing professional development which is also mention in this paper. To help our youth work forward and for my own personal development I have chosen to do the Diploma in Community and Youth Work. This is enabling me look more broadly at youth work and feedback to my colleague what things are happening, policies and practices we need to think about.

This has caused us to undertake research our current bulling and behaviour policies.

It would be very easy for us to sit back and say none of the past or the future developments matter to our youth work. After all, we are a small group in an isolated village with a captive audience. That would be very naïve and short sighted of us. Christian youth work has an exciting past full of pioneering people who went out of their way to make a difference to those around them. For some time it was only Christians who were delivering youth work and that helped get a ‘service of youth’ up and going. Albemarle did make waves for Christian groups by the power from voluntary groups to local government. This did not deter Christian groups. Instead it gave them chance to reinvent themselves and look a new future directions. In many ways this is what is happening now. For Christians to be effective in delivering youth work we need to be aware of what is going on the youth service, looking at how these developments fit in the aims of our groups. I do not believe that we should be compromising our values and what we believe, but we do need to be looking forward to how we can beat meet the needs of the young people in our community. .

Bibliography

Centre for Youth Ministry., 2002. Engage: The National Certificate in Christian Youth work. Gateway, Centre for Youth Ministry.

Davis, B., 1999. From voluntarism to welfare state. A History of the Youth Service in England. Volume 1 1939-1979, National Youth Agency.

Department of education and skills., [no date], Transforming Youth Work Resourcing Excellent Youth Service, 12th December 2005, Department of education and skills, Extracted from NYA website, www.nya.org.uk.

Bible Society., 1986. Good News Bible, Collins

Ward, P., 1997. Youthwork and the Mission of God, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.

Youth ideas home page

Essay on Youth for Students and Children

500+ words essay on youth.

Youth is a worthwhile phase of one’s life. The age where the age group is no longer of a child but yet to turn out to be a grown-up is the youth age. It is an age recognized by traits of heroism, toughness, muscle, stimulation, curiosity, judgmental attitude and even much more. At this stage, even though driven by fantasy or freedom and the power to choose his or her response, all must be cautiously exercised. It is a golden phase to accomplish the dual goals of intelligence and character.

A Period of Stress & Strain, Storm & Strife

Youth, in the present era, is a powerful asset of the nation possessing the abundant energy and the zeal considered necessary for the overall advancement of the same. Youth is a critical age of development, a period of uncertainty when everything is in ferment.

As a Youth is neither a child nor an adult, the personality possesses a mixture of both stages. He can be selfish at some times or turn out to be selfless the very next day. He may also turn out to be rebellious one day.

Youth develops a revolting personality and thus we can see conflicts in opinions between the family. It is also a major cause of worsening of family relations. Youth, being argumentative in nature, develop an attitude of apt rationale and judgment.

Thus, it denies accepting as true in anything without an appropriate cause following the same. It is not that there is no lack of moral awakening or his total refusal to adhere to ethical and moral standards. It is merely that he wants his every question to be answered and having his quest fulfilled, he accepts the same.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

How to channelize Youth Power in the right direction?

Youth is full of strength and intellectual capability, which if properly utilized could assist in turning the invisible into visible, the hardships to triumph and the hard work to success thus leading to the overall growth of an individual and the nation at large.

Following measures must be adapted to turn the youth into prolific individuals:

Understanding child psychology by the parents at this stage.
Proper guidance by the teachers
Practical representation of best ideals and values to foster moral education in the schools. Sex education is a must for better emotional development.
Minimizing the habit of excessive control and strict discipline so as to promote the expression of emotions, thus leading to suitable mental development.
The organization of extra-curricular activities to channelize the imagination in youth towards creative activities.
Preparing the youth for the cause of society by entrusting the responsibility so as to develop a feeling of responsibility in them.
A right and rationale attitude towards democracy should be developed in the surroundings. This would lead to develop the philosophy of life.

Conclusion

Youth is the golden period to cherish a big dream full of passion and energy. Although, the period is also full of adventures yet they have to be looked for with the eyes open. It is the time when we can provide shape to our ideas for the economic development of society. By encouraging to take an active part in the dramas, projects, sports and others are pretty good ways to control excessive fantasy. Also, it is the time to move towards the destination which can be made possible through vocational awareness and critical study of individual differences.

Mixed with responsibility and fun, new environs, excitement, thrill, applauses, and regrets, it has a huge significance in one’s life. It is time to achieve wisdom in addition to knowledge.

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In Moscow, a Financial District in Name Only

Moscow’s financial district, known as Moscow City, has become a visible symbol of Russia’s economic woes.

An office worker inside one of Moscow City’s skyscrapers. Russia, facing broad-ranging financial sanctions and largely dominated by state-run companies, simply has no need for vast office spaces for stock traders, auditors and bankers.

From 2000 to 2007, the Russian economy grew on average 7 percent a year. Most of the site’s construction occurred in the last decade.

Workers during their lunch hour passed through an underground passage that links skyscrapers in Moscow City. Office space in the neighborhood currently averages $6.90 a square foot each month, almost a dollar below the city average.

One tower in Moscow City, called Evolution, twists in a DNA-evoking double helix. New buildings are also being repurposed at the development stage.

High Level Hostel, one of the newest tenants in the neighborhood, sits on prime real estate on the 43rd floor of a multimillion-dollar glass-and-steel tower.

Empire Tower, the skyscraper that is home to High Level hostel, is still largely empty two years after opening.

As Kremlin policies have dealt blows to the country’s financial sector jobs, Moscow City is now shifting tactics to fill the glut of premier office space.

Outside the City of Capitals building, with the twisting Evolution tower in the background. While nonfinancial ventures — from a culinary school to a 6,000-seat movie theater — rent more space in Moscow City, meshing the various constituencies is now creating new challenges.

By Andrew E. Kramer

Nov. 25, 2014

MOSCOW — In the coveted corner office, a bearded man in sweatpants scrambled eggs at a kitchenette, all the while taking in the serene beauty of the city lights twinkling far below.

In the conference room, or as the company prefers to call it, the “common area,” two other men lounged about playing video games on an Xbox. In place of cubicles, there are bunk beds.

High Level Hostel, one of the newest tenants in the financial district here known as Moscow City, sits on prime real estate on the 43rd floor of a multimillion-dollar glass-and-steel tower. It is not a youth-hostel-themed work space, but an actual youth hostel — dirty socks and all.

“We thought, ‘why not open a hostel in a skyscraper?’ ” said Roman Drozdenko, the 25-year-old owner. “Nobody’s done that before.”

The tower, with its marble veneer foyer, banks of elevators and breathtaking views, was clearly built for lawyers, accountants or stock traders. But “there were no questions regarding our guests” from the building management when he opened in September, Mr. Drozdenko said. “In fact, there were no questions at all.”

Moscow’s skyscraper district, formally the Moscow International Business Center, reflects the broader problems in the Russian economy. The country, facing broad-ranging financial sanctions and largely dominated by state-run companies, simply has no need for vast office spaces for stock traders, auditors and bankers.

Vacancy rates in the newly built financial district have become acute. The entire site, some 148 acres that now includes the tallest building in Europe , Mercury City Tower, had a vacancy rate of 32 percent at the end of October, according to Cushman & Wakefield, the real estate consultancy. The rate is projected to rise above 50 percent next year when new buildings open.

“Russians have a great tradition of building things they don’t need,” Sergei Petrov, an office worker in Naberezhnaya tower, said of the emptiness behind the glass facades, a veritable Potemkin Wall Street.

Moscow City was envisioned as a hub of emerging market finance, a shiny skyscraper-dotted testament to Russia’s growing international influence. For a time, the idea was not improbable: From 2000 to 2007, the Russian economy grew on average 7 percent a year.

This herculean undertaking on a bank of the Moskva River was to be Moscow’s answer to Manhattan or the City of London.

One tower, called Evolution, twists in a DNA-evoking double helix. The spires of Federation Towers resemble billowing sails, evoking Russia sailing into a capitalist future. Federation Tower East, when finished, will rise 95 stories to a height of 1,224 feet, surpassing its still mostly empty neighbor Mercury City Tower as the tallest building in Europe.

Eight skyscrapers are finished, including the gold-tinted Mercury tower. Eight others are under construction, and two more are planned. The entire site is scheduled to be finished by 2018.

But Russia’s tanks are now getting more international attention than its banks, leaving Moscow City as a $12 billion reminder of the nation’s economic woes.

Western sanctions, for example, have taken aim at Russia’s largest state financial institutions, Sberbank and VTB, which both own towers or floor space in Moscow City. The two banks now have a limited ability to issue debt on global markets, thus limiting their growth options.

Sanctions by the United States and the European Union are expected to trim about 1 percentage point of growth from Russia’s gross domestic product this year, and slightly more next year if they remain in place. Even without sanctions, problems have been stacking up. Rising inflation, falling oil prices, and a tumbling ruble have left Russia near recession.

The government also accounts for an outsize proportion of the economy, leaving scant jobs for the grunt workers of private enterprise, the bankers, lawyers and traders for whom Moscow City was built. In Russia, 81 percent of the shares of the top 10 companies are owned by the same entity, the state, compared with 11 in Germany, according to a study by Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development economists.

Rather than turning to banks, Russia’s largest company, the sanctioned state oil company Rosneft is now appealing directly to state funds for loans. And the Kremlin this year again delayed shifting pensions into the private sector, dealing another blow to financial sector jobs.

“Somebody had the idea that if you build a lot of skyscrapers in one spot you have an international financial center,” Darrell Stanaford, a real estate analyst in Moscow with Romanov Dvor, said in an interview. “But it doesn’t work. You need other things, too.”

Moscow City, which has taken a direct hit from these policies, is now shifting tactics to fill the glut of premier office space.

City, the management company for the development in the neighborhood, says financial services companies are no longer the majority of its new tenants. Of the new Russian occupants signing leases this year, 58 percent were nonfinancial companies as well as local small and midsize businesses, like High Level Hostel, according to the management company.

New buildings are also being repurposed at the development stage. One low-rise will become a 6,000-seat movie theater.

In finished towers, various nonfinancial ventures are renting space. One company sells Cambodian citizenship to Russians wanting a second passport. A culinary school and restaurant are opening.

Many multinationals have rented space. IBM, General Electric, KPMG, General Motors, Hyundai, Energizer and Japan Tobacco International are all tenants, as is a major Russian investment bank, Renaissance Capital.

Prices, too, are falling. Mr. Drozdenko, the hostel owner, said a real estate agent offered him the space for about $8,000 a month for 1,600 square feet, or about $5 a square foot.

In Moscow City, office space currently averages $6.90 a square foot each month. That’s below the average of $7.75 for high-grade office space elsewhere in the capital, according to Denis T. Sokolov, senior analyst and a partner at Cushman & Wakefield in Moscow.

“We have to do this,” Dmitry Granov, the director of City management, said in an interview of the effort to broaden the range of tenants, because of the dearth of financial sector jobs in Russia.

“If before we were looking for international corporations, today we are looking for Russian companies, and small and medium businesses,” he said. He said dropping rents would attract technology start-ups.

City management company contested the vacancy estimate by Cushman & Wakefield. Cushman & Wakefield counts vacant sublease space in its total, while the management company does not. City says current vacancies are about 20 percent.

Meshing the various constituencies is also creating challenges.

“The cafes, amenities and dress code you need is different for clients of a youth hostel and for investment bankers,” said Mr. Stanaford, the real estate analyst, of settling tenants like High Level Hostel in their high-level location. “What image-conscious business is going to buy office space in the same skyscraper with a youth hostel?”

Empire Tower, the skyscraper where High Level hostel sits, is still largely empty two years after opening. In the foyer, an oval marble sculpture echoes the oval motif of the 60-story tower, designed for a more professional clientele.

Forty-three stories up, High Level Hostel opened in September with 24 beds, with prices starting at $25.50 in a six-person room, including a breakfast of toast, porridge or muesli. The hostel manager, Leonid L. Fedotov, 19, who goes by the nickname the Beard, recalled backpacking guests from Holland named Ron and Eve.

“It was really cool because Ron and I played guitar in the evening,” he said, as they gazed out at the twirling facade of Evolution Tower and the sea of lights of Moscow below.

The State of Real Estate

Whether you’re renting, buying or selling, here’s a look at real estate trends..

A lot of change is happening in the housing market. Here’s the outlook .

With a landmark legal settlement poised to upend a decades-old norm that has dictated who pays real estate agents and how much, economists, agents and lenders are beginning to worry that the burden could now be on first-time home buyers .

American homeowners could see a significant drop in the cost of selling their homes after a real estate trade group agreed to a landmark deal that would eliminate the standard 6% sales commission.

A pricey housing market and higher interest rates have made it harder to afford a house, but so-called closing costs — for items like loan origination fees, discount points, appraisal and credit report fees — are also adding to the challenge .

As the prices for office space in urban centers tumble, cities whose municipal budgets rely on taxes associated with commercial real estate are starting to bear the brunt .

Homeowners are adding hidden doors and rooms to foil burglars, eke out extra storage space and prepare for Armageddon .

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The History of Moscow City

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An Essay on Moscow City for Students, Kids and Youth [Free Reading Only]

March 28, 2020

In the beautiful banks of Moskva River exists the city of Moscow. Moscow is admired by thousands of tourists which makes it a popular tourist destination. The city has successfully emerged in its political, economic, scientific, and cultural sectors. Not many people are aware but the name of Moscow originated from Moskva River itself.

Moscow City is quite religious in terms of its beliefs; seek the name of Russian Orthodox Church on web and you would know the reason. Many historians and researchers call Moscow as the city of 40 times 40 churches. It’s an ideal place for religious and spiritual travelers.

Moscow City

Geographical Location of Moscow City:

To talk further about the geographical location of Moscow, it is built up of 49 bridges and canals. Moscow is known for its pleasant climatic conditions. Although, the climate is generally mild, it keeps fluctuating with the temperatures that range from −25 °C and −30 °C.

The coldest month is generally experienced in January. It’s an ideal place to enjoy clear skies most of the time. If this is your first visit to Moscow, be glad that winters are bearable. The tourism is not much in demand during summer months. If you are fortunate, you may experience some extreme cold weather too for some days.

Economy Enjoyed in Moscow City:

Being the capital city of Russia, Moscow city enjoys a stable economic condition. It covers a population of 11,273,400 (data extracted as of 2004). Apart from the figure provided, there are some permanent and temporary migrants that make about 13.5 million people residing. Despite being the most populated city in Europe, Moscow city continues to grow.

Some billionaires make Moscow one of the most important cities in the world. Few main industries include chemicals textiles, IT, furniture, and energy production.

Culture and People of Moscow City:

With various art museums and theatres, Moscow city has emerged beautifully in its architectural form. Museums like the Pushkin Museum and Moscow State Historical Museum represent its history beautifully.

Moscow City is also a den of Red Square, which is associated with UNESCO. If you talk about sports, the city is recognized for various number of competitive football teams. Various political parties and diplomats have increased economic stability in the city.

If you found the article informative, care to share it with others who are looking for similar information. More interesting articles on other cities are arriving soon.

Article Title: An Essay on Moscow City for Students, Kids and Youth [Free Reading Only] Article last re-published on March 28, 2020. Original

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Reflecting On The Past: Essays in the History of Youth and Community Work
Wylie, in his review of the work of HMI and youth work, sets out a vision for inspection that seems to have got lost in the pursuit of more surveillance-related regimes. ... these two chapters combine to provide a very real sense of the scope and purpose of different approaches to work with young people. The essay format of the book gave ...
Youth, work, and mobility: a review essay
Youth, work, and mobility: a review essay C. Laura Lovin University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK, [email protected] View further author information Pages 403-409 | Published online: 13 May 2020
Meeting the Needs of Young People in Youth Work
This part of the model is where youth workers can meet the emotional needs of young people by providing support and advice at all times. Youth workers can meet the needs of love/security by showing that they care about the young people's feelings. Stage four, is where they "Take Part" in various activities which will help them build bonds ...
PDF Youth work and social pedagogy: towards consideration of a hybrid model
role that a hybrid model of youth work practice and social pedagogy theory might play in achieving one of the key principles of Council of Europe (2008) of integrating young offenders back into society, and not their marginalisation and social exclusion. Youth work and social pedagogy: towards consideration of a hybrid model Introduction
Youth Work Essay
Youth Work Essay Patricia Farrell. December 2012 "The concept of youth work has evolved both nationally and internationally. It has grown from the historical notion of young people coming together in association for the purpose of social activity, to the current notion of young people being prepared to have the necessary skills to act towards an objective of social transformation."
What is youth work?
Youth work has been enhancing the lives of young people and adults in Ireland for more than 100 years. It was given formal statutory recognition in the Youth Work Act 2001, which defines youth work as:. A planned programme of education designed for the purpose of aiding and enhancing the personal and social development of young people through their voluntary involvement, and which is ...
Community and Youth Work in Context
Community and Youth Work in Context. This essay aims to look at the key historical, social, political and economic forces that have shaped Christian youth work and the impact Albemarle had on voluntary organisations. I will then look at where the style and approach that I use to deliver the aims of the youth group I work with.
The Importance Of Youth Work Essay Example
The Importance Of Youth Work Essay Example. 📌Category: Development, Life, Work: 📌Words: 265: 📌Pages: 1: 📌Published: 10 April 2021 "The effort involved and the struggles, once overcome, become the scar tissues of future character" (Sasse 13). What the author said made me agree that young people should engage in recreational work.
Theory
As a youth worker I would say in relation to education, that youth work is education for life. It works by building relationships with young people, and offering them programmes of activities using an informal educational approach. Which is a crucial addition to the education offered in schools and colleges.
Essay on Youth for Students and Children
500+ Words Essay on Youth. Youth is a worthwhile phase of one's life. The age where the age group is no longer of a child but yet to turn out to be a grown-up is the youth age. It is an age recognized by traits of heroism, toughness, muscle, stimulation, curiosity, judgmental attitude and even much more. At this stage, even though driven by ...
Free Essay: Youth Work
Sop313 Essay Work Route Out Of Poverty. The amount of policy's that have been submitted to the government on unemployment in the last few years has been outstanding. One of the most recent policy's has been on youth employment. Youth unemployment was at an all-time high in 2013 with 986,000 youths unemployed.
In Moscow, a Financial District in Name Only
It is not a youth-hostel-themed work space, but an actual youth hostel — dirty socks and all. "We thought, 'why not open a hostel in a skyscraper?' " said Roman Drozdenko, the 25-year ...
Russian youth in the Moscow protests
The August 10 protest in Moscow was reportedly the largest since 2011, with 60,000 people turning up on Moscow's historic Sakharov Avenue. Turnout for the protests took many observers by surprise, but the abundance of young faces remains a particular interest. According to a random sample poll conducted on August 10, 59 percent of protesters ...
The History of Moscow City: [Essay Example], 614 words
The History of Moscow City. Moscow is the capital and largest city of Russia as well as the. It is also the 4th largest city in the world, and is the first in size among all European cities. Moscow was founded in 1147 by Yuri Dolgoruki, a prince of the region. The town lay on important land and water trade routes, and it grew and prospered.
An Essay on Moscow City for Students, Kids and Youth [Reading Only]
An Essay on Moscow City for Students, Kids and Youth [Free Reading Only]. You could translate this essay in Russian, English, Hindi, and other. Skip to content ... Article Title: An Essay on Moscow City for Students, Kids and Youth [Free Reading Only] Article last re-published on March 28, 2020. Original. Tags: Student Essays. Search for...