essay on feminist anthropology

Exploring the Evolution of Feminist Anthropology

Feminist anthropology is a subfield of anthropology that focuses on the role of gender in human societies and the ways in which gender intersects with other social categories such as race, class, and sexuality.

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It emerged in the 1970s as part of the broader feminist movement and seeks to challenge traditional anthropological assumptions and methodologies that have historically ignored or marginalized women’s experiences and perspectives.

Feminist anthropologists use ethnographic research methods to study gender relations across cultures and to examine how power operates within these relationships.

Feminist Anthropology – An Overview

Feminist anthropologists believe that women have been marginalized in the field of anthropology and that their experiences need to be taken into account in order to create a more holistic understanding of humanity.

There are many different schools of thought within feminist anthropology, but there are some key tenets that are shared by most feminists within the field. These include the belief that sex and gender are social constructs, that patriarchy is a global phenomenon, and that women’s experiences should be at the centre of research and theory.

Additionally, feminist anthropologists utilize qualitative research methods such as participant observation in order to obtain an intimate understanding of the lived experiences of women from different cultures.

The Key Tenets of Feminist Anthropology

Feminist anthropologists believe that gender is a key organizing principle in all human societies. They also believe that gender shapes our lives in fundamental ways. As a result, they pay close attention to how gender is represented in different cultures and how it affects our everyday experience.

As mentioned before, there are many different schools of thought within feminist anthropology, but there are some key tenets that are shared by most feminists within the field.

Gender as a Social Construct

The most fundamental tenet of feminist anthropology is the understanding that gender is a social construct that is created and reinforced by cultural norms and expectations. This means that the way individuals understand their own gender identity is shaped by the social and cultural context in which they live. This belief runs counter to traditional biological determinism, which argues that our sex and gender identities are determined by our biology alone.

For example, while many Western societies have historically held a binary view of gender – with only two distinct categories of male and female – there are cultures where individuals identify as third or fourth genders . In some cultures, for instance, there are people who identify as both male and female or neither male nor female. These variations demonstrate the ways in which gender roles are culturally constructed and can differ significantly from one society to another.

Feminist anthropologists also recognize that gender roles change over time within a particular society. For instance, in many Western countries, women’s roles in the workforce have expanded significantly in recent decades due to social movements advocating for greater equality between men and women.

Through ethnographic research methods such as participant observation and interviews, feminist anthropologists seek to understand how gender roles are constructed and maintained within specific cultural contexts. They study how certain behaviours or activities become associated with masculinity or femininity, or how different societies define what it means to be masculine or feminine.

Overall, recognizing gender as a social construct allows feminist anthropologists to challenge traditional assumptions about what constitutes “natural” differences between men and women.

Intersectionality

Feminist anthropology recognizes that individuals’ experiences and opportunities are shaped not only by their gender, but also by other social categories such as race, class, sexuality, and ability.

Intersectionality refers to the ways in which these different social categories intersect and interact with each other to create unique experiences of oppression or privilege.

For example, a woman who is also a member of an ethnic minority group may experience discrimination based on both her gender and her race. Similarly, a person with a disability who identifies as LGBTQ+ may face barriers related to both their sexuality and their ability.

Understanding how these different aspects of identity intersect is critical to developing effective strategies for challenging systemic inequalities. For instance, feminist anthropologists may study how gender intersects with race to shape the experiences of Black women in the United States or how class affects women’s access to healthcare in developing countries.

By emphasizing intersectionality, feminist anthropology seeks to ensure that its analysis takes into account the complexity of individuals’ identities and experiences. This approach allows for a more nuanced understanding of how power operates within society and can inform efforts towards creating more equitable societies where all individuals have equal access to opportunities regardless of their social identities.

Challenging Patriarchy

Feminist anthropology seeks to challenge patriarchal power structures that have historically marginalized women’s voices and experiences in both academic research and broader society. Feminist anthropologists recognize that traditional academic research has often neglected the experiences of women and other marginalized groups, instead prioritizing the perspectives of white, Western men.

To address this imbalance, feminist anthropologists work to create more equitable research practices that center the experiences and perspectives of women and other marginalized groups. They use methods such as participatory action research or community-based research, which involve working closely with communities to understand their needs and priorities.

Standpoint Theory

Feminist anthropology recognizes that knowledge production is shaped by the researcher’s own background, experiences, and social position. This means that researchers are not objective observers but rather are situated within particular social contexts that influence their perspectives and interpretations of data.

Standpoint theory is a key concept in feminist anthropology that asserts that individuals from marginalized groups may have unique insights into power dynamics that are not accessible to those in dominant positions. Standpoint theory argues that people from different social locations have different experiences of oppression and privilege, which shape their understanding of the world around them.

For example, a white anthropologist conducting research on race relations may not be able to fully understand the experiences of people of color because they do not share the same lived experiences or histories of discrimination. However, a person of color who has experienced racism firsthand may have a deeper understanding of how racial power dynamics operate in society.

Feminist anthropologists recognize the importance of incorporating diverse perspectives and voices into research practices in order to create more inclusive and accurate knowledge. They work to center the perspectives of marginalized groups in their research through methods such as participatory action research or collaborative ethnography .

Activism is a central part of feminist anthropology, with many practitioners seeing their work as inherently political and advocating for social change beyond academia. Feminist anthropologists recognize that research has the potential to influence policy and shape public discourse, and they use their expertise to advocate for issues related to gender equality, social justice, and human rights.

Policy-oriented research agendas are one way that feminist anthropologists engage in activism. This type of research often focuses on addressing social problems or inequalities by working directly with policymakers or community organizations to develop solutions. For example, a feminist anthropologist might conduct research on the impact of gender-based violence in a particular community and then use that information to advocate for policy changes aimed at preventing violence against women.

Another form of activism practiced by feminist anthropologists is community-based participatory research (CBPR). CBPR involves working collaboratively with community members to identify research questions, design studies, collect data, analyze findings, and disseminate results. Through this process, CBPR seeks to empower communities by giving them greater control over the research process and promoting more equitable partnerships between researchers and participants.

Feminist anthropologists also engage in advocacy through public education campaigns aimed at challenging harmful stereotypes or attitudes towards gender. This can involve writing op-ed pieces or blog posts on current events related to gender issues or participating in public speaking engagements aimed at raising awareness about these issues.

Overall, activism is an important component of feminist anthropology that seeks to create real-world change beyond academic circles. By using their expertise to advocate for issues related to gender equality, social justice, and human rights, feminist anthropologists play an important role in promoting more equitable societies where everyone has the opportunity to thrive.

The History of Feminist Anthropology

Feminist anthropology has its roots in early 20th-century scholarship, when women first began to be admitted into graduate programs in the field. In the 1960s and 1970s, second-wave feminism spurred a new wave of feminist scholarship in many disciplines, including anthropology. This scholarship critiqued the way that women and feminine norms had been largely absent from anthropological research and writing up until that point.

In the late 1960s, a group of women studying at Harvard University formed a study group called “Women in Anthropology.” This group was created in response to the overwhelming male presence in the field of anthropology and the lack of attention given to women’s experiences.

These women were often met with hostility and sexism from their male colleagues. In response, they began to organize and advocate for change within the field. They also began conducting their own research from a feminist perspective, which allowed them to offer new insights into familiar topics like family, religion, and childhood.

Feminists challenged assumptions about what was considered ‘normal’ or ‘natural’ behaviour for women, men, and children across cultures. They also critiqued the ways that Western ideologies about gender were being imposed on other cultures through colonialist or missionary practices. In short, feminist anthropologists worked to make sure that women’s voices were heard and that their experiences were included in research studies.

These women critiqued the way that anthropology had been conducted up until that point, arguing that it was biased against women and other marginalized groups. They also argued that women’s experiences needed to be more central to research and theory in order to create a more holistic understanding of humanity.

Pioneers of Feminist Anthropology

One of the key figures in early feminist anthropology is Sheila Rowbotham , who authored several important books on the subject. Rowbotham was instrumental in shaping early feminist thought and continues to be an important voice in the field today.

Another early and influential work of feminist anthropology was Ruth Behar ‘s book “ The Vulnerable Observer: Anthropology That Breaks Your Heart. ” In this memoir, Behar recounted her experiences as a woman doing fieldwork in Mexico and argued that women anthropologists often faced discrimination and exclusion both within academia and in the field.

This book helped to give voice to the experiences of many women within the discipline and inspired subsequent generations of feminist anthropologists to pursue research that was critical of patriarchal systems and focused on the lives of women and other marginalized groups.

In the 1990s, feminist anthropologists began to focus increasingly on issues such as globalization, colonialism , and postcolonialism.

Today: 2000s-Present Day

Today, feminist anthropology continues to build on this foundation by conducting research that focuses on the lives of women and other marginalized groups, such as LGBTQIA+ people, in diverse cultural contexts. However, challenges remain. One such challenge is that feminist anthropologists are often working against preconceived notions about what their research should look like. For example, some people still believe that feminist anthropology is only concerned with Women’s Studies type topics, like mothers and childcare.

The fact is that feminist anthropology has grown and evolved. One key development has been the increasing inclusion of transgender, nonbinary, and queer perspectives within the field. Another has been a renewed focus on activism and Praxis—the application of theory to real-world problems. Many feminist anthropologists today are working to use their skills and expertise to make positive change in the world through initiatives such as community organizing, policy advocacy, and grassroots activism.

In reality, feminist anthropologists are researching a wide range of topics, including economics, politics, religion, health care, education, art, and more. Another challenge facing feminist anthropology is the ongoing underrepresentation of women within the discipline itself. While women make up over half of all undergraduate anthropology majors in the United States , they hold just 33% of full professor positions . This means that there is still much work to be done in terms of promoting gender equality within the field of anthropology.

In conclusion, feminist anthropology is a dynamic and multifaceted field that has made significant contributions to our understanding of gender, power, and social inequality. By challenging traditional notions of objectivity and centering the perspectives of marginalized groups, feminist anthropologists have developed new research methods and approaches that prioritize social justice and equity. Through their work in academia, activism, and policy-oriented research agendas, feminist anthropologists continue to push the boundaries of what we know about gender and society while advocating for a more just and equitable world.

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Feminist Anthropology

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Feminist Anthropology by Lisa Anderson-Levy LAST REVIEWED: 19 November 2019 LAST MODIFIED: 11 January 2012 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199766567-0007

Feminist anthropology is simultaneously a critique of male as well as Euro-centered and biased anthropology; a historical moment that marks the development of theoretical frames through which different ways of knowing are produced; and a vast body of literature through which dynamic conversations are situated that engage questions around gender, race, sexuality, ability, and class among much more. Discussions of the sort that follow are necessarily partial and thus perspectival; consequently, the genealogy presented, with few exceptions, focuses primarily on the work of U.S. or U.S.-based feminist theorists/anthropologists, with an emphasis on cultural anthropologists. Feminist anthropology emerged in response to the recognition that across the subdisciplines, anthropology operated within andocentric paradigms. Early questions ranged from identifying women in the anthropological record to explaining universal female subordination. Although many of the questions that fuel research interests have changed, underlying concerns with understanding the operation of power in various contexts continue to animate feminist anthropological research. Different understandings of the relationships between gender and sex, or between race and culture, for instance, alter more questions that can even be imagined. Thinking about the ways each of us is positioned in relation to various privileges and penalties centers the importance of intersectionality both as theoretical frame and as methodology. Concern with the difference that difference makes; how it is constructed, performed, and reproduced; and the role of heteronormativity in the framing of questions as well as in our analyses are a few examples of questions that continue to invigorate discussions among feminist anthropologists. Feminist anthropology has had and continues to have productive theoretical exchanges with a variety of feminist theories, such as Third World and postcolonial feminisms. Critiques by feminists of color and lesbians have also been crucial to grounding theories that are used by feminist anthropologists. Although the specifics of the questions have changed as feminist anthropology has evolved, at the core several key elements remain: What is the role of power in the construction of a variety of gendered/raced/sexed/classed identities? What do these mean for how people (re)produce meanings in their daily lives? How can we, as anthropologists, and specifically as feminist anthropologists, begin to understand these constructions and our role in their production? Feminist anthropology is often seen as the domain of cultural anthropologists, yet important work has also been done by feminist archeologists and biological anthropologists.

There are a number of important edited volumes that address concerns in feminist anthropology, dating from the 1970s through to the early 21st century. The essays in Sanday and Goodenough 1990 , Di Leonardo 1991 , and Ardener 1993 are good examples of work that interrogates the categories “women,” “sex,” and “gender,” refusing universalist understandings. Contributors to Collier, et al. 1987 use feminist perspectives in their analyses of the role of gender in understanding kinship. Essays in Behar and Gordon 1995 are often cited and provide a complex picture of early women practitioners whose work has been marginalized. These essays also reclaim the work of women of color as anthropological and question the role of anthropology in the late 20th century. Lamphere, et al. 1997 compiles oft-cited work by feminist anthropologists who theorize the body, issues of representation, family, work, and sexuality. Lewin 2006 and Geller and Stockett 2006 are more recent edited volumes that convey a sense of the trajectory of feminist anthropology. All these volumes are useful for both undergraduate and graduate students.

Ardener, Shirley, ed. 1993. Defining females: The nature of women in society . 2d ed. Cross-cultural perspectives on women 4. Oxford and Providence: Berg.

Originally published in 1978. This volume deals with the importance of complicating the category “women” as well as its relationship to culture, biology, and gender. One new essay was added to this volume.

Behar, Ruth, and Deborah A. Gordon, eds. 1995. Women writing culture . Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.

Contributors to this volume place women or gender, or both, at the center of their theorizations as they reclaim foremothers in anthropology, theorize gender in anthropology, and complicate notions of the field and what it means to do ethnography.

Collier, Jane Fishburne, and Sylvia Junko Yanagisako, eds. 1987. Gender and kinship: Essays toward a unified analysis . Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press.

Contributors to this volume critically examine and reassess anthropological kinship theory through a feminist theoretical and methodological lens.

Di Leonardo, Micaela, ed. 1991. Gender at the crossroads of knowledge: Feminist anthropology in the postmodern era . Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.

In this volume, practitioners reconsider the meanings of the categories “gender” and “women” and recognize the value of theorizations that seek to understand the reproduction of particular relations of power.

Geller, Pamela L., and Miranda K. Stockett, eds. 2006. Feminist anthropology: Past, present, and future . Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

In this volume, contributors from cultural and biological anthropology and archeology theorize important issues, such as difference, heteronormativity, and performativity by reimagining notions of sex, gender, and sexuality.

Lamphere, Louise, Helena Ragoné, and Patricia Zavella, eds. 1997. Situated lives: Gender and culture in everyday lives . New York and London: Routledge.

Contributors to this volume explore varied topics, from the practice and experiences of ethnography as gendered subjects to reconfigurations of birth and reproductive technology, in order to highlight the ways that gender is imbricated with class, race, sexuality, and nation in the daily lives of women and men.

Lewin, Ellen, ed. 2006. Feminist anthropology: A reader . Blackwell anthologies in social and cultural anthropology. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

This volume traces the emergence and development of feminist anthropology through a series of writings across the subdisciplines.

Sanday, Peggy Reeves, and Ruth Gallagher Goodenough, eds. 1990. Beyond the second sex: New directions in the anthropology of gender . Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

Essays in this volume move beyond essentializing notions of gender by paying attention to the complexities inherent in the construction and performances of gender in cross-cultural contexts.

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Feminist Anthropology

This is a 1500 word essay on feminist anthropology, that was written as an assignment in an anthropology theory course. During the process of researching and writing this, I finally 'got it' regarding the core message and ethos of feminism.

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Megan Raschig

• Other Affiliations: University of Amsterdam , Anthropology , Post-Doc University of Virginia , Anthropology , Post-Doc add
• Research Interests: Anthropology , Anthropology of ethics and morality , Phenomenological Anthropology , Chicana/o Studies , Healing , Intersubjectivity , and 15 more Temporality , Decolonizing Methodologies , Community Engagement & Participation , Latin American feminisms , Feminist Philosophy , Phenomenology (Research Methodology) , Immigration , Dispositions , Decolonizing Pedagogies & Research , Indigenous Studies , Indigenous Politics , Medical Anthropology , Critical Medical Anthropology , Mental Health , and Trauma, cross-cultural mental health, refugees ( Temporality , Decolonizing Methodologies , Community Engagement & Participation , Latin American feminisms , Feminist Philosophy , Phenomenology (Research Methodology) , Immigration , Dispositions , Decolonizing Pedagogies & Research , Indigenous Studies , Indigenous Politics , Medical Anthropology , Critical Medical Anthropology , Mental Health , and Trauma, cross-cultural mental health, refugees ) edit
• About: Megan's research explores emergent forms of activism at the interstices of state disavowal and philanthropic health g... more Megan's research explores emergent forms of activism at the interstices of state disavowal and philanthropic health governance, primarily among persistently criminalized Mexican-American populations. Focusing on the politics of spiritual healing during what is sometimes called ‘the new Civil Rights’ era, she seeks out the less-legible horizons of political struggle and aims to rethink forms of historical consciousness and social change. Megan hails from Toronto, Canada, and completed her PhD at the University of Amsterdam, Department of Anthropology. She is a member of healing collectives La Colectiva de Mujeres and MILPA, both based in Salinas, California. (Megan's research explores emergent forms of activism at the interstices of state disavowal and philanthropic health governance, primarily among persistently criminalized Mexican-American populations. Focusing on the politics of spiritual healing during what is sometimes called ‘the new Civil Rights’ era, she seeks out the less-legible horizons of political struggle and aims to rethink forms of historical consciousness and social change. Megan hails from Toronto, Canada, and completed her PhD at the University of Amsterdam, Department of Anthropology. She is a member of healing collectives La Colectiva de Mujeres and MILPA, both based in Salinas, California.) edit
• Advisors: edit

Publisher: Wiley

Publication name: feminist anthropology, research interests: chicana feminist theory , feminism and social justice , feminist anthropology , politics of solidarity , healing , and 6 more possibility , potentiality , criminalization / the carceral state , worldbuilding , indigenous , and chicana feminist spirituality ( possibility , potentiality , criminalization / the carceral state , worldbuilding , indigenous , and chicana feminist spirituality ), publication date: 2022, publication name: medical anthropology quarterly - critical care, research interests: community health , ethnography (research methodology) , health equity , the ethics of care , confianza , and 4 more racial equity , vaccine hesitancy , trust and power in healthcare , and covid-19 pandemic ( racial equity , vaccine hesitancy , trust and power in healthcare , and covid-19 pandemic ), publication date: 2019, publication name: cultural anthropology, research interests: anthropology , ethnography , applied, engaged, and public anthropology , colonialism , phenomenology of temporality , and 9 more temporality (time studies) , reparations , past life experiences , criminalization , tiempo y temporalidad , reparative reading , criminalization / the carceral state , experimental data , and fugitive anthropology ( temporality (time studies) , reparations , past life experiences , criminalization , tiempo y temporalidad , reparative reading , criminalization / the carceral state , experimental data , and fugitive anthropology ), research interests: anthropology , social movements and political action , community-engaged scholarship , socially-engaged scholarship , liberation movements , and 4 more engaged scholarship , possibility , world-building , and otherwise ( engaged scholarship , possibility , world-building , and otherwise ), research interests: epistemology , chicana/o studies , surveillance studies , community policing , social movements and political action , and 4 more criminalization , healing , police violence , and militarized policing ( criminalization , healing , police violence , and militarized policing ), publication date: 2018, publication name: anthropology news, research interests: paulo freire , social activism , imagination , healing , police brutality , and anthropology of north america (), research interests: north american politics , cultural anthropology , precarious work, precarity , and anthropology of north america (), research interests: ethics , chicana/o studies , trauma studies , wound healing , anthropology of police & policing , and 3 more california , political activism , and trigger warnings ( california , political activism , and trigger warnings ), research interests: chicana/o studies , dutch , activism , state violence , and healing (), research interests: health care , phenomenology , intersubjectivity , anthropology of ethics and morality , and critical hermeneutics (), research interests: music , phenomenology (research methodology) , rhythmanalysis , public space , and phenomenology of intersubjectivity (), research interests: jewish studies , history of the netherlands , intersubjectivity , everyday life , and sonic and haptic interaction (), research interests: social change , ethnography , community engagement & participation , political anthropology , chicana/o studies , and 18 more critical race theory , social justice , martin heidegger , chicana feminist theory , feminism and social justice , anthropology of ethics and morality , temporality , california , spiritual healing , critical realism, hermeneutics, phenomenology , mujeres , spiritual activism (gloria anzaldua) , criminalization , healing , social death , mexican american studies , post civil rights movement , and criminalization / the carceral state ( critical race theory , social justice , martin heidegger , chicana feminist theory , feminism and social justice , anthropology of ethics and morality , temporality , california , spiritual healing , critical realism, hermeneutics, phenomenology , mujeres , spiritual activism (gloria anzaldua) , criminalization , healing , social death , mexican american studies , post civil rights movement , and criminalization / the carceral state ), research interests: critical theory , medical anthropology , critical pedagogy , political anthropology , cultural anthropology , and 3 more event theory , safe spaces in teaching , and trigger warnings ( event theory , safe spaces in teaching , and trigger warnings ), research interests: critical race studies ().

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• Sylvia Forman Prize

AFA is pleased to invite graduate and undergraduate students to submit essays in feministanthropology for the Sylvia Forman Student Paper Prize competition, named for the late Sylvia Helen Forman, one of the founders of AFA whose dedication to both her students and feminist principles contributed to the growth of feminist anthropology.  We encourage essays in all four subfields of anthropology. Essays may be based on research on a wide variety of topics including (but not limited to) feminist analysis of women’s work, education, reproduction, sexuality, religion, and expressive culture, language, family and kin relations, economic development, gender and material culture, gender and biology, women and development, globalization, and intersectionalities of gender, race, sexuality, and class.

Application Deadline: May 1, Annually.

Eligibility Requirements

• Candidates must be an undergraduate or graduate student at the time of submission.
• Paper manuscripts accepted for publication or published are not eligible. 
• Only one submission per student will be accepted.
• Candidates cannot receive the same AFA award more than once.

Evaluation Criteria

Essays will be judged on:

• Originality of research topic
• Use of feminist anthropological theory to analyze a research question
• Organization, quality, and clarity of writing
• Effective use of both theory and data
• Significance to scholarship in feminist anthropology
• Timeliness and relevance of topic

Application Process

• Submit a cover letter identifying whether the candidate is an undergraduate or graduate student; identifying the author’s institutional affiliation, mailing address, telephone number and e-mail address for notification
• Submit a manuscript that is not more than 35 double-spaced pages, including bibliography.

Note: For essays that have been submitted but not yet accepted for publication, contact the Forman Prize Chair (via [email protected] ) well before the submission deadline.

Prior to review of award submissions, AFA membership will be verified.  Thank you for supporting our section!

Please email your submission a single Portable File Document (PDF) with the subject “Sylvia Forman Prize Submission” to: [email protected] .