write a critical analysis of ismat chughtai’s ‘roots’

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Ismat Chughtai Roots Summary

Introduction to the Short Story

The story “Roots” takes place during the time of Indian Partition. It navigates on the issues of nationalism, sense of belonging and a communal sentimentality. The tale follows the compelling stories of a Hindu and a Muslim family. It delves deeper into the intimate relationships spanning up to third generations. Having different political opinions, the two families supports each other throughout the independent country.

The story begins with a stressful temperament because of the Muslim refugees and the fear associated with religious fundamentalism. The children are troublesome in the house causing the adults to be miserable in their lives. The colonisers have departed from India but their imperialist attitudes have damaged the country horribly. The Muslim minorities are living under a siege of military operations where their houses being padlocked patrolled by police officers outside. It is a tough situation for the Muslims entering outside from Marwar state. They faces heavy discrimination and they are effortlessly identified by others.

Some Muslims are enticed to go back to Pakistan because of the rumours about inexpensive food but they realises the herculean task of making a capital for one’s survival. There are also intentions of the people to kick out many of the Minority communities but some ménages refuse to do so specifically those in employment by the Maharaja. Barre Bhai refuses to enticed his family to leave and displace to Pakistan causing a family conflict amongst the children and Roopchandji’s children. The police officers makes an intervention by sending the Muslim kids home and their mothers shows compassion to them. The partition has disturbed and affected the everlasting friendships and relationships between families.

The story then narrates the political dynamics having a debate coming from different ménages. The supporters of Congress always have the power in disputation while the other political parties such as the communist and the socialists sides with the Congress. The Muslim League and the Hindu Mahasabha are two opponents would unite to begin an assault on Congress as the support for the Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha has escalated while the Congress has faced many inner challenges within. The families despite having political distinctions maintains an intimate connection. They have a discourse on topics such as spices and a dowry irrelevant to politics. Doctor Saheb who is also a family ménages gives medical ministrations to everyone but his wife apprises him to reject having a meal their homes to be paid a fee. Doctor Saheb light heartedly mocks Amma whenever she gets ill. The other family ménages would seldom line up to also check on their health whenever Doctor Saheb visits.

There is a sudden enthusiastic decorum regarding the birth of a child. Doctor Saheb complains about the population of children being born but when the labor hits he becomes restive to aid. The women hates men during their childbirth and Doctor Saheb as well as Abba leaves the room after the child is born as usual because of the wrath of the women. After Abba’s demise, Roopchandji starts to cater the family ministration. It is evident in his decision making process from school fees to the construction plans. He also interfere in family issues and matters such as helping to solve the choice of Fajan’s education and aiding Farida with her nuptial issues.

Sheela arrives as a midwife that brings a sense of relief. The family connections changed during the times of battle with Amma’s who remains silent speaking a weight of turmoil. The coming of the refugees widens the split between the family and the external world. In between the health issues and a state to leave, Amma hesitate to leave and her words as sharp reveals her inner state of distress.

Khala Bi packs her things such as material things like gold and silver, bone powder, dry fenugreek and Multani mitti. Barre Bhai tries to discard her bundles but she refuses to let of her things having a strong sense of belief that it is essential for the economy of Pakistan. The house is being destroyed and there are many packed bundles and boxes while Amma’s trunk is remained unhandled. Amma remains unconscious of the pain inflicted on her by kafirs. The family leaves their home to a new place to find security and keep themselves safe and sound.Amma inquires the idea of “our land” and she calls out to be tired in quest of a new place. However, Amma’s children and grandchildren leaves in a caravan under the security of the police officers making Amma to feel distress. She starts to recall her children’s birth and the all the memories linking to her home. Roopchandji becomes angry and he curses everything and all including the void home across the roadside. His wife privately brings food to Amma and they talk quietly through their visions.

Amma spends a restive night concerned about the security of her family during their odyssey and the obstacles they may endure in the new place. Amma has worrying ephialtes about the violence and the pain her family ménages may experience. She is alarmed by a noise at the door scared of her life but it is her family who has returned. She is happy to see her family back and she feels a sense of peace. Roopchandji tells that he brought back her children from the train station and he asks for his remuneration. Amma becomes teary with a sense of obligation and she sits up feeling optimistic and the bond with her family.

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Wednesday, March 15, 2023

Roots by ismat chugtai, indian literatures in english, 3rd year 6th semester, b.a english literature, syllabus, university of madras.

B.A English Literature

3 rd  Year 6 th  Semester

Indian Literatures in English

UNIT 4. Short Story

4.1 “Roots” by Ismat Chugtai

About Writer:

Ismat Chugtai was an Urdu writer, an educator and an icon of women's empowerment. But, above all else, she was unapologetic and outspoken.

Ismat Chughtai was born on August 15, 1915, into a middle-class familv in Badayun, Uttar Pradesh. She was emerged as one of the most popular Muslim women writers in India. She understood the complexities of a woman's mind, and her work reflected the different shades of the woman of her time. She was, without a doubt, the grande dame of modern Urdu fiction.

The ninth of ten children, Ismat was born into an affluent family. Her father, Mirza Qaseem Beg Chaghtai, was a civil servant, whose work took the family to cities like Jodhpur, Agra and Aligarh. Ismat grew up spending most of her time with her brothers as all her sisters were already married. In 1983, she mentioned in an interview to Manushi magazine: “I do not think men and women are two different kinds of beings. Even as a child, I always insisted on doing everything that my brothers did."

Chughtai began writing in her early teens, stories that she claimed were around her and just waiting to be penned. She was inspired by her elder brother, Mirza Azim Beg Chughtai, who was a noted novelist who used playful humour in his books. Often teased by her friends for her fascination with Irish playwright Bernard Shaw, Chughtai gradually started reading Western writers during her early education at The Women’s School (now The Women’s College) at Aligarh Muslim University. Her literary career began with the publication of her short story Fasadi (The Trouble Maker) in a literary journal called Saqui in 1938. The story was so well written that many of her critics claimed her brother Azim Baig Chughtai had ghost-written it for her!

Chughtai's first novella Ziddi was published in 1941. It was a sharp critique on the sexual exploitation of young, female domestic help by their masters’ sons. While she was a member of the Progressive Writers’ Association, she refused to toe the ‘official line’. In her autobiography, Kagaz Hi Hai Pairahan, Chughtai wrote, “When the policy of the Party (PWA), rigidly concluded that Progressive literature is only that which is written about the Peasant and the Labourer, I disagreed. I cannot know and empathize with the Peasant class as closely as I can feel the pain of the middle and the lower class. And I have never written on hearsay, never according to any set rules, and never have I followed the orders of any party or association. Independent thinking has always been my nature and still is.”

Ismat wrote eloquently on the issues of women of lower and lower middle class. Ismat knew about the issues and problems of women of her era and took keen interest in highlighting these through her short stories. She laments about the wretchedness and plight of women and of being uneducated. She wants to see women free from any male bondage and suppression.

Chughtai passed away on Oct 24, 1991.

About Story:

Jadein [Roots], a short story written by Ismat Chughtai, is a fictional take on the impact of the Partition on interpersonal relationships, memory as well as the idea of ‘home’ and ‘community’. The narrative, which is seen from the perspective of an aged woman ‘Amma’, is an insight into how women experienced the Partition.

The story is set in Marwar, just before the declaration of Independence of India and Pakistan, where migrations have already begun taking place. However, despite constant persuasion by her family members, Amma refuses to pack up her belongings and set off for another land. Evoking her emotional connection to where she was born, she is convinced that she should not leave with her family members. However, the reader gains an insight into the brutality of the experience as she experiences the pain and anguish of separation from her family members. At this point, her neighbors, Roopchand and his wife are a source of solace and comfort for her. Roopchand, who is unable to take the stomach this entire episode, decides to go to the station and bring Amma’s family back to their home. The story is an artful depiction of the resilience of love and mutual respect among persons, which survived a Partition that sought to create differences and divides. The story also depicts love between Hindus and Muslims not ready for partition.

Born at the beginning of the twentieth-century, Ismat Chughtai was an Urdu-language author and filmmaker, renowned for her absorbing narratives, unconventional characters, and a musicality to her prose that has immortalized her in the literary history of the Indian subcontinent. A member of the Progressive Writers Movement, Chughtai often portrays strong, well-sketched out women characters in her works, which are notorious for their strong narratives that question social norms.

 Everyone's faces were blown away. Even the food was not cooked in the house. Today was the sixth day. The children left school, sat at home, creating chaos in their own lives and that of the whole family. The same fighting, the same hustle and bustle, as if it had not come. The scoundrels don't even care that the British left and while leaving, inflicted such a deep wound that would continue to fester for years. India has been tortured with such cruel hands and weapons that thousands of arteries have been cut, rivers of blood are flowing. No one is strong enough to stitch.

For some days the atmosphere of the city was getting so dirty that all the Muslims of the city were sitting under house arrest. The houses were locked and the police guarded outside. And in this way the pieces of liver were left to be spread on the chest. By the way, there was peace in the Civil Lines, as it happens. This filth jumps more where these children are. Where there is poverty, the hooves of religion ride on the horse of ignorance. And these heaps have been scrapped. Moreover, the number of people coming from Punjab was increasing day by day due to which fear was increasing in the hearts of the minorities. Heaps of filth were being scraped off fast and foul smell had crept up to the clean roads.

There were even open demonstrations at two places. But the Hindus and the Muslims of Marwar State are so similar to each other that even outsiders can identify them by name, face or clothes with great difficulty. The minorities from outside, who could be easily identified, slipped away from the borders of Pakistan only after getting the smell of 15th August. The old residents of the state were saved, so they neither had that much understanding nor did they have that much status that someone would have sat and explained the problems of Pakistan and India to them. Those who had to understand, had understood and they had also become safe. The rest who had gone after hearing that wheat for four annas and bread worth four annas is available, they were looting. Because after going there, he also came to know that even one rupee is needed to buy four seers of wheat. And for a hand-long roti, you have to pay full chavanni. And these rupees and grains were neither found in any shop nor grew in the fields. Getting these was as difficult as running for survival. When the decision was taken to evict the minorities from the open areas, a big difficulty came to the fore. The Thakurs clearly said that sir, the people are so mixed that there is a need for staff to evict the Muslims. Which is a wasteful expenditure. By the way, if you want to buy a piece of land for the refugees, they can be evacuated. The animals still live. When asked to clean the forest.

Now there are only a few families left who were either among the disciples of the Maharaja and where is the question of their departure. And those who were about to leave, their beds were being tied. Our family also used to fall in the same category. Wasn't in a hurry But they came and created panic. Still no one gave much importance. She doesn't even crawl on anyone's ear as a louse and doesn't get tied up for years. Elder brother was about to leave, he was defeated by saying so what did Mian Chhaba do that he decided to write 'Pakistan Zindabad' on the wall of the school. Roopchand ji's children opposed this and wrote 'Akhand Bharat' instead. The conclusion is that the shoe and the promise of erasing each other from the earth went away. The matter escalated. Even the police came and the few Muslims who were left were packed in lorries and sent to their homes.

   Now listen, as soon as the children came home, the mothers who had always surrendered them to cholera and epidemics ran out of affection and hugged them. And some day it would have happened that Roopchand ji's children would come after a fight, then the bride's sister-in-law would apply ointment with her shoes that repentance would be good and she would be picked up and sent to Roopchand to give him a mixture of castor oil and coconut, because Roopchand ji was not only our family doctor, he was also an old friend of father. Doctor's friendship with father, his sons with brothers, daughters-in-law with our brothers, and the new sapling with the new sapling had a gnawing friendship. The present three generations of both the families were so close to each other that no one could have imagined that there would be a rift in this love after the partition of India. Whereas in both the families Muslim League, Congressmen and Mahasabha were present. Religious and political debates also used to happen fiercely, but just like a football or cricket match. Here father was a Congressman, on the other side Doctor Saheb and elder brother were League, on the other side Gyanchand Mahasabhai, here middle brother was communist and on the other side Gulabchand was Socialist and then according to this the wives and children of the men also belonged to this party. Usually, when there was a debate, the Congress would always have the upper hand, communists and socialists used to abuse, but the Congress used to enter. Mahasabha and Legi would have been saved. Although these two would have always been together, they would have been enemies of each other, yet both would have attacked the Congress together. Communists and socialists used to abuse but entered into Congress itself. Mahasabha and Legi would have been saved. Although these two would have always been together, they would have been enemies of each other, yet both would have attacked the Congress together. Communists and socialists used to abuse but entered into Congress itself. Mahasabha and Legi would have been saved. Although these two would have always been together, they would have been enemies of each other, yet both would have attacked the Congress together.

But on the other hand, the strength of the Muslim League was increasing for some years and on the other hand of the Mahasabha. The Congress has completely lost its way. Under the care of the elder brother, all the plants of the house, leaving only one or two non-partisan Congressmen, stood firm like the National Guard. Here, a small group of Sevak Sangh stood firm under the leadership of Gyan Chand. But love remained the same as before. "I will marry my Lallu to Munni only." Mahasabha used to say to Gyanchand's father, "I will bring gold anklets.

And here the National Guard would write "Pakistan Zindabad" on the walls and the Sevak Sangh team would spoil it and write "Akhand Bharat". This is the incident of that time when the transaction of Pakistan was a laughing matter.

Abba and Roopchand listen to all this and smile and then start tying intentions to make everyone one. Amma and Chachi away from politics used to talk about coriander, turmeric and daughters' weddings and daughters-in-law used to try to steal each other's fashion, along with salt-pepper, medicines were also ordered from Doctor Saheb's place. Every day someone sneezed and he ran to the doctor or where someone fell ill and Amma started making rotis filled with pulses and sent a message to the doctor saying that if you want food, come. Now the doctor has come holding the hands of his grandsons.

While walking, the wife used to say, "Don't eat food, listen."

The fun used to come only when Amma's health was bad and Amma used to tremble.

"No brother, no, I will not get treatment from this clown." But who would leave the doctor at home and go to call him from the city. As soon as the doctor called, he would come running, "If you cook the casserole alone, you will fall ill," he would shout.

"You understand others as you eat," Amma used to buzz from behind the curtain.

"Hey brother, this is an excuse for illness, you just send the word, I will come. Why do you create this pretense.

''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' don don'''''''''''''' are are is'''''''''''''''''''''''''', Abba would have been smiling.

 When he used to come to see a patient, all the patients of the house would stand up. If someone is carrying his stomach, then someone's boil got peeled. Someone's ear is ripe and someone's nose is swollen.

What's the matter, Deputy? I will give poison to some. Have you considered me as a 'salotari' that animals all over the world broke down.

And where a new child was about to be born, he would say, "There is a free doctor, let him be born, to put ticks on the chest of the bastard."

But as soon as the pain started, he would go round our verandah from his verandah. He used to scare everyone with his screams. It is difficult even for the residents of the locality to come.

But as soon as the child's first sound reached their ears, they would come from the verandah to the door, from door to door inside the room and father would also come along with them. The women used to go behind the scenes cursing and beating.

Seeing the child's pulse, he pats his mother's back, 'Wah my lioness,' and starts bathing the child by cutting its umbilical cord. Abba used to work as a clumsy nurse out of nervousness. Then Amma would start shouting.

"Look, God's man is amazing that the mother gets yellow in the house." Sensing the situation, both of them used to run out like scolded children.

Now, when Abba was attacked by paralysis, Roopchand ji had retired from the hospital and his entire practice was confined to his and our house only. Many other doctors were doing the treatment, but only the doctor used to stay awake with the nurse and Amma, and from the time he came after burying Abba, apart from family love, he also realized the responsibility. Used to run to school to waive the children's fees. Gyanchand's speech was kept closed for the dowry of girls and earrings. No special work of the house would have been done without the opinion of the doctor. When the question of adding two rooms arose by demolishing the western corner, it was demolished with the advice of the doctor.

"Get two rooms above it," he suggested and she agreed. Fajan F. a. I was not ready to take science, Doctor sahib took a pill and the matter got cold. Farida returned home after fighting with her husband, her husband went to the doctor and the next day when her middle daughter-in-law Sheela came after getting married, the quarrel between the nanny also ended. The poor thing ran away from the hospital. The fee is a far away thing, and on the sixth day she came with a kurta-cap.

But today when Chhabba came after fighting, she was received as if a brave man had come after fighting in the field. Everyone wanted to know the description of his bravery and Amma remained dumb in front of many soldiers.

Not from today, but from August 15, when the tricolor flag was hoisted at Doctor Saheb's house and the League flag was hung at his house, his tongue became silent from the same day. A long gap had been built between these flags. Seeing whose terrible depth with her sad eyes, Amma shuddered. Then the number of refugees started increasing. When the elder daughter-in-law came back from Bahawalpur after looting the goods and somehow saving her life, the width of the chasm increased further. Then when Nirmala's in-laws came from Rawalpindi in an unconscious state, the pythons started hissing in this ditch. When the younger sister-in-law sent her child's belly to be seen, Sheela sister-in-law chased the servant away.

And no one started a debate on this matter, all the people of the house stopped completely. Elder sister-in-law forgot her fits of hysteria and started tying clothes. "Don't touch my trunk" Amma's tongue finally opened and everyone was stunned.

"Will you not go?" elder brother said angrily.

Naujmoi, I should go to die in Sindh. Allah Mariyas are roaming around in burqas and pyjamas."

"Then go to Dhaka near Sanjhale.

"There, like a Bengali, she will eat rice with her hands,'' Sanjhali's mother-in-law Mamani Bi taunted.

"Then let's go to Rawalpindi to Farida's place," said Khala.

"Repentance, may Allah not make the soil dirty in the hands of Pak Punjabis. The tongues of the Donjkhis (dwellers of hell) have been erased."

"O aunt, you have got the same problem that I should not know your house sitting under the tree, under the height. Ai Bi, this bitter squirrel has been called by the king. Lo brother sent a trembling elephant.

Chak-chak, he sent a black-black horse, Chak-chak, he kicked the bushes..."

The atmosphere was poisonous, yet something was said. My mother's face lit up a bit.

"Are children talking like this?" Sardar Ali of the National Guard said.

"Those who have no head or feet, what is their intention to stay here and die."

"You people go now, where will I go in my last moments."

"So in the last moments, will you get the infidels made?" Khala Bi used to count the bundles. And in the bundles, ranging from gold and silver ornaments, there was even the powder of bitter gourds, dry fenugreek, and fuller's earth. She was carrying these things with such a heart as if Pakistan's asterling balance would decrease. Three times the elder brother burnt his old bundles and threw them away. But she screams as if if this wealth of hers does not go away, then Pakistan will remain poor. Then they were forced to tie cotton bags to the children who had drowned in the death. Utensils were filled in sacks. The straps of the beds were opened and tied in the jhalangs, and in no time the assembled house was converted into crooked bales and bogs. Now the goods have got feet. Sitting down to relax for a while, he will get up and start dancing again. But Amma's trunk remained as it was.

"Aapa's intention is to die here, so who can stop him," Bhai Sahib said in the end.

And my innocent-faced Amma kept staring at the sky with wandering eyes, as if she herself was asking herself, who will kill her? and when?

"Amma has gone mad. His intelligence is not at his place at this age,'' the middle brother whispered in his ear.

Do they know that the infidels have tortured the innocent even more. If we have our own country, then life and property will be protected."

If my reticent Amma was quick to speak, she would surely have said, "What bird's name is our country? People! Where is that our country? The soil in which I was born, in which I grew up and grew up, is not my country, then how can it be my country where I go and settle down for four days? And then who knows, someone may remove him from there too. Where do you go and establish a new country? Now I am sitting here as a morning lamp.

A small gust came and the country's quarrel ended and this game of devastation and settlement is not even sweet. There was a day when Mughals left their country and came to establish a new country. Today again let's go to settle the country, the country did not become the shoe of the foot, it was not tight enough that I threw it off and then put on the other.'' But Amma remained silent. Now his face seemed more tired than before. As if she is sitting tired after searching for the country for hundreds of years and has lost herself in this search.

Amma remained grounded in her place like the root of a banyan tree remains standing in a storm. But when daughters, daughters-in-law, sons-in-law, grandchildren, grandchildren, the whole crowd came out of the gate and boarded lorries under the protection of the police, their hearts began to break into pieces. With restless eyes, he looked helplessly across the ditch. The house in the middle of the road seemed so far away like a piece of cloud in the dust before the break of dawn.

Roopchand ji's verandah was deserted. One or two children came out, but were dragged back by holding hands, but Amma's tearful eyes looked at their eyes. Those who were getting wet behind the cracks of the door. When the lorries flew away with the whole house blowing dust, then the dead shame on the left side breathed. The door opened and Roopchand ji went out like a thief to look at the empty house in front of him with heavy movements and for a while he kept searching for the faces scattered in the dust and then his unsuccessful eyes wandered back to the earth in a criminal style through this ruined door, sunk in.

When Amma stood in the courtyard after handing over the wealth of her whole life to God, then her old heart withered like a small child in fear as if ghosts would come from all sides and grab her. They took support of the pillars after wandering. When I saw in front, my heart came to my mouth. This was the room that she had entered by crossing in the arms of the bridegroom. It was here that the veil was lifted from the face of the innocent bride with fearful eyes and who had written slavery for life. The first daughter was born in the room in the front corner and the memory of the elder daughter immediately flashed in her heart. His umbilical cord was buried there in the corner. Not one but ten cords were buried. And ten souls took their first breath here. Ten flesh and bone idols, ten human beings had taken birth in this holy room. From this holy womb which he had left today. Like she was an old Kajli whom they all left after getting entangled in thorns. In search of peace and tranquility, The room was still resounding with the cute aa-gu-a-gu of the little celebrities behind the four seers of wheat. She ran into the room spreading her lap, but her lap remained empty. The lap which the brides used to touch with purity and put their hand to the womb was empty today. The room was lying vacant and was belching. She returned furiously. But she could not return the steps of Kalpana that she had left. She staggered into another room. This is where the life partner had turned away after spending fifty years.

The dead body wrapped in a shroud was kept here in front of the door, the whole family was standing around. Those were the lucky ones who left their life partner lying in the lap of their loved ones. Which today became unclaimed like the dead body of Bakfan. The feet replied and sat there where these trembling hands had lit the lamp by the head of Meet for many years. But today there was no oil in the lamp and the wick had also gone out. In front, Roopchand was walking fast in his verandah. They were abusing their wives and children, servants, the government and the deserted road in front of them, bricks and stones, knives and knives, even the whole world was cowering in front of their barrage of abuses. And especially this empty house which was standing across the road was teasing them. As if he himself has played brick by brick with his own hands. He wanted to knock something out of his head. Wanted to throw it away with the help of full power. But after failing, he got annoyed.

Then suddenly their abusing stopped. The walk stopped and he left sitting in the motor.

night fell. When there was silence on the corner of the street, Roopchand ji's wife came inside like a thief from the back door with two serving plates kept upside down. Both the old women silently sat opposite each other. The tongues remained closed but the eyes were saying everything. The food of both the plates was kept as it was. When women gossip about someone, their tongues come out like scissors. But where emotions attacked and the mouth got locked.

Don't know for how long throughout the night the memories kept on attacking suddenly after being alone. Don't know if everything gets destroyed on the way. Nowadays, entire rails are being cut. For 50 years, I had prepared agriculture by irrigating it with blood, and today they left the country in search of a new land in whatever condition it was. The younger daughter-in-law has a whole month, don't know in which forest the mother's house should be built. He left home, family, job, business and left everything. in the new country. The eagles and crows must have left something. Or will they return with a frown and those who come back will get a chance to take root again or not, who knows whether this old lady will survive till their return or not.

Amma had become a stone statue. Where was the sleep, the whole night the old body trembled seeing the mutilated dead bodies of daughters, the naked procession of young daughters-in-law and the rags of grandchildren flying. Don't know when the nap attacked. It appeared as if there was a commotion around the world at the door. Life may not be dear, but even a lamp without oil trembles while extinguishing and a simple death is no less cruel when it appears from above as a ghost of a human being. I have heard that even old people are dragged on the streets by holding their hair. Even the bones are visible by peeling the skin and then the same torments of the world appear, thinking of which the angels of hell turn pale.

The thunder of knocking was increasing. Yamraj was in a hurry and then automatically all the doors started opening, the lights lit up as if someone's voice came from the bottom of the well. Perhaps the elder boy was calling, otherwise it was the voice of the younger and middle one from the ruined corner of the other world. . So everyone got their own country? So early? Sanjhla, small, clearly standing behind him, daughters-in-law carrying children in their arms.

Then suddenly the whole house came alive, all the souls woke up and sorrows started gathering around the mother. Small and big hands started touching with love. Buds suddenly burst forth in the dry lips. All the senses were scattered with happiness and drowned in the darkness.

When the eyes opened, familiar fingers were crawling on the veins.

"Hey sister-in-law, call me just like that, I will come. Why do you create this pretence,'' Roopchand ji was saying from behind the curtain.

"And sister-in-law, get the fees paid today. Look, I have caught your worthless boys from Loni Junction.

The miscreants used to run away from somewhere. They didn't believe even the superintendent of police."

Then tears welled up on the old man's lips. She got up and sat down. Kept silent for a while. Then two hot pearls rolled down and fell on Roopchand ji's wrinkled hand.

*************************************************************

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Ismat Chughtai’s Feminine Perspective That Subverted Patriarchal Literature & Activism

Ismat Chughtai’s non-fiction work, much like her fictional short stories, stands apart from the work of her contemporaries due to the unapologetic exploration of the feminine experience of discrimination, agency, social norms, politics, and desire which was previously not something that Urdu literature had experienced. Historically, much like the literature of most other Indian languages, the world of Urdu short stories, poetry, and essays has been dominated by the male gaze. 

While Ismat Chughtai addresses issues like homosexuality, feminine desire, dowry, class divisions, and access to education in her short stories, concerns that fall under the feminist umbrella, her characters cannot turn around and tell us how they feel about what they experienced and how it impacted them years later.

While she addresses issues like homosexuality, feminine desire, dowry, class divisions, and access to education in her short stories, concerns that fall under the feminist umbrella, her characters cannot turn around and tell us how they feel about what they experienced and how it impacted them years later. Ismat Chughtai can, and that is exactly what she sets out to do every time she writes about why she is who she is, and in the process, she ends up highlighting the importance of the feminine perspective in literature.

Also read: 5 Urdu Stories That Explore The Plight Of Women In Marriages

On The Importance Of Agency

When Ismat Chughtai writes of her childhood, “Shall I tell everyone that I thank God for sheer survival? That I’m glad childhood was temporary, and that it’s over and done with?” (1), the general expectation is that Ismat Chughtai must have dark instances to recount: after all, the language that she chooses to write in is Urdu, which has historically been a tongue of romanticisation, and the subject of childhood itself is one that is usually treated with nostalgia and fondness.

What then, the reader wonders, was so terrible that it can’t be romanticised? But Ismat Chughtai’s point is not about what used to happen when she was a child, it is about who would get to decide it. The reason why Ismat Chughtai does not look at her earlier years with happiness is because she did not feel a sense of agency while the adults around her took decisions for her: even if they were seemingly simple decisions like the instruction that she must bathe everyday. Ismat Chughtai explains, “And now…By God’s grace, everything has changed. I am my own boss-free and independent. I drink tea lying in bed, then I get up to take breakfast.” (1) This fierce love for agency and independence is not even something that adult women are supposed to possess even today, but for Ismat Chughtai, it has been central to her idea of self even as a child. 

On The Theme Of Independence

The theme of independence in Ismat Chughtai’s work cannot be separated from the politics of the time that she was writing in. While political activists and agents that were at the forefront of the Indian freedom struggle focus on India’s identity as separate from Britain in their work, she focuses on the way freedom is defined within India. Ismat Chughtai’s work is therefore regularly interpreted as having Marxist undertones with a feminine perspective because it is through her experience of men being freer than women and the rich being freer than the poor even under the British Raj that she envisions not just a transfer of power when she talks about independence, but a restructuring of it: a political stance that the current wave of intersectional feminism takes.

Ismat Chughtai’s non-fiction work also regularly makes references to the court hearings that she and Manto were regularly summoned for. She mentions political parties and associations by name, and does the unenviable task of pointing out the hypocrisy of ‘The Progressives’ for not openly speaking for the freedom of expression. While Manto was having to defend the content of his stories only, she was having to defend the fact that she, as a woman, was writing hers. Topics of desire and longing were automatically interpreted as more obscene coming from a woman, and Ismat Chughtai dared to address this duality as well. She wrote, “I was put down as a purveyor of sex. It is only in the last couple of years that the younger generation has realized that I am a realist and not an obscene writer.” (1)

On The Male Gaze

Interestingly, Ismat Chughtai herself addressed the issue of the male gaze in her essay titled ‘Aurat’ . Though the term itself was coined by Laura Mulvey in 1975, it is very fitting to see Chughtai’s observations. She writes, “They will make a woman a goddess or heavenly creature, but will be ashamed to call them a friend or comrade.” (2) The structure of this essay is absolutely beautiful as Ismat Chughtai addresses the many things that men have written and said about women over the centuries, and then responds to them with her wit and wisdom. In one brilliant example of her frustration with men writing and preaching about women, she exclaims, “ Another person commands, ‘When a child is breast-fed for the first time, the mother goes red with happiness, and starts trembling.’ Women must have anticipated that the commanding personage is a man, and whatever he has written is based on hearsay. He has undoubtedly never fed a child himself and does not know how painful it is when a child is breast-fed for the first time. The mother who goes red and trembles definitely does not do so in love and mirth; her colour must have changed owing to anguish.” (2)

Ismat Chughtai also calls out the actions and words of real men around her – from M.G. Naidu to Rabindranath Tagore – to highlight the degree to which the patriarchal lens dominates culture. She goes on to write, “ I am saying this because men coin these so-called proverbs for no reason…It is better not to claim to understand women more than the women themselves. “(2)

Ismat Chughtai’s observational writing and essays, therefore, act as a window to see the social and political bearings of being an unapologetic and independent woman during her time. She does not claim or try to be objective, but instead invites the readers into the subjectivity of her feminine artistic experience.

Ismat Chughtai’s observational writing and essays, therefore, act as a window to see the social and political bearings of being an unapologetic and independent woman during her time. She does not claim or try to be objective, but instead invites the readers into the subjectivity of her feminine artistic experience. The arguments and debates that become highlighted in her work are never therefore disjointed from her lived experience. The fast-paced and colloquial nature of her language, even in translation, portrays an urgency and intimacy that she wishes to establish with the reader – which is what makes her work relevant even to the woman of today. 

Also read: How Is Women Writing A Form Of Protest In A Male-Dominated World

• As translated to English by M.Asaduddin for the Penguin Random House compilation ‘Lifting the Veil’, published in 2018.
• As translated to English by Raza Naeem for the Cafe Dissensus essay, ‘Half-Women or Half-Dreams? The Lives and Afterlives of Ismat Chughtai’s ‘New Women’ in India’, published in 2018.

Featured Image Source: TheWire.in

Khushi Bajaj is an intersectional feminist and writer from Lucknow. Her work has previously been featured in two anthologies published by Penguin Random House India, and on the platforms of Gaysi Family and Film Companion . She is passionate about advocating for social justice and believing in the revolutionary capacity of kindness. She can be reached through email ( [email protected] ).

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The Literary Legacy Of Ismat Chughtai: A Bold Voice For Women

In our article today, we delve into the captivating literary legacy of Ismat Chughtai, a trailblazing author who fearlessly spoke up for women’s rights in India. Explore the linguistic and literary treasures of India as we celebrate Chughtai’s powerful voice, which transcended societal norms and challenged patriarchal conventions. From her thought-provoking stories to her bold stance on taboo subjects, Chughtai’s work continues to inspire and empower women across generations. Join us on this journey as we delve into the fascinating world of Chughtai’s writings and explore the impact of her fearless storytelling.

Table of Contents

Early Life and Education

Childhood in badaun.

We, Ismat Chughtai, were born on August 21, 1915, in the small town of Badaun in Uttar Pradesh, India. Our childhood in Badaun was filled with rich cultural traditions and a close-knit community. We were fortunate to have been raised in a household that valued education and encouraged our curiosity for learning.

Education in Aligarh

Our educational journey began in the city of Aligarh, where we enrolled in a local school and excelled in our studies. The vibrant and intellectual environment of the Aligarh Muslim University further fueled our passion for literature and writing. It was during this time that we started exploring various literary genres and honing our skills as a writer.

Influence of progressive thinkers

In Aligarh, we had the privilege of being exposed to the works of progressive thinkers and writers who challenged societal norms and advocated for social change. This exposure had a profound impact on our writing and greatly influenced our perspective on women’s rights and societal injustices. We were inspired to use our pen to challenge the status quo and give voice to the marginalized.

Writing Style and Themes

Bold and controversial themes.

Our writing style was known for being bold and unapologetic. We fearlessly delved into taboo topics and controversial themes, not hesitating to confront societal hypocrisy head-on. From exploring sexuality and desire to critiquing religious and cultural norms, we pushed the boundaries of literature and challenged deep-rooted prejudices.

Realistic portrayal of women

One of the most significant contributions to our writing was the realistic portrayal of women. We depicted female characters with depth, complexity, and individual agency. Our stories often highlighted the struggles and triumphs of ordinary women, giving voice to their experiences and challenging the patriarchal structures that confined them.

Social and political commentary

Our works were not confined to the personal realm, but also delved into larger social and political issues. We used our writing to comment on the inequalities and injustices prevalent in Indian society. Through our stories, we highlighted the plight of the oppressed and underprivileged, shedding light on the need for social reform and justice.

Notable Works

Lihaaf: the quilt.

One of our most famous works, “Lihaaf: The Quilt,” created quite a stir when it was first published in 1941. This short story explored themes of homosexuality and women’s sexuality in a conservative society. It depicted the complex relationships between women, shedding light on the unspoken desires and repression hidden behind closed doors.

Terhi Lakeer

“Terhi Lakeer” is another groundbreaking work that challenged societal norms and gave voice to women’s desires. This story, published in 1946, explored themes of premarital relationships and the expectations placed on women to conform to societal expectations. It resonated with many young women who felt stifled by traditional gender roles and inspired them to question the status quo.

“Chhui Mui” is a collection of short stories that continued our exploration of female sexuality and the constraints imposed on women by society. Published in 1972, it delved into the desires, dreams, and struggles of women from various walks of life. The stories resonated with readers, as they provided a nuanced and empathetic portrayal of the female experience.

Feminism and Activism

Advocacy for women’s rights.

Throughout our life, we fiercely advocated for women’s rights and gender equality. Our writing served as a powerful tool for challenging the patriarchal structures that oppressed women. We believed that women should have agency over their bodies, desires, and aspirations, and we consistently fought for their right to live a life of dignity and freedom.

Challenging societal norms

By fearlessly addressing taboos and questioning societal norms, we challenged the oppressive rules and traditions that limited women’s lives. Our stories depicted women who defied expectations, broke free from societal constraints, and pursued their dreams and desires. We aimed to inspire women to reject the prescribed roles assigned to them and rewrite their own narratives.

Impact on feminist discourse

Our writing had a profound impact on feminist discourse in India. We brought issues such as domestic violence, sexual repression, and gender inequality to the forefront of public consciousness. By giving voice to the experiences of women, we sparked conversations and debates that pushed society to confront its biases and work towards a more inclusive and equitable future.

Controversies and Censorship

Ban on lihaaf.

The publication of “Lihaaf: The Quilt” led to a widespread controversy, resulting in a ban on the story by the British colonial government. The story’s explicit exploration of female desire and homosexuality challenged the conservative social and moral standards of the time. However, the ban only heightened the curiosity and interest surrounding our work, ultimately leading to its enduring popularity.

Legal battles and trials

Our bold writing often landed us in legal battles and trials. We faced charges of obscenity and indecency for our unabashed portrayal of women’s sexuality. Despite the legal challenges, we refused to be silenced and used these trials as platforms to defend freedom of expression and challenge the regressive norms that stifled artistic freedom.

Response from literary community

While our work faced censorship and backlash from conservative sections of society, we received immense support from the literary community. Many prominent writers and intellectuals stood by us, recognizing the value and significance of our writing. Their unwavering support bolstered our determination to continue writing fearlessly and challenging societal taboos.

Awards and Recognition

In recognition of our literary contributions and our relentless pursuit of women’s rights, we were honored with the prestigious Padma Shri award in 1976. This accolade highlighted the impact and significance of our work, solidifying our position as a prominent figure in Indian literature.

Sahitya Akademi Award

We were also the recipient of the Sahitya Akademi Award in 1961 for our collection of stories titled “Chhui Mui.” This recognition further solidified our literary legacy and solidified our place among the most influential writers of our time.

Legacy as an influential writer

Our legacy as an influential writer continues to inspire generations of readers and writers alike. Our fearless exploration of women’s issues and unapologetic portrayal of female desire paved the way for future feminist literature in India. We remain a symbol of courage and resilience, reminding writers and activists of the power of literature to challenge and provoke change.

Impact on Urdu Literature

Pioneering urdu feminist literature.

Our work is often credited with pioneering the genre of feminist literature in the Urdu language. We broke through the existing literary mold by bringing women’s experiences and struggles to the forefront of Urdu literature. Our writing served as a catalyst for other Urdu writers to explore feminist themes and provide representation for women in Urdu literary discourse.

Influence on future writers

Our bold and progressive writing style has influenced numerous future writers across different generations. We inspired a wave of young writers to address women’s issues and challenge societal norms through their work. Our unyielding commitment to authenticity and fearlessness in storytelling continues to shape the voice of contemporary Urdu literature.

Revitalizing Urdu language

Our unique writing style breathed new life into the Urdu language. We used colloquial language, vivid descriptions, and strong female voices in our stories, attracting a wider readership and revitalizing interest in Urdu literature. Our contribution played a significant role in preserving and promoting Urdu as a vibrant and evolving language.

Representation in Cinema and Theatre

Adaptation of chughtai’s works.

Our stories have been adapted for the screen and stage, bringing our characters and narratives to life for a wider audience. Filmmakers and theater artists have recognized the immense power and relevance of our stories, and have sought to capture our bold and thought-provoking themes through various artistic mediums.

Exploring her characters on screen

The adaptations of our works have allowed audiences to experience the depth and complexity of our female characters on screen. From the courageous Begum Jaan in “Lihaaf” to the spirited protagonists of “Terhi Lakeer” and “Chhui Mui,” these adaptations have highlighted the enduring relevance of our stories and the impact of our feminist perspectives.

Relevance in contemporary times

Despite being set in a different era, our stories continue to resonate with contemporary audiences. The struggles and experiences of the women we depicted are still relevant today, reminding us that the fight for gender equality is far from over. Our works serve as a powerful reminder of the enduring power of literature to address and challenge social issues.

Literary Criticism and Analysis

Exploring chughtai’s stylistic choices.

Our writing has been subject to extensive literary criticism and analysis, with scholars exploring our stylistic choices and narrative techniques. From our use of metaphor and symbolism to our portrayal of female sexuality, these analyses shed light on the depth and complexity of our storytelling, offering fresh perspectives on our work.

Interpretation of her symbolism

Our stories often incorporate symbolism that adds another layer of meaning to our narratives. Scholars have delved into the interpretation of symbols within our stories, unveiling hidden messages and commentary on societal norms. The exploration of our symbolism highlights our mastery in crafting stories that go beyond surface-level storytelling.

Reception in academic circles

Academic circles have warmly embraced our works, recognizing their literary significance and their contribution to feminist discourse. Our stories are studied in universities and colleges, with scholars and students analyzing our themes, characters, and writing style. The inclusion of our works in academic curricula further ensures the preservation and appreciation of our literary legacy.

Continuing the Legacy

Influence on young writers.

Our powerful and unapologetic voice continues to inspire young writers today. The themes we tackled, the courage with which we addressed taboos, and the empathy with which we portrayed women have left an indelible mark on the literary landscape. We have paved the way for future generations of writers to fearlessly tackle women’s issues and challenge societal norms.

Importance of Chughtai’s voice

Our voice remains as important today as it was during our time. We continue to remind society of the struggles women face and the urgent need for gender equality. Our writings serve as a testament to the power of literature to ignite change and provoke conversations that challenge oppressive beliefs and systems.

Sustaining the conversation on women’s issues

The conversation on women’s issues that we ignited through our writing must continue. Our legacy serves as a reminder that there is still much work to be done in achieving gender equality. As readers, writers, and activists, we must carry forward the torch that Ismat Chughtai lit and ensure that women’s voices and experiences remain central in the narrative of societal progress.

Indian Culture Team

by Alex Haley

• Roots Summary

Roots tells the story of Kunta Kinte -- a young man taken from The Gambia when he was seventeen and sold as a slave -- and seven generations of his descendants in the United States. Kunta has a typically difficult but free childhood in his village, Juffure. His village subsists on farming, and sometimes they do not have enough food, as the climate is harsh. Yet Kunta is surrounded by love and traditions. One morning when he is cutting wood to make a drum, he is captured. After a nightmarish journey across the Atlantic, he is sold in Annapolis to John Waller . Kunta tries to run away four times, and after the fourth attempt part of his right foot is cut off.

Kunta is then bought by his master's brother, William Waller . He becomes a gardener and eventually his master's buggy driver. He marries Bell , a slave in 'the big house', and together they have a daughter, Kizzy. Kizzy's childhood as a slave is as happy as her parents can make it. She is close friends with John Waller's daughter Anne, and she rarely experiences cruelty. Yet her life changes when she forges a traveling pass for her beau Noah, a field hand; when he is caught and confesses, she is sold away from her family at the age of 16.

Kizzy is bought by Tom Lea , a farmer and chicken fighter who rose from poor beginnings. He rapes and impregnates her, and she gives birth to George, who will later be known as Chicken George when he becomes his master (and father's) cockfighting trainer. He is a philanderer known for expensive taste and alcohol, as much as for his iconic bowler hat and green scarf. He marries Matilda and they have six sons and two daughters, including Tom, who becomes a very good blacksmith. Tom marries Irene , a half-Indian woman.

When Tom Lea loses all his money in a cockfight, he sends Chicken George to Europe for several years to pay off the debt, and he sells most of the rest of the family to the Murrays. The Murrays are generally kind masters who treat the family well. When the Civil War ends, however, the Murray slaves decide that rather than sharecrop for their former masters, they will move from North Carolina to to the town of Henning, Tennessee, which is looking for new settlers.

They eventually become a prosperous family. Tom's daughter Cynthia marries Will Palmer , a successful lumber businessman, and their daughter Bertha is the first in the family to go to college. There she meets Simon Haley , who becomes a professor of agriculture. Their son is Alex Haley , the author of the book. Alex relates his journey back to Africa to find his roots and discover as much about his family as he can. Eventually Alex goes to Juffure, the very village that Kunta came from 200 years before.

Roots Questions and Answers

The Question and Answer section for Roots is a great resource to ask questions, find answers, and discuss the novel.

Roots: Worksheet#1

Captain Thomas Davies is the captain of the slave ship.

Why does Mingo spend so much of his time alone?

Mingo has a different relationship with the master that sets him apart, as he is valued for his ability to train the chicken to fight. Mingo also values his privacy, and in his position, wants to keep his secrets to himself. He doesn't want anyone...

Why do you think Kunta trains Kizzy in the tradition of a Mandinka warrior? Why does he give her beads when she finishes her training?

I am unable to find the answer to this question in the novel, Roots. Do you have a chapter number?

Study Guide for Roots

Roots study guide contains a biography of Alex Haley, literature essays, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis.

• About Roots
• Character List

Essays for Roots

Roots essays are academic essays for citation. These papers were written primarily by students and provide critical analysis of Roots by Alex Haley.

• Power Relationships Within Roots

Lesson Plan for Roots

• About the Author
• Study Objectives
• Common Core Standards
• Introduction to Roots
• Relationship to Other Books
• Bringing in Technology
• Notes to the Teacher
• Related Links
• Roots Bibliography

Wikipedia Entries for Roots

• Introduction
• Characters in Roots
• Family tree

The Criterion: An International Journal in English

Bi-Monthly, Peer-reviewed and Indexed Open Access eJournal ISSN: 0976-8165

Sexuality: A Path to Self-Actualization in Ismat Chughtai’s “The Quilt”

Shagufta Naaz Farooqui

Assistant Professor Techwords, WGVS,

College of Engineering, Roorkee

“It is we sinful women

Who are not awed by the grandeur of those Who wear gowns

Who don’t sell our lives Who don’t bow our heads

Who don’t fold our hands together.” (Ahmad 1991:31)

These powerful lines a sort of manifesto of feminist writing, claim for a new kind of emotional gratification which is physical as well as spiritual. These lines have been used as means to challenge male-dominated society, even with an awareness of every day’s compromised and defeats. Triggering the manifesto geared towards asserting woman identity; these lines arouse public opinion of channelizing will and motivation to influence the conscience of society.

This paper is an attempt at demonstrating the close relationship between the agency of gender and culture as mirrored in the story ‘ The Quilt ’ by Ismat Chughtai, the first feminist writer of Urdu fiction. My choice of the topic was determined by the increased interest of gender issues in South Asian Literature. First, it will study the ways in which gender is regarded at the theoretical level and at the level of everyday representations and its influence on behavior, attitudes and other components of human being. Second, trying to capture the musing of feminist perspective, it will certainly interrogate the meaning of identity for a woman. Through the experiences of a woman in patriarchal ideology, it will also explore the meaning of sexuality and its connection to self- actualization and self- realisation.

In an Indian society where nursery rhymes fed to generation of young minds, portray the lopsidedness of a culture in which men and women have been segregated. It forms the basis of the patriarchal attitude which has been reinforcing discrimination against women. This gender based difference turns male and female (i.e. sex) into masculine and feminine (i.e. gender). Sex is natural but gender is socio-cultural and manmade. The difference is based on the words ‘nature and nurture.’ Because of this male is considered as a synonym of ‘power,’ ‘strength’ and ‘domination’ while the female is confined to the words as ‘pretty,’ ‘beauty’ ‘delicate’ etc. The concept of gender divides human beings on the basis of sex- difference. This gender aspect imposes more restriction on women in socio- cultural practice, and makes them subordinate, voiceless instrumental in procreation. Both Butler and Beauvoir assert that gender is a process which has neither origin nor end, so that it’s something that we ‘do’ rather than ‘are’. Butler claims that gender is a discursive construct, something that is produced, and not a ‘natural fact’ (Salih 2007: 51).

[. . .] gender is ‘unnatural’, so that there is no necessary relationship between one’s body and one’s gender. In that case, it will be possible to have a designated  ‘female’  body  and  not  to  display  traits  generally  considered

‘feminine’: in other words, one may be a ‘masculine’ female or a ‘feminine’ male. (46)

By using the word matrix, Butler characterized gender as a ‘structure’, a ‘mould’ or a ‘grid’ in which subject is ‘cast’ (52). Kate Millet, the second wave feminist remarked that gender is a psychological concept, which refers to culturally acquired sexual identity ( Dutta 2011:1). Gender differences are not natural but they are framed by the cultural components of the society. From the moment children are born, their world is prepared along gender related roles. As we grow up, ideas of masculinity and femininity become central to the way we think about ourselves. (1).

In Lives of Girls and Women, a novel by Alice Munro, the narrator called Del Jordan is surprised by an article written by a New York psychiatrist which clearly points towards the discrimination between the sexes. According to him looking at the full moon, “ the boy thinks of the universe, its immensity and mystery”; the girl thinks, “ I must wash my hair” ( Munro1971: 150).

Beauvoir accepts that there are certain minor physiological and biological differences between women and men [. . .]. In fact, Beauvoir recognises sexual difference, but does not accept that the valuing of these differences, between women and men should justify the oppression of women and their traditional status as second-class citizens in patriarchal society (Tidd 2007: 52).

This is in turn of gender discrimination; feminist consciousness emerged as a spirit of the age and has become a global trend. No, doubt, in the beginning, it was an individual trend, but it has now become a movement or school-of- thought, popular among the modern sensibility. By feminist consciousness, we mean an awareness of modern movement in this male- governed society where all values are male- oriented. Feminism Vs Radical feminism originates as a movement against the patriarchy and other social systems which perpetuate the domination of one group over another. As a component of the women’s liberation, it favours for sexual rights for the women. It delves into the factors contributing to means for emancipation of women. At this point, lesbian feminism takes the view that, if women continue to have sexual relation with men, they would forever remain in the oppressive heterosexual bondage. Therefore, it’s better for them to create distinct communities based on the principle of sexual love among women themselves. (Mittapalli 2007: 66)

Towards the homosexuality Smith states that the history of (homo-) sexuality is thus a history of imaginary figures which can be reapproriated and rearticulated with positive messages. He explains:

[. . .] attitudes towards homosexual behavior are , that is to say, culturally specifies and varied enormously across different cultures and through various historical periods [. . .] the physical acts might be similar, but their social implications are often profoundly different[. . .] marks the crucial change, both because it provided a new subject of social observations and speculation, and because it opened up the possibility of new modes of self- articulation.(Smith 2005: 98)

While Witting claims that lesbian is a concept that is beyond the categories of sex and calls for the destruction of heterosexuality as a social system, Butler argues that sex and

gender are discursive constructed and that there is no such position of implied freedom beyond discourse ( 48). But Adrienne Rich has called “compulsory heterosexuality’- the dominant order in which men and women are required or even forced to be heterosexual. (49). Adrienne Rich, a distinguished American lesbian feminist poet, emphasizes the need to establish this new order (lesbianism) to subvert the heterosexual institutions which are hostile to women. She further believes that if life confronts us with the specter of incompleteness, it also opens for us the doors leading to great possibilities. ( Mittapalli 2007:68)

On this point, narrating the story of Begum Jan in ‘ The Quilt’ (Lihaf, 1942) , Ismat Chughtai definitely raises this question of sexual discrimination with frankness in the social consciousness. While exploring other dimensions of social and existential realities, she explores the idea of her New Woman in the fantasies of gender and sexual conflicts where patriarchy nurtures gender concept legitimizing hierarchy of the male and repressive sexuality of the female. For women writer this ambition connotes the threatening possibility that men will criticize her “sexually appealing” and “unwomanly” ( Dutta 2011: 1). Helene Cixous, the French Philosopher urges women in The Laugh of the Medusa :

“Women must write herself: must write about women and bring women to writing, from which they have been driven away as violently as from their bodies- for the same reasons, by the same law, with the same fatal goal” (320).

Fiction writing is also an important field and it can be traced in modern Urdu fiction. Ismat Chughtai, one of the pioneers of Urdu fiction, was most courageous and controversial woman writer of the twentieth century. Often perceived as a feminist writer, Chughtai uncovers the female sexuality (Chughtai 2009: I). She had a deep and abiding preoccupation with the lot of women, their cultural status and role in Indian society. Her stories abound with nubile young girls, middle aged matrons, widows. She enabled us to see that is possible for women to write like that we should not just be relying on men writing about women but women themselves should be writing about their lives and their feelings. Ismat Chughtai’s novels and short stories portray the home as a site of myriad forms of oppression for women and of violations of contemporary Muslim ideals of the family in North India. In so doing Chughtai challenged the central tenet of Muslim nationalism, the idea of the family as the means of preserving Muslim culture and virtue. A socio-political critique of reform attitudes, Chughtai’s work responds to the ways in which the behavior of the Muslim housewife was used to refute Hindu and British colonial encroachment on Indo-Muslim culture.( Rajkumar 2008: 36)

Chughtai herself admits: “Purdah had already been imposed on me, but my tongue was a naked sword. No one could restrain it” (Chughtai 2000: 34). According to Tahira Naqvi, Ismat was “unselfconscious feminist.” Ismat was doing all the things that we imagine feminist or women who are truly liberated (would) do but she didn’t think she was doing anything extraordinary. That was the way she was. She never shied away from voicing her views on relationship, men, love, sex, religion and traditions at any forum. Gender was an issue that Chughtai tackled well. ‘ The Quilt ’ reveals a discourse of self consciousness about women’s identity. In ‘ The Quilt ,’ sexuality occupies a central position in the exploration of identity, and functions in a variety of important way, both thematically and formally. The

strength needed in the battle for self and the journey of discovering one’s root is vividly depicted in ‘ The Quilt .’ Cultural heritage and patriarchal ideology also occupy as the main factors in the story:

“Having married Begum Jan, he tucked her away in the house with his other and promptly forgot her. The frail, beautiful Begum wasted away in anguished loneliness. One did not know when Begum Jan’s life began whether it was when she committed the mistake of being born or when she came to the Nawab’s house as his bride, climbed the four – poster bed and started counting her days. (Chughtai 2009:14)

Ismat Chughtai tries to juggle the life of a woman, which is not a simple task. ‘ The Quilt’ is the story which confirms the opinion of the writers on her role and importance as a writer and as a human being. Tahira Naqvi, the translator of her works states:

She developed the marking of a feminist in the early forties when the concept of feminism, was in its nascent stage, even in the west; she spoke her mind unreservedly; she was afraid of no one, nothing; she was a rebel. (Naqvi 1993: 37)

In 1942, two months before her marriage, Ismat wrote ‘ The Quilt’ which created quite a stir then and continues to be considered one of the most controversial works ever produced by a woman writer (39). When it was discovered that the writer was a woman, the story created “the most amazing furor, states Naqvi. The subject matter was bold innovative, rebellious and unabashedly realistic in both, its portrayal of characters and its analysis of human condition (40). In her autobiography, Kaghzi Hai Pairahan, Ismat expresses:

When I wrote “Lihaf”, there was a veritable explosion. I was torn to shreds in the literary arena. Some people also wielded their pens in my support. Since then I have been branded an obscene writer. No one bothered about the things I had written before or after “Lihaaf”. I was put down as a purveyor of sex. It is only in the last couple of years that the younger generation has recognized that I am a realist and not an obscene writer. [. . .] I am still lebelled as the writer of Lihaaf. The story had brought me so much notoriety that I got sick of life. It had become the proverbial stick to beat me with and whatever I wrote afterwards got crushed under its weight [. . .] “Lihaaf” had made my life miserable. Shahid and I had so many fights over the story that life had become a virtual hell. (Ismat 1999: 35)

‘The Quilt ’ considers how Chughtai envisages sexuality as embodied specifically in women’s bodies and how this embodiment is expressed through her particular use of figurative language to speak of the female body and female sexuality. She expresses the sexual desire of a new married Begum Jan as “despite renewing the cotton filling in her quilt each year Begum Jan continued to shiver night after night” (5-6). Here, in style typical of her, Chughtai raises important questions on marriage as an economic and social enterprise, the socially constructed sub- ordinate role of women in marriage, her sexual fantasies and frustration and her subsequent sense of loneliness. The Nawab “installing her in the house along with furniture” (5) highlights how the institution of marriage commoditised women and reduced  her to the object  of a mere business transaction,  instead of a “united and

inseparable pair” (Sukthankar 2007: 143). The marriage between Begum Jan and Nawab presents the social taboo of having an unmarried woman in the house. Even the Nawab, irrespective of his immense power and formidable position had to marry although the opposite sex had no appeal for him owing to his “mysterious hobby” (6). In the process, he imprisoned the poor Begum Jan to the repressive customs which marriage and society forced a woman to comply with. However, while the Nawab continued his homosexual exploits, Begum Jan was condemned to a life of confinement and subjugation. As Arundhati Roy depicted in “ The God of Small Things” a very realistic picture of the contemporary society where “women are supposed to be secondary sex, treated as a mere commodity not as a life partner of man”(Jahan 2006:44). Begum Jan is also a victim of sexual paralysis experiences, disillusionment in sex and suffers a silent humiliation, which happens only after marriage, a social approval. Chughtai lends credence to this argument in an interview with Afsar Farooqui in Ismat: Her Life and Times , “I’m not against marriage as such but against its extraneous ramifications. When we trust each other why can’t two people actually have faith and be with each other? (Negi 2003: 31)

The Nawab had no “time to spare from the boys to look at her” (6) and he would not let her “go visit other people” (6). All of her fantasies related to marriage, husband and new home were shattered. The life was tasteless for her as Nawab “totally forget her presence” (6). “One is not born, but rather becomes a women” (Beauvoir 1974: 301). The sentence with which Beauvoir initiates a discussion of childhood could be said of all the women characters in Chughtai’s works, include Chughtai itself (Patel 2001: 352). ‘ The Quilt ,’ indeed a profound comment by Chughtai on the terrible plight of women under patriarchal society that subjects the female race to discrimination and oppression. (Web)

Geeta Patel’s reading of the story’s subversive qualities recognizes dual homosocial environments. She reads Chughtai’s story as “a convert incursion into the home by a woman writer rather than in an acceptable display [. . .].It called into question not only the ways in which the home/zenana had been produced but also the acceptable alternative representations of sexuality” (Patel 2001: 187).

Female sexuality is not there ‘naturally’ from the start but its formed by early experiences and adjustments and Fraud shows the process of its being produce and constructed (Barry 2008: 131). Chughtai fiction is the fiction of the repeated traumatic, and in the ways in which she reiterates loss her work participates in the kinds of questions raised by Sigmund Freud [. . .] (Patel 2001: 352). The story ‘ The Quilt’ also brings at how female sexuality is never paid heed, her need and desires are not acknowledged even after marriage (Web). The Nawab never bothered to acknowledge the sexual expectation of his wife, who lay confined and neglected. The very fact that the willfully imprisoned a young girl to meet the social obligation of marriage, never bothering about how he would never be able to fulfill her sexual needs. How such inequality and oppression can lead a woman into a sense of complete loneliness, detachment and depression is another important aspect. While the Nawab fulfilled his homosexual desires, Begum Jan, peeping from the chinks in the drawing room,” felt she was rolling on a bed of live coals” (6). She was heart- broken and her self- esteemed was destroyed. Gripped by sense of failure, Begum Jan sinks to a pitiable condition and becomes “a bundle of regret and despondence” (6). So Chughtai shows the

frustration of a married woman in structure in which they function as role fulfiller rather than as people. (Rajkumar 2005:178).

But Chughtai does not leave Begum Jan in this state of complete desolation and immense depression but allows her the agency to make a bold ‘choice’ of homosexuality in indulging with the maid servant Rabbu. Rich believed that this womanly power would usher in a social order and a new “civilization” (68). Adrienne Rich discusses:

Constant and true love for women and her contempt for male dominated culture which caused failure of communication “between men and women on both personal and cultural level” compel her to conceive of a visionary community of women as an alternative to the contemporary social order ruled by the men. She calls it “the lesbian bond” or “the lesbian continuum”. (Mittapalli 2007: 67)

Thus Chughtai leads Begum Jan towards a path of alleviation where she can remove her loneliness through an unconventional manner an intimate relationship with a female servant (179).

Rabbu arrived at the house and came to Begum Jan’s rescue just as she was starting to go under her emaciated body. Suddenly she began to fill out. Her cheeks became rosy; beauty, as it were [. . .] Rabbu had no other household duties. Perched on the four – poster bed she always massaging Begum Jan’s head, feet or some other parts of her anatomy. ( Chughtai 1994:6-7)

Once, when Rabbu went on leaves for some task, Begum Jan became restless so she called the girl of nine years, her relative and the narrator of this story. By making the pretend of itching on her back she felt the touch of the girl’s small hands on her fleshy body parts and fulfilled her need:

Here… a little below the shoulder . . .that’s right . . . Ah! What pleasure . .

.’she her satisfaction between sensuous breat. ‘ A little further . . .’ Begum Jaan instructed though her hands could easily reach that spot. But she wanted me to stroke it. How proud I felt! ‘Here . . . oh, oh, You’re tickling me . . . Ah! She smiled. I chatted away as I continued to massage her. ( Chughtai 2007:19)

Although, Psychoanalysts always defines women negatively, for Freud, men are seen as active agents while women are define in terms of passivity (Homer 2005: 98). Freud described femininity as a “dark continent” and never resolved the question ‘what does woman want’? (97) On the other hand Foucault suggests the “sexually diseased “male” and the “aggressive” female (Smart 2002: 100). Assad expresses:

By sexuality, I mean not only the biological instinct towards sex, “mere genital, but a social construction created by and through the physical and social interaction of the individual with those around him or her. (Assad 1992: 10)

Sexuality thus bears the imprint of the culture in which it’s developed and is historically specific. Foucault describes its sex “put into discourse, a discourse practice (11- 12). Chughtai reveals a central preoccupation with the varied ways in which sexuality can function as a force that controls and inhibits individuals, but can also empower them. Although Chughtai’s ‘New Woman’ abides by the man- made rules under patriarchal authority and possesses the womanly virtues of shame and sexual restraint but when she asserts her sexual rights, she does not like to be a chattel property. For her sexual satisfaction, she rejects customs, traditions and other male framed rules in her private space and asserts her sexual right whether by unnatural (lesbian) way. As a detached observer and an attached woman activist, Chughtai gives a realistic touch to Begum Jan’s suffering and presents homosexuality (lesbian relationship) as her escape from loneliness.

Thomas Laquer in Making Sex writes, “Sex is like being human is contextual and it’s different and sameness exhibited in men and women, is interpreted according to cultural demands” (16). Likewise literature is not simply an “imperfect mirror” of sexuality but actually constitutes the problem of sexuality by perpetuating and generating sexual differences through representation. In ‘ The Quilt,’ the negative aspect for women sexuality and power are balanced by positive representation of empowerment. Chughtai’s complex representations of women’s sexuality does not simply mirror of social phenomena but demands equality for women and men in the realm of sexuality in which both are active and unabashedly claim their pleasures and powers. Begum Jan in the story ‘ The Quilt,’ isn’t exception of this rule.

The major interrelationship of the internal and external, reality and imagination – is a major feature of her fiction. Elements such sexual desire, men and love frequently haunt Chughtai’s female protagonists’ fantasy and imagination, suggest them the rise of the existential search for self identity. ‘The Quilt’ concerned with a woman’s quest for self, an exploration into the female psyche and understanding of the suffering of married life. The focus is not on uncovering the material and ideological specificities that constitute a group of women as “powerless” (Mohanty 34). Instead, this analysis reveals how control of women’s mobility and sexuality challenged national and ethnic conceptions of social orders. These texts demonstrate how the maternal, domestic, and sexual elements of a woman’s private life engendered her position within Muslim society. ( Rajkumar 2008 : 125)

The image of an elephant is used throughout the story as a metaphor for the physical relationship the narrator observes between the two women. This metaphor becomes a figurative refusal to label these women’s relations: “In the depth of winter whenever I snuggle into my quilt, my shadow on the wall seems to sway like an elephant. My mind begins a mad race into the dark crevasses of the past; memories come flooding in” (Chughtai 1996: 5). The symbol of the elephant is a deliberate choice on Chughtai’s part to underscore the unnamed relationship that will unfold in the story. The image of an elephant in doors and underneath a quilt becomes a metaphor for the nature of the fantastical relationship between the two women. That a landowner’s wife would be physically or even socially intimate with her servant was outside the borders of polite society at the time the story was written. Rajkumar expresses that Chughtai’s subtely is manifest in her choice of the story’s narrator. It’s  told  through  the  narrator’s  childhood  reflections  and  thus  handles  the  physical

relationship  between  Begum  Jan  and  her  maid  Rabbu,  delicately,  as  the  innocent observation:

“ I am scared,” I whimpered. “ Get back to sleep [. . .].

“ May I come to you, Begum Jaan?”

“No child . . . Get back to sleep” [. . .]. Then I heard two people whispering. Oh God, who was this other person? I was really afraid.

“Begum Jan [. . .] I think a thief has entered the room.” “Go back to sleep, child[. . .] there’s no thief.”

This was Rabbu voice. I drew the quilt over my face and fell asleep. (Chughtai 1994: 7-8)

Gopinath points out that the narrator’s ability to see but not name empowers the relationship between the Begum and her maid. Their homoerotic desire for women is shielded from categorizing or labeling. It exists outside the heteronormative structures used to describe desire. The non-naming of the space beneath the quilt also served a practical purpose when Chughtai was tried for writing obscene literature. The fact that the relationship between the women was not defined was critical to clearing Chughtai of all charges. The focus of the obscenity trial was rendering of female-female desire; the objections to female homoeroticism underscore “the danger associated with the expression of female bodily desire.” These two women engage their sexuality outside of either category of male formulated uses for female sexuality. Their failure to conform to male sexual fantasies or sanitized versions of womanhood consolidates personal control of their desire. (Rajkumar 2008: 64)

Chughtai complicates the idea that domestic instability arises externally; she uncovers conflicting identities originating from within the home. Chughtai is interested in both the literal spaces women physically occupy and the figurative spaces they fulfill in familial hierarchies. Her female characters come from disparate household environments. In some cases, their struggles lead to successes, while in others, the results are disastrous failures. In explorations of imperfect domesticity, Chughtai resists exhortations for proper Muslim womanhood (42). Dutta states that “the core of the problem for women today is not sexual but a problem of identity – a stunting or evasion of growth” that’s perpetuated by what Betty Friedan calls “the feminine mystique”

To conclude, Chughtai is concerned not only with the manner in which men treat women, but also with the manner in which women conspire to undermine other positions (Rajkumar 2005:166). By understanding women’s struggles against the oppressive institutions of her time, she brings to her fiction an understanding of the female psyche that’s unique; no other Urdu fiction writer has approached women’s issues with the same degree of sensitivity and concern (Naqvi 1993: 42). At the center of this home was the figure of the Muslim housewife. The Muslim housewife was the perpetuator of cultural values and tradition, and the visible marker of difference through the practices of veiling and gender segregation. In ‘ The Quilt ,’ the abnormal romance such as ‘lesbian relationship’ is the mean for the woman to find escape from the familial and social repressions and is the expressions of female psychological desires. It presents that women also need more than the food or clothes. They also have sexual desires for which they have fantasies. Thus she brought the idea  of  female  sexuality  and  self-actualisation  in  her  works  and  restored  a  female

perspective  by  decentralizing  this  male-centered  perspective  and  criticized  the  way  of marginalizing the women.

Works cited

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Assad, Mavis. Female Sexuality in the Fiction of Alice Munro . Thesis. U Concordia, 1992. Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory. New York: Manchester University Press, 2008.

Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. New York: Vintage Books, 1974. Chughtai, Ismat . Lifting the Veil . Trans. M. Asaduddin. Penguin Books: 2009.

• – – . Chughtai, Ismat. Kaghazi Hai Pairahan. Trans. M. Asaduddin. “ Autobiographical Fragments.” Manushi. no. 110 (1999): .
• – – . The Quilt and Other Stories. Trans. Tahira Naqvi. Delhi: Kali for Women, 1996.

Cixous, Helene. “The Laugh of Medusa in Mary Eagleton” (ed.) Feminist Literary Theory .

2nd ed. Oxford Blackwell.

Dutta, Juri. “ Gender Roles in Literature with special Reference to Bhabendernath Saikia’s Antaeep” Muse India . No.36, 2011.

Foucault, Michael. The History of Sexuality . Trans. Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage, 1980. Gopinath, Gayatri. “Homo-Economics: Queer Sexualities in a Transnational Frame .”

Burning Down the House: Recycling Domesticity, Ed. Rosemary Marangoly George, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998. 102-123.

Homer Sean. Jacques Lacan . Routledge: 2005.

Jahan, Rahmat. ‘Voices of the Marginalized in Shashi Deshpande’s The Dark Hold Terror. And Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things’. The Atlantic Literary Review . Vol 7. No.3, 2006.

Mittapalli, Rajeshwar and V. Rajasekhar. “Burining together in the Snow: Orchestration of Lesbian Ideology in Adrienne Rich’s Poetry”. The Atlantic Review. Vol. 8. No.1. 2007.s

Mohanty, Chandra Talpade. “Cartographies of Struggle: Third World Women and the Politics  of  Feminism”. Third  World  Women  and  the  Politics  of  Feminism .  Ed. Chandra   Talpade  Mohanty,Ann Russo, and Lourdes Torres. Bloomington: Indiana University Press,   1991.

Munro, Alice. Lives of Girls and Women. Ontario: MC Graw- Hill Ryerson Limited: 1971. Naqvi, Tahira. ‘Ismat Chughtai: A Tribute’. The Annual of Urdu Studies. Vol 8. 1993.

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Patel, Geeta. ‘An Uncivil Woman: Ismat Chughtai’. Review and Essay. The Annual of Urdu Studies. Vol 6. 2001.

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Rajkumar, Mohanlakshmi. ‘Dismantling Patriarchal Marriage in the Quilt and Other Stories’. The Annual of Urdu Studies. Vol 20. 2005.

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Ismat Chughtai’s Quilt and Queer Desire

Long before India decriminalized homosexuality—in September 2018—the short story “Lihaaf” sparked outrage and a lawsuit for its depiction of same-sex, intergenerational intimacy.

In the West, the closet remains the go-to metaphor for a place where a person hides to avoid disclosing their queer identity. This image cannot be universalized; spatial and sexual politics are not uniform. Take the case of India, where the identification and visibility that accompany “coming out” were completely implausible prior to September 6, 2018; until then homosexuality was illegal under the draconian Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code. Amidst the tumult of exclusion, an alternative material sphere—the quilt—was conceived. It concealed non-normative sexualities without curtailing them. Indeed, the writer Ismat Chughtai carefully wove one during the colonial 1940s with “Lihaaf” (“The Quilt”), an audacious real-life inspired Urdu short story that challenged heteronormativity, and in the process caused great controversy.

Thanks to her gritty and mischievous tales, Ismat Chughtai (1911-91) remains an unparalleled figure in South Asian literature. Writing in an utterly unstable and complex cultural milieu wherein the colonial subcontinent transitioned to independent nation-states through brutal partitions , Chughtai, in her own distinctive style, captured the intricacies of gender and sexuality. Against the orthodoxies that trapped Indian women into honor codes of respectability, she drew from her own personal experiences and embroidered into her texts deviant female voices that otherwise remained muted in dominant discourse.

Published in 1942, Chughtai’s love story is set within the nooks and corners of an aristocratic household in colonial India. An intimate tale, it centers around Begum Jan, the wife of a wealthy pederastic Nawab (prince), and her queer relationship with a female maidservant, Rabbu. Begum Jan’s unnamed niece is the adult narrator who chronicles the relationship through her childhood gaze, adopted from Chughtai’s very own. Having been sent to her aunt’s house for a brief stay, the young niece shares Begum Jan’s room; the hope is that the girl will learn appropriate feminine comportment from her aunt. Yet once there, she is witness to the unexpected: the exchange of sensuous massages between her aunt and Rabbu throughout the day and, at night, under a quilt’s cover. The eroticism sparks the girl’s curiosity even while she does not understand it. Sounds that escape from under the quilt often wake her at night and she comes to associate these deviant happenings with an elephant-shaped spectral figure. On one particular night, the girl inspects the goings-on and catches an interstitial glimpse underneath the quilt. She never spells out for the reader what she sees, leaving us only with astonishment at her discovery.

In the midst of the tale, the narrator herself experiences fright and fascination in her own first encounter with desire. When Rabbu is away, the Begum makes a sexual advance on the girl. While the child is overwhelmed, Chughtai’s retrospective prose makes the narrator’s own attraction toward the Begum discernable. The ambivalence that colors this encounter and their relationship endures; the peculiar phantom of the elephant reappears every time the narrator wraps herself in a quilt thereafter—even into adulthod.

Embroidering these elephantine shapes, Chughtai creates a liminal realm where the past and present, the real and spectral blur. Beyond hegemonic categorizations, it is here that non-normative desire can safely emerge. Chughtai plays with “the elephant in the room” idiom deliberately. Her narratorial persona doesn’t address what the aberrant elephant stands for, tactfully shielding the real-life inspirations for her characters from criminalization. Yet the elephant’s savage presence cannot be denied. Chughtai strategically intertwines discretion with directness, and keeps desire visceral, if invisible, throughout her story.

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Chughtai’s choice of quilt as metaphor for queerness differs from the sanitization of a closet. The latter implies too rigid a terminology for the complex and plural interpersonal configurations of class, gender, and generation that are interwoven in Chughtai’s South Asian queer space. Economic and class differences between Rabbu and Begum Jan result in a sharp difference in mobility. A subaltern Rabbu can leave home; by contrast, the Nawab prohibits Begum Jan “ to go out anywhere .” Gender politics within the text further show how even within this house that is her “prison,” Begum Jan is further segregated to the zenana (the female space of a house). To use the phrase “coming out,” in terms of sexuality, when she literally cannot even step outside her home would be almost ironic.

Beyond the tale of “Lihaaf,” Chughtai wrote in her autobiography, Kaghazi Hai Pairahan , about meeting the Begum on whom she based her short story again as an adult. Here she states that after divorcing the Nawab and marrying a second time, the Begum had a son. Begum Jan managed to get rid of the Nawab, but she needed to be married to a man to maintain her social status. The institution of heterosexual marriage thus couldn’t be rejected completely in Chughtai’s milieu. Encounters such as those between Begum Jan and Rabbu had to remain inconspicuous and ambiguous. Chughtai’s quilt could facilitate that—obscuring intimacy, thwarting its reification.

What is also compelling is Chughtai’s reaction to seeing Begum’s child in person. “ I felt he was mine as well. A part of my mind, a living product of my brain. An offspring of my pen ,” she wrote. Chughtai’s cross-generational dynamic with Begum Jan forms a dense palimpsest wherein any singular interpretation on the nature of their relationship falls short. While some readers might interpret the Begum’s advances toward Chugtai as exploitation or abuse, the writer’s anecdote offers an alternative reading that invokes literary procreation. Not only as the author and the narrator, but as the retrospective witness as well, Chughtai shares a proximity with the non-normative desire satisfied in and with Begum Jan’s body. Through a blend of remembering and writing, her childhood lens enables her to be both voyeuristic, relishing acts of queer intimacy, and introspective, noting the horror of this transgression.

Unsurprisingly, “Lihaaf” caused a scandalous uproar in the subcontinent. It was charged with obscenity under Section 292 and was dragged into court in 1944. In Kaghazi Hai Pairahan Chughtai quotes a witness who attempted to prove her story illicit: “ It’s objectionable for [good] girls to collect lovers [and] it is reprehensible for an educated lady from a decent family to write about them. ” The Puritanism that permeated British culture dictated mores in its colonial outposts. The Empire’s modus operandi was colonial control through censorship , particularly after the 1857 revolt against the British East India Company.

Chughtai faced disdain on a local level as well—she received hate letters and threats of divorce from her husband, while relatives and acquaintances pestered her to apologize. Budding patriarchal nationalism in India dictated that the ideal middle-class woman should be restricted, writes Partha Chatterjee, to “ the spiritual qualities of self-sacrifice, benevolence, devotion, religiosity, and so on. ” In doing so, it became complicit with the purity-obsessed misogyny of British masters.

Thus, while the charge against Chughtai technically centered around semantic vulgarity, the socio-political scandal predominantly originated from moral censure and orthodox disapproval of the text’s unapologetic depiction of female desire and its very non-normative nature. Chughtai could only be charged with obscenity since hers was a literary text, but the same-sex intimacy that her text evoked was “unnatural” under Section 377. In India, where there was no precedent to it, this law was introduced under the conservative British regime that wanted to teach “ a slovenly tropical country to stand up straight ,” writes Alexander Bubb. Homophobia permeated into the dominant discourse even post-independence because queer sexualities were perceived as a threat to the heteronormative family structure. This structure became sacrosanct, almost metonymic, to the newly independent Indian nation. The “ first colonial ‘sodomy law’ integrated into a penal code ,” as Human Rights Watch notes, Section 377 enjoyed longevity thanks to a so-called secular country’s inability to tolerate non-heterosexuals. If nothing else, this exposes the ramifications of the British Empire’s long shadow on India.

Chughtai wrote of the unfolding of the “Lihaaf” court trial with hilarious matter-of-factness. Sharing personal anecdotes with the proceedings of the case, she described the scrumptious delicacies she enjoyed in Lahore. Her investment in the food of this city over the hearings for which she had traveled from Bombay was in and of itself a comment on what she viewed as the petty nature of her charge. That said, in no way does she miss spelling out the politics behind her victory within a socio-cultural framework that attempted to control and suppress her—both as a writer and as a woman.

Refusing to apologize for her work, Chughtai ultimately won the case, though her reputation as an obscene writer haunted her. Still, her triumph within the legal mechanism deserves celebration; homosexuality was neither unpunished nor censored.

Chughtai simply argued that all she did was present a young child’s perspective on an unusual incident. Any erotic interpretation was solely due to reader inference. This strategic elusiveness and feigned ignorance were necessary to escape the homophobic apparatus of law. Chughtai turned the tables, challenging those who condemned her by interrogating their projection of illicit sexual acts onto her text. This performative maneuver didn’t mean that Chughtai was unaware of what she was doing with “Lihaaf.” In an interview with Mahfil , she says as much in recalling a conversation with Saadat Hasan Manto, a fellow writer: “ At some point or other, he said, “You knew what was going on in Lahaf, didn’t you. You wrote it purposely.” I answered that, of course I had written it purposely. ”

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Chughtai I (2001) My friend, my enemy: essays, reminiscences, portraits. Kali for Women, New Delhi

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Female Characters in Ismat Chugtai’s Short Stories

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences

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Daath Voyage An International Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in English (ISSN 2455-7544)

Born at a time when India was brimming with hope for an independent Nation, Ismat Chughtai not only witnessed the tragic partition but was also deeply influenced by the political and literary activities of the time owing to her interest in reading and writing. The ‘pen’ was her weapon which empowered her to boldly raise her voice against the injustices meted out particularly to women. By plunging into the vast territory of Urdu literature, she not only made strides in areas of style and literary technique but also led her women contemporaries on a remarkable journey of self-awareness and undaunted creative expression. This paper proposes to look into the nuances of women’s movement prevalent at the time when Ismat Chughtai was writing. By taking recourse to her short stories, I shall look into the complexities of the age which led to the formation of her women characters and how Ismat as a progressive writer responded to those times. Her literary oeuvre boasts of a variety of short stories and one needs to look beyond ‘Lihaaf’ to understand the writer better. She wrote at a time when voices of women were still muffled, let alone their entry into the world of literature. But for Ismat, this was the time when she felt that life needed to be breathed into the minds of young girls and women who were craving to make their mark intellectually. Through this paper, an understanding is sought of what makes Chughtai a proponent of women’s liberation and how her characters too are equally ahead in breaking traditions. The focus shall be to understand Chughtai’s intricate depiction of the psyche of Indian woman. Keywords: ' woman ' question, chughtai, progressive, rebel, freedom and feminism.

Online International Interdisciplinary Research Journal

Ismat Chugtai began to write in the 1930s even before India's independence from colonial rule and continued to write in the post-independence period. Chugtai's stories focus chiefly on the predicament of women in the India that is in transition from subjection to the British rule to political independence. The 'New Woman' of the transitional period, who is anticipating and striving for a future, nonetheless with the traditional inputs from the past-is Indian as well as un-Indian, in its specified sense. The characters of Chugtai are oppressed by patriarchy and religion, and yet show signs of upheaval and remonstration in their own distinct, restrained ways. Chugtai chooses to challenge, to voice the subordination and relegation of the lives and language of women around her, irrespective of their class or caste, by registering their search for self-respect and articulating their angst. Her characters are beings that are caught in the cross-currents of tradition and modernity, between ideal political 'freedom' and the actual social, familial subjugation which lead them to tremendous inner conflicts and leave them bewildered.

Geeta Patel

Srirupa Mahalanabis

An artist whose paradigm is beyond capture, social reformer and progressive thinker, Ismat Chugtai remains one of the most formidable among the South-Asian writers. A few translated works available give us only a tip of the iceberg. In a reading of some selected short stories available to us in translated form we come across the different themes that distinguish Chugtai's work and make her an awe-inspiring writer of all times. Full Paper: Ismat Chugtai is one of the most revolutionary writers of all times. Thinking beyond her age, she has been a radical influence, a philosopher, a reformist and a feminist in the truest sense of the term. Born at a time when slight provocation to tradition spelt doom, Chugtai had the courage, the passion and the straight-forwardness to challenge the societal chains to the questions of womanhood. Her forcefulness in stating her observations of what happened around her, to ponder over the reality and its 'real' happenings made her at once a writer much appreciated and rumoured about. Her field of work was not expansive and concentrated mainly around the familial ties and along the path that she grew up, people she met during her studies and in her path to professional writing. It is beyond doubt Chugtai's emotionalism and her deep understanding of human psychology that makes her stories so endearing and close to our heart. However, Chugtai refrains from being judgmental and issuing a verdict. She presents people, situations and incidents. She draws pictures on her canvas and leaves it to the reader to explain its meaning. It is the reader who is left at most times, with a pungent taste. Chugtai's sensitivity to her characters makes even the most spurious person appear to us as possessing a human soul. She insists that man is forced to react by situations, incidents and circumstances in which they live. She was bold, unfettered, fearless, the pioneer of Urdu fiction and one of the foremost feminists in South-Asian literature. Tahira Naqvi in her essay, " The Beguiling Ismat Chugtai-through her own words " refers to what " the other great Indian writer Quarratulain Hyder , dubbed her 'Lady Changez Khan' partly because she could trace her lineage to Changez Khan but mostly due to her audacious and strident approach to life and writing. " Chugtai writes

Kakatiya Journal of English Studies

K Damodar Rao

A reference point for feminist perspective in Urdu literature for long, with the publication of English translations of a few of her works, Ismat Chughtai assumed a powerful voice in gender studies in Indian literatures. An important aspect of her fictional substance is that when she began writing in the 1940s there was hardly any feminist writing proper in the West. Margaret Atwood, Simone de Beauvoir, the icons of western feminism appeared much later. Any discussion of ‘gendering Indian narratives’ would be incomplete without an analysis of Ismat Chughtai’s work. She grew up in the face of many constraints: She was a woman, a Muslim, and a writer with a penchant for uninhibited portrayal of feelings. This essay examines some of the events mentioned in her non-fictional work, "My Friend, My Enemy" translated by Tahira Naqvi.

Sentics Publications, Delhi, India

Partha Debnath

UMME FARHANA

Sobia Kiran

The paper aims to trace feminist elements in the short stories of Ismat Chughtai, a great Indian writer. The paper also aims to analyse stories by Ismat Chightai comparing them in style, content and technique with the works of her contemporary European writers. As she started her literary career as a translator of European writers, the influence is quite evident. The paper will highlight the feminist elements in her stories. There is disagreement within the ranks of feminist writers. Therefore, we find writers like Dorothy Richardson, Jean Rhys and Ismat avoiding to be called feminists. But, the very fact that she was a woman and was writing from the female perspective, discussing social and economic problems faced by women as housewives, maids, working women, beloveds, students or worn out hags, cannot be ignored. As far as raising consciousness, an essential part of the feminist activism is concerned, Ismat's approach is feminist. We find not only the development of female consciousness in her works but also a social critique as she highlights not only the problems faced by women but also explores the socioeconomic causes.

Tanveer Anjum

This paper compares the feminist trends in Pakistan with reference to two eminent Pakistani Urdu women poets’ autobiographies: Jo Rahee So Bekhabari Rahee (What Lingered Was a Trance) by Ada Jafri and Buri Aurat Ki Katha (The Tale of a Bad Woman) by Kishwar Naheed. The two women have been participating in mushairas (mixed poetry-recitation gatherings) for several decades now, but their sharing of public space with men has had different social and psychological impacts on the two writers. Ada Jafri’s narrative is devoid of negativity, criticism, protest, or reference to sexuality. Kishwar Naheed focuses on these very things. Ada Jafri has no claim of being a feminist and is rather apologetic about her weak voice of protest against the denial of human status to women in Pakistan. Kishwar Naheed identifies her voice as an extension of the female voices all over the world and throughout history, blurring the boundaries of time and space in asserting her womanhood. However, some commonalities oblige us to re-examine their differences at a deeper level only to find out that in spite of the mental distance between them, at some level they are very similar. This also leads us to conjecture that the Pakistani feminism is probably a different kind of construct from what it can be perceived in the perspective of western feminism.

Muneeza Shamsie

Review of Ismat Chughtai's Memoir "Kaghazi Hai Pairahan: The Paper Attire" translated from the Urdu into English by Noor Zaheer

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