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Throughout the history of mankind science has searched into the realms of the unknown. Along with it bringing new discoveries, allowing for our lives to become healthier, more efficient, safer, and at the same time, possibly more dangerous. Among the forces driving scientists into these many experiments, is the desire to preserve the one fuel that keeps our lives going; FOOD. As early as the beginning of the 19th century, major breakthroughs in food preservation had begun. Soldiers and seamen, fighting in Napoleons army were living off of salt-preserved meats. These poorly cured foods provided minimal nutritional value, and frequent outbreaks of scurvy were developing. It was Napoleon who began the search for a better mechanism of food preservation, and it was he who offered 12,000-franc pieces to the person who devised a safe and dependable food-preservation process. The winner was a French chemist named Nicolas Appert. He observed that food heated in sealed containers was preserved as long as the container remained unopened or the seal did not leak. This became the turning point in food preservation history. Fifty years following the discovery by Nicolas Appert, another breakthrough had developed. Another Frenchman, named Louis Pasteur, noted the relationship between microorganisms and food spoilage. This breakthrough increased the dependability of the food canning process. As the years passed new techniques assuring food preservation would come and go, opening new doors to further research. FOOD PROCESSING Farmers grow fruits and vegetables and fatten livestock. The fruits and vegetables are harvested, and the livestock is slaughtered for food. What happens between the time food leaves the farm and the time it is eaten at the table? Like all living things, the plants and animals that become food contain tiny organisms called microorganisms. Living, healthy plants and animals automatically control most of these microorganisms. But when the plants and animals are killed, the organisms yeast, mold, and bacteria begin to multiply, causing the food to lose flavor and change in color and texture. Just as important, food loses the nutrients that are necessary to build and replenish human bodies. All these changes in the food are what people refer to as food spoilage. To keep the food from spoiling, usually in only a few days, it is preserved. Many kinds of agents are potentially destructive to the healthful characteristics of fresh foods. Microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, rapidly spoil food. Enzymes which are present in all raw food, promote degradation and chemical changes affecting especially texture and flavor. Atmospheric oxygen may react with food constituents, causing rancidity or color changes. Equally as harmful are infestations by insects and rodents, which account for tremendous losses in food stocks. There is no single method of food preservation that provides protection against all hazards for an unlimited period of time. Canned food stored in Antarctica near the South Pole, for example, remained edible after 50 years of storage, but such long-term preservation cannot be duplicated in the hot climate of the Tropics. Raw fruits and vegetables and uncooked meat are preserved by cold storage or refrigeration. The cold temperature inside the cold-storage compartment or refrigerator slows down the microorganisms and delays deterioration. But cold storage and refrigeration will preserve raw foods for a few weeks at most. If foods are to be preserved for longer periods, they must undergo special treatments such as freezing or heating. The science of preserving foods for more than a few days is called food processing. Human beings have always taken some measures to preserve food. Ancient people learned to leave meat and fruits and vegetables in the sun and wind to remove moisture. Since microorganisms need water to grow, drying the food slows the rate at which it spoils. Today food processors provide a diet richer and more varied than ever before by using six major methods. They are canning, drying or dehydration, freezing, freeze-drying, fermentation or pickling, and irradiation. Canning The process of canning is sometimes called sterilization because the heat treatment of the food eliminates all microorganisms that can spoil the food and those that are harmful to humans, including directly pathogenic bacteria and those that produce lethal toxins. Most commercial canning operations are based on the principle that bacteria destruction increases tenfold for each 10° C increase in temperature. Food exposed to high temperatures for only minutes or seconds retains more of its natural flavor. In the Flash 18 process, a continuous system, the food is flash-sterilized in a pressurized chamber to prevent the superheated food from boiling while it is placed in containers. Further sterilizing is not required. Freezing Although prehistoric humans stored meat in ice caves, the food-freezing industry is more recent in origin than the canning industry. The freezing process was used commercially for the first time in 1842, but large-scale food preservation by freezing began in the late 19th century with the advent of mechanical refrigeration. Freezing preserves food by preventing microorganisms from multiplying. Because the process does not kill all types of bacteria, however, those that survive reanimate in thawing food and often grow more rapidly than before freezing. Enzymes in the frozen state remain active, although at a reduced rate. Vegetables are blanched or heated in preparation for freezing to ensure enzyme inactivity and thus to avoid degradation of flavor. Blanching has also been proposed for fish, in order to kill cold-adapted bacteria on their outer surface. In the freezing of meats various methods are used depending on the type of meat and the cut. Pork is frozen soon after butchering, but beef is hung in a cooler for several days to tenderize the meat before freezing. Frozen foods have the advantage of resembling the fresh product more closely than the same food preserved by other techniques. Frozen foods also undergo some changes, however. Freezing causes the water in food to expand and tends to disrupt the cell structure by forming ice crystals. In quick-freezing the ice crystals are smaller, producing less cell damage than in the slowly frozen product. The quality of the product, however, may depend more on the rapidity with which the food is prepared and stored in the freezer than on the rate at which it is frozen. Some solid foods that are frozen slowly, such as fish, may, upon thawing, show a loss of liquid called drip; some liquid foods that are frozen slowly, such as egg yolk, may become coagulated. Because of the high cost of refrigeration, frozen food is comparatively expensive to produce and distribute. High quality is a required feature of frozen food to justify the added cost in the market.This method of preservation is the one most widely used for a great variety of foods. Drying and Dehydration Although both these terms are applied to the removal of water from food, to the food technologist drying refers to drying by natural means, such as spreading fruit on racks in the sun, and dehydration designates drying by artificial means, such as a blast of hot air. In freeze-drying a high vacuum is maintained in a special cabinet containing frozen food until most of the moisture has sublimed. Removal of water offers excellent protection against the most common causes of food spoilage. Microorganisms cannot grow in a water-free environment, enzyme activity is absent, and most chemical reactions are greatly retarded. This last characteristic makes dehydration preferable to canning if the product is to be stored at a high temperature. In order to achieve such protection, practically all the water must be removed. The food then must be packaged in a moisture-proof container to prevent it from absorbing water from the air. Vegetables, fruits, meat, fish, and some other foods, the moisture content of which averages as high as 80 percent, may be dried to one-fifth of the original weight and about one-half of the original volume. The disadvantages of this method of preservation include the time and labor involved in rehydrating the food before eating. Further because it absorbs only about two-thirds of its original water content, the dried product tends to have a texture that is tough and chewy. Drying was used by prehistoric humans to preserve many foods. Large quantities of fruits such as figs have been dried from ancient times to the present day. In the case of meat and fish, other preservation methods, such as smoking or salting, which yielded a palatable product, were generally preferred. Commercial dehydration of vegetables was initiated in the United States during the American Civil War but, as a result of the poor quality of the product, the industry declined sharply after the war. This cycle was repeated with subsequent wars, but after World War II the dehydration industry thrived. This industry is confined largely to the production of a few dried foods, however, such as milk, soup, eggs, yeast, and powdered coffee, which are particularly suited to the dehydration method. Present-day dehydration techniques include the application of a stream of warm air to vegetables. Protein foods such as meat are of good quality only if freeze-dried. Liquid food is dehydrated usually by spraying it as fine droplets into a chamber of hot air, or occasionally by pouring it over a drum internally heated by steam. Freeze-drying A processing method that uses a combination of freezing and dehydration is called freeze-drying. Foods that already have been frozen are placed in a vacuum-tight enclosure and dehydrated under vacuum conditions with careful application of heat. Normally ice melts and becomes water when heat is applied. If more heat is applied, it turns to steam. But in freeze-drying, the ice turns directly to vapor, and there is little chance that microorganisms will grow. Freeze-dried foods, like those that are dehydrated, are light and require little space for storage and transportation. They do not need to be refrigerated, but they must be reconstituted with water before they are ready to consume. Irradiation As early as 1895, a major breakthrough in the world of science had arisen; the discovery of the X-ray by German physicist Wilhelm von Roetengen. This technological advancement, along with the soon to be discovered concept of radioactivity by French physicist Antoine Henri Becquerel, became the focus of attention for many scientifically based studies. Of most importance, to the field of food preservation, these two discoveries began the now controversial process of food irradiation. Food irradiation employs an energy form termed ionizing radiation. In short, this process exposes food particles to alpha, beta and/or gamma rays. The rays cause whatever material they strike to produce electrically charged particles called ions. Ionizing radiation provides many attributes to treating foods. It has the ability to penetrate deeply into a food interacting with its atoms and molecules, and causing some chemical and biological effects that could possibly decrease its rate of decay. It also has the ability to sanitize foods by destroying contaminants such as bacteria, yeasts, molds, parasites and insects.Irradiation delays ripening of fruits and vegetables; inhibits sprouting in bulbs and tubers; disinfests grain, cereal products, fresh and dried fruits, and vegetables of insects; and destroys bacteria in fresh meats. The irradiation of fresh fruits and vegetables, herbs and spices, and pork was approved in 1986. In 1990 the FDA approved irradiation of poultry to control salmonella and other disease-causing microorganisms. Irradiated foods were used by U.S. astronauts and by Soviet cosmonauts. Public concern over the safety of irradiation, however, has limited its full-scale use. It is still off to a slow start, with only one food irradiation plant open in Mulberry, Florida, but it is seemingly catching the eyes of the producers and the consumers throughout the world. Miscellaneous Methods Other methods or a combination of methods may be used to preserve foods. Salting of fish and pork has long been practiced, using either dry salt or brine. Salt enters the tissue and, in effect binds the water, thus inhibiting the bacteria that cause spoilage. Another widely used method is smoking, which frequently is applied to preserve fish, ham, and sausage. The smoke is obtained by burning hickory or a similar wood under low draft. In this case some preservative action is provided by such chemicals in the smoke as formaldehyde and creosote, and by the dehydration that occurs in the smokehouse. Smoking usually is intended to flavor the product as well as to preserve it. Sugar, a major ingredient of jams and jellies, is another preservative agent. For effective preservation the total sugar content should make up at least 65 percent of the weight of the final product. Sugar, which acts in much the same way as salt, inhibits bacterial growth after the product has been heated. Because of its high acidity, vinegar (acetic acid) acts as a preservative. Fermentation caused by certain bacteria, which produce lactic acid, is the basis of preservation in sauerkraut and fermented sausage. Sodium benzoate, restricted to concentrations of not more than 0.1 percent, is used in fruit products to protect against yeasts and molds. Sulfur dioxide, another chemical preservative permitted in most states, helps to retain the color of dehydrated foods. Calcium propionate may be added to baked goods to inhibit mold. Packaging The packaging of processed foods is just as important as the process itself. If foods are not packaged in containers that protect them from air and moisture, they are subject to spoilage. Packaging materials must therefore be strong enough to withstand the heat and cold of processing and the wear and tear of handling and transportation. From the time the canning process was developed in the early 19th century until the beginning of the 20th century, cans and glass containers were the only packages used. The first cans were crude containers having a hole in the top through which the food was inserted. The holes were then sealed with hot metal. All cans were made by hand from sheets of metal cut to specific sizes. In about 1900 the sanitary can was invented. In this process, machines form cans with airtight seams. A processor buys cans with one end open and seals them after filling. Some cans are made of steel coated with tin and are often glazed on the inside to prevent discoloration. Some are made of aluminum. Frozen foods are packaged in containers made of layers of fiberboard and plastic or of strong plastic called polyethylene. Freeze-dried and dehydrated foods are packed in glass, fiberboard, or cans. Research The research activities of processed food scientists are numerous and varied. New packaging materials, the nutritional content of processed foods, new processing techniques, more efficient use of energy and water, the habits and desires of today’s consumer, more efficient equipment, and transportation and warehousing innovations are some of the subjects being studied. The challenge of the food researcher is to discover better and more efficient ways to process, transport, and store food. Processed foods have changed the world. In developed countries they are part of almost everyone’s diet. The United States, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and the United Kingdom all produce large quantities of processed foods, which they sell domestically and abroad. In the United States in the early 1980s, annual production of fruit was 1.8 billion kilograms canned, 1.4 billion kilograms frozen, and 1.1 billion kilograms in fruit juice; production of vegetables was 1.4 billion kilograms canned and 3.2 billion kilograms frozen. From the modest canning industries in 1813 to the sophisticated food processing plants of today, food processors have provided the world with more healthful diets, food combinations never before possible, and a convenience unimagined 200 years ago. We as consumers can only imagine what further achievements will be made in the field of food preservation. But one thing is for certain; it is all for the general good of mankind…to reduce starvation levels globally and insure the availability of nutritive foods to all. It is through this way that man survives…and fits in Darwin’s hypothesis of the survival of the fittest. For it is only the fit who will prevail in the end.

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A Brief History of Food Preservation

First Online: 24 April 2019

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Mohammad U. H. Joardder 3 &
Mahadi Hasan Masud 3

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The original version of this chapter was revised. The correction to this chapter is available at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11530-2_11

When people have surplus foods and predict potential food insecurity in the future, food preservation needs to be adapted. From early history, humans felt the necessity of food storage and preservation. Human’s inquest mind has innovated and discovered different food preservation systems throughout history. Most of the preservation techniques practiced by the early humans were based on daily experiences. Utilization of natural energy including solar, biomass, and natural phenomena such as evaporation cooling, spontaneous reactions like fermentation are some of the common features of these food preservation techniques. Many traditional food preservation techniques in developing countries still follow this approach extensively. However, a wide variation prevails in each preservation technique in different regions of the globe. This chapter attempts to present a brief on the history of some selected food preservation techniques.

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26 september 2019.

The tables (Tables 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4) and the content under the heading “3. Concerned Developing Countries and Their Status” in Chapter 1 and the figure 3.1 and the content under the heading “Cooking” in Chapter 3 are updated more generally in this revised version of the book as per the author’s request. The author has reviewed and approved the changes.

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Joardder, M.U.H., Masud, M.H. (2019). A Brief History of Food Preservation. In: Food Preservation in Developing Countries: Challenges and Solutions. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11530-2_3

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Food Preservation: Methods and Their Importance

Food is an essential life requirement related to every function our body performs. It is a source of nutritional components like vitamins, minerals, essential oils, and antioxidants which benefit our health in every possible aspect.

But every food has its specific shelf-life and gets spoiled after harvesting or slaughtering. Based on spoilage, foods are; perishable: foods that deteriorate within 1- 5 days and need immediate freezing; semi-perishable: foods that don’t need immediate freezing and can be stored for 3 to 5 months; and non-perishable: foods stored for a much more extended period.

Further processing of foods helps to increase their shelf-life, prevent the growth of microorganisms, and preserve the food’s nutritional value, known as food preservation. The procedure includes altering atmospheric conditions, enzymatic reactions, chemical treatment, and food moisture.

Table of Contents

Methods of Food Preservation

Food preservation is the natural or mechanical action performed on food to elongate its shelf life after harvesting or slaughtering. These procedures can reduce food deterioration by inhibiting microorganisms’ growth, enzymatic reactions, and auto-oxidation.

Preservation by drying, dehydration, and fermentation is the oldest method, and cold treatment, heat treatment, blanching, irradiation, and canning are the modern methods.

Drying Methods

Food preservation by the drying method has been followed for centuries. Drying refers to removing water from a solid compound (meat, fruits, vegetables, and nuts). Sun drying, solar drying, and air drying are the most performed drying methods. In industry, drum drying, spray drying, vacuum drying, freeze drying, bed drying, and convection air drying are also performed. Drying removes food’s moisture and prevents the growth of yeast, bacteria, and mold, which are responsible for damaging food quality.

Dehydration Method

Dehydration removes moisture (water content) from solid or liquid. It differs from drying because the application of artificial heat under a controlled atmosphere is performed. It is also an old method of food preservation. Dehydration makes food lighter and smaller. Dehydrated foods are preferable during trekking and traveling. Example: Mango, Broccoli, Beets, Grapes, Chicken Fish, etc.,

Food Preservation by Fermentation

Preservation by Cold Treatment

Food preservation by cold treatment includes chilling, freezing, and refrigeration.

Chilling is the preservation method where storage of meals occurs in lower temperature, above its freezing point but below atmospheric temperature. The chilling temperature is −1℃ to +8℃, depending upon the variety of food. Chilling helps to preserve salads, pizza, seafood, and dairy products.

In freezing, the preservation of meals occurs by lowering its temperature below its freezing point. Freezing helps to preserve butter, ice cream, milk, nuts, and grains.

Preservation by refrigeration is when the meal’s temperature is maintained between 0℃ and 8℃. Refrigeration helps to preserve jam, jelly, pickle, and sauce.

Food Preservation by Heat Treatment

Sterilization is a preservation method process where all the microorganisms and spores with minimal chances of causing spoilage are destroyed. Two methods do sterilization: i) Physical sterilization (cold sterilization, heat sterilization), ii) Chemical sterilization (gas sterilization, cold chemical sterilization). Meat, fish, cream, soup, and sauce are usually sterilized.

Preservation by Blanching

Blanching is a type of mild-heat treatment (usually on fresh harvest) where exposure of the foods to hot water or steam help to maintain their physical and physiological properties and extend the shelf-life. It is usually performed before freezing, canning, or drying. Hot steam is preferred over hot water or high temperature to avoid the side effects of blanching (protein denaturation, damage to tissue cells). High-temperature treatment can make fruits and vegetables lose their color. So, to avoid that, sodium carbonate or calcium oxide is added to blancher water. Broccoli, fennel, green beans, and asparagus spears are preserved by blanching.

Preservation by Irradiation

Food irradiation is a treatment method that exposes the food to ionizing radicals (x-ray, gamma ray, and electron beam). It helps to reduce the harmful bacteria and parasites which can cause spoilage. Beef, pork, poultry, lettuce, eggs, coffee, fresh fruits and vegetables, and spices are approved for irradiation by FDA.

Food Preservation by Canning

Storing food in containers or jars by hermetically sealing (tightly closed to prevent air from entering) and sterilizing it with heat is canning. Canning prevents the growth of microorganisms and the activity of food enzymes that can spoil food. The containers are first sterilized, and the food is sealed by vacuum packaging. After that, the container is exposed to heat and cooled. Pressure canning, water bath canning, and steam canning are the methods of canning. Meat, dairy products, and sea foods are preserved by canning.

Importance of Food Preservation

Preventing microbial growth: Stored foods become a great nutritional medium for the growth and colonization of microorganisms. Preservation methods remove some growth-promoting components, like moisture, warmth, etc., from the food, making the storage longer.
Preserving nutritional components: Spoilage of foods degrades the quality of food. Applying preservative methods helps to maintain the dietary details of the food. Although some changes occur during preservation, the stored food is still nutritionally dense.
Preventing physical and chemical damage in food: Preservation methods help avoid auto-oxidation and enzymatic reactions that occur in the foods. Heat and moisture can also cause food spoilage, and applying preservation methods can protect from such damage.
Elongating shelf-life: Since food preservation methods help avoid spoilage of foods, they automatically elongate the shelf-life of perishable and semi-perishable foods.
Save money: Time and again, buying food is the most significant area to spend money. Storage of nutrition for a more extended period means having consumable foods for longer. It means less expense in food which can help save cash.

Drawbacks of Food Preservation

Although food preservation is highly advantageous for long-term savings, it also has different drawbacks. Some of the disadvantages of methods of food preservation are as follows:

Adding sugars and salts to preserve food can make the food unsuitable for consumption by people with different health conditions.
Sometimes food preservation can lead to loss of nutrients as chemical and physical states may change after treatment with different preservation methods.
Long-term use of preserved foods can lead to gastrointestinal disorders like gastritis and indigestion.
Handbook of Food Preservation – Cold [Internet]. [cited 2023Jan18]. Available from: http://www.cold.org.gr/library/downloads/Docs/Handbook%20of%20Food%20Preservation.PDF
Prokopov, Tsvetko & Tanchev, Stoyan. (2007). Methods of Food Preservation. 10.1007/978-0-387-33957-3_1.
UGA [Internet]. [cited 2023Feb5]. Available from: https://nchfp.uga.edu/publications/usda/GUIDE01_HomeCan_rev0715.pdf

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A review on mechanisms and commercial aspects of food preservation and processing

Sadat Kamal Amit 1 na1 ,
Md. Mezbah Uddin 1 na1 ,
Rizwanur Rahman 1 ,
S. M. Rezwanul Islam 1 &
Mohidus Samad Khan 1

Agriculture & Food Security volume 6 , Article number: 51 ( 2017 ) Cite this article

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Food preservation involves different food processing steps to maintain food quality at a desired level so that maximum benefits and nutrition values can be achieved. Food preservation methods include growing, harvesting, processing, packaging, and distribution of foods. The key objectives of food preservation are to overcome inappropriate planning in agriculture, to produce value-added products, and to provide variation in diet. Food spoilage could be caused by a wide range of chemical and biochemical reactions. To impede chemical and microbial deterioration of foods, conventional and primitive techniques of preserving foods like drying, chilling, freezing, and pasteurization have been fostered. In recent years, the techniques to combat these spoilages are becoming sophisticated and have gradually altered to a highly interdisciplinary science. Highly advanced technologies like irradiation, high-pressure technology, and hurdle technology are used to preserve food items. This review article presents and discusses the mechanisms, application conditions, and advantages and disadvantages of different food preservation techniques. This article also presents different food categories and elucidates different physical, chemical, and microbial factors responsible for food spoilage. Furthermore, the market economy of preserved and processed foods has been analyzed in this article.

Foods are organic substances which are consumed for nutritional purposes. Foods are plant or animal origin and contain moisture, protein, lipid, carbohydrate, minerals, and other organic substances. Foods undergo spoilage due to microbial, chemical, or physical actions. Nutritional values, color, texture, and edibility of foods are susceptible to spoilage [ 1 ]. Therefore, foods are required to be preserved to retain their quality for longer period of time. Food preservation is defined as the processes or techniques undertaken in order to maintain internal and external factors which may cause food spoilage. The principal objective of food preservation is to increase its shelf life retaining original nutritional values, color, texture, and flavor.

The history of ‘Food Preservation’ dates back to ancient civilization when the primitive troupe first felt the necessity for preserving food after hunting a big animal, which could not be able to eat at a time. Knowing the techniques of preserving foods was the first and most important step toward establishing civilization. Different cultures at different times and locations used almost the similar basic techniques to preserve food items [ 2 ].

Conventional food preservation techniques like drying, freezing, chilling, pasteurization, and chemical preservation are being used comprehensively throughout the world. Scientific advancements and progresses are contributing to the evolution of existing technologies and innovation of the new ones, such as irradiation, high-pressure technology, and hurdle technology [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. The processing of food preservation has become highly interdisciplinary since it includes stages related to growing, harvesting, processing, packaging, and distribution of foods. Therefore, an integrated approach would be useful to preserve food items during food production and processing stages.

At present, the global market of the processed food items is about 7 trillion dollars, which is gradually growing with time [ 6 ]. Rapid globalization and industrialization are the major contributing factors for the progress of food processing industries in different countries. An analysis of the UNIDO Industrial Statistics Database (2005) shows that food processing in developing countries is an auspicious component of the manufacturing sector, and the contribution of food processing industries to the national GDP increases with country’s national income [ 7 , 8 ].

This review paper presents the classification of food items and discusses different physical, chemical, and biological factors of food spoilage. The basics and advancements of different trivial and modern food preservation techniques, which are attributed to impede food spoilage and to yield longer shelf life, are discussed here along with their mechanisms, application conditions, advantages, and disadvantages. This article also reports the global market trend of preserved and processed food. Figure 1 summarizes a flow diagram showing various categories of foods, components of food spoilage mechanisms, food preserving and processing methods, and global market analysis of preserved foods. This review offers the researchers, technologists, and industry managements a comprehensive understanding that could be highly useful to develop effective and integrated food preservative methods and to ensure food safety.

Summary of the review on mechanisms and commercial aspects of food preservation and processing

Classification of foods

Foods can be broadly classified according to the shelf life, functions and nutrient value, and processing mechanisms (Fig. 2 ). Different categories of foods are summarized in Table 1 and briefly discussed in the following sections.

Classification of food, recreated from references [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]

Food categories based on shelf life

Food spoilage is a natural process; through this process, food gradually loses its color, texture, flavor, nutritional qualities, and edibility. Consumption of spoiled food can lead to illness and in the extreme situation to death [ 9 ]. Considering the self life, food items can be classified as perishable, semi-perishable, and non-perishable [ 10 ].

Perishable Foods that have shelf life ranging from several days to about three weeks are known as perishable. Milk and dairy products, meats, poultry, eggs, and seafood are the examples of perishable food items. If special preservation techniques are not apprehended, food items could be spoiled straight away [ 10 ].

Semi-perishable Different food items can be preserved for long time (about six months) under proper storage conditions. These foods are known as semi-perishable. Vegetables, fruits, cheeses, and potatoes are few examples of semi-perishable food items.

Non-perishable Natural and processed foods that have indefinite shelf life are called non-perishable food items. These foods can be stored for several years or longer. Dry beans, nuts, flour, sugar, canned fruits, mayonnaise, and peanut butter are few examples of non-perishable foods.

Food categories based on functions and nutrients

According to the functions to human body, food items can be categorized as: (a) body building and repairing foods, (b) energy-giving foods, (c) regulatory foods, and (d) protective foods. Depending on the nutrition value, food items can be classified as: (a) carbohydrate-rich foods, (b) protein-rich foods, (c) fat-rich foods, and (d) vitamin- and mineral-rich foods. Table 1 presents different food items according to their functions and nutrients.

Food categories based on extent and purpose of processing

Different food processing techniques are used by the food industries to turn fresh foods into food products. Foods can be classified into three major groups based on the extent and purpose of food processing [ 14 ]: (a) unprocessed or minimally processed foods, (b) processed culinary or food industry ingredients, and (c) ultra-processed food products. Classification of foods based on extent and purpose of processing is presented in Table 2 .

Food spoilage: mechanism

Food spoilage is the process in which food edibility reduces. Food spoilage is related to food safety [ 9 ]. The primitive stage of food spoilage can be detected by color, smell, flavor, texture, or food. Different physical, microbial, or chemical actions can cause food spoilage. These mechanisms are not necessarily mutually exclusive since spoilage caused by one mechanism can stimulate another. Temperature, pH, air, nutrients, and presence of different chemicals are the major factors for food spoilage [ 9 ]. Different factors that affect food spoilage are presented in Fig. 3 and briefly discussed in the following sections.

Key physical, microbial, and chemical factors affecting food spoilage [ 9 ]

Physical spoilage

Food spoilage due to physical changes or instability is defined as physical spoilage. Moisture loss or gain, moisture migration between different components, and physical separation of components or ingredients are the examples of physical spoilage [ 9 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. The key factors affecting physical spoilage are moisture content, temperature, glass transient temperature, crystal growth, and crystallization.

Moisture content

A frequent cause of degradation of food products is the change in their water content. It may occur in the form of water loss, water gain, or migration of water [ 25 ]. Moisture transfer in food is directly related to the water activity ( a w ) of food item [ 9 , 26 ]. Water activity ( a w ) is a thermodynamic property which is expressed as the ratio of the vapor pressure of water in a system to the vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature [ 15 , 27 ]. Equilibrium relative humidity at the same temperature may also be used in lieu of pure water vapor pressure. Water activity in food products reduces with temperature. In general, water activity of foods at normal temperature is 1.0, whereas at −20 and −40 °C temperatures the water activities are 0.82 and 0.68, respectively [ 16 , 17 , 21 ].

Temperature

The effect of temperature is the most significant factor in the case of fruit and vegetable spoilage. There is an optimum temperature range for slow ripening and to maximize post-harvest life. Slow ripening also requires an optimum relative humidity along with optimum air movement around fruit and vegetable. Apparently, these optimum conditions are called modified atmospheres (MA). Temperature usually besets the metabolism of the commodities and contemporarily alters the rate of attaining desired MA [ 17 ]. Low temperature can also have a negative effect on foods that are susceptible to freeze damage. At a lower temperature, when food products become partially frozen, breakage in cells occurs which damages the product. Most tropical fruits and vegetables are sensitive to chilling injury. This generally occurs before the food product starts to freeze at a temperature in between 5 °C and 15 °C [ 9 ].

Glass transition temperature

Glass transition temperature ( T g ) effects the shelf life of food products. Solids in food items may exist in a crystalline state or in an amorphous metastable state. This phenomenon depends on the composition of solids, temperature, and relative humidity [ 18 ]. The amorphous matrix may exist either as a very viscous glass or as a more liquid-like rubber [ 19 ]. At glass transition temperature, changes occur from the glassy state to rubbery state. This is a second-order phase transition process, which is temperature specific for each food. The physical stability of foods is related to the glass transition temperature. Glass transition temperature ( T g ) depends strongly on concentration of water and other plasticizers [ 22 ]. When dry food products are kept in highly humid conditions, the state of food products changes due to glass transition phenomena [ 9 ].

Crystal growth and crystallization

Freezing can also contribute to food degradation. Foods, which undergo slow freezing or multiple freeze, suffer severely due to crystal growth. They are subject to large extracellular ice growth. Rapid freezing forms ice within food cells, and these foods are more stable than slow freezing processed foods [ 23 ]. To minimize large ice crystal growth, emulsifiers and other water binding agents can be added during freezing cycles [ 20 ].

Foods with high sugar content can undergo sugar crystallization either by moisture accumulation or by increasing temperature. As a consequence, sugar comes to the surface from inside, and a gray or white appearance is noticed. Staling of sugar cookies, graininess in candies, and ice creams are the results of sugar crystallization [ 9 ]. Sugar crystallization can be delayed by the addition of fructose or starch. Moreover, above the respective glass transition temperature, time plays a crucial role in sugar crystallization process of food items [ 24 ].

Microbial spoilage

Microbial spoilage is a common source of food spoilage, which occurs due to the action of microorganisms. It is also the most common cause of foodborne diseases. Perishable foods are often attacked by different microorganisms. The growth of most microorganisms can be prevented or lingered by adjusting storage temperature, reducing water activity, lowering pH, using preservatives, and using proper packaging [ 28 ].

Microorganisms involved in food spoilage

Microorganisms involved in food spoilage can be divided into three major categories, which are molds, yeasts, and bacteria. Table 3 presents the active conditions of different microorganisms that affect foods.

Factors affecting microbial spoilage

There are intrinsic and extrinsic factors that can affect microbial spoilage in foods [ 29 ]. The intrinsic properties of foods determine the expected shelf life or perishability of foods and also affect the type and rate of microbial spoilage. Endogenous enzymes, substrates, sensitivity of light, and oxygen are the primary intrinsic properties associated with food spoilage [ 33 ]. To control food quality and safety, these properties can be controlled during food product formulation [ 10 ]. Intrinsic factors of food spoilage include pH, water activity, nutrient content, and oxidation–reduction potential [ 9 , 10 , 29 ]. Extrinsic factors of food spoilage include relative humidity, temperature, presence, and activities of other microbes [ 9 , 29 ].

Chemical spoilage

Chemical and biochemical reactions occur naturally in foods and lead to unpleasant sensory results in food products. Fresh foods may undergo elementary quality changes caused by: (a) microbial growth and metabolism which results in pH changes, (b) toxic compounds, and/or (c) the oxidation of lipids and pigments in fat which results in undesirable flavors and discoloration [ 33 , 34 ]. Chemical spoilage is interrelated with microbial actions. However, oxidation phenomena are purely chemical in nature and also dependent on temperature variations [ 33 ].

In presence of oxygen, amino acids convert into organic acid and ammonia. This is the elementary spoilage reaction in refrigerated fresh meat and fish [ 29 ].

The term ‘rancidification’ is used to denominate lipids oxidation through which unsaturated fats (lipids) undergo reaction with oxygen [ 35 ]. The consequences in food items are color alteration, off-flavor, and toxic substances formation [ 9 ]. Rancidification can be catalyzed by the presence of metal oxides and exposure to light increases the reaction rate. After this reaction, carbonyl compounds, responsible for rancid taste of foods, are produced [ 35 ]. Figure 4 presents auto-oxidation of fatty acids (RH).

Auto-oxidation of fatty acids (RH) [ 35 ]

Proteolysis

Proteolysis, a ubiquitous and irreversible posttranslational modification, involves limited and highly specific hydrolysis of peptide and iso-peptide bonds of a protein. The entire phenomena require the presence of miscellaneous protease enzymes [ 36 ]. Different specialized proteases play a key role in various regulatory processes. Moreover, highly specific proteolytic events are associated with normal and pathological conditions [ 37 ]. Foods containing nitrogen compounds frequently incur this reaction. Proteins, after being incurred through proteolysis, eventually get converted into small-sized amino acids. The following reaction presents proteolysis mechanism:

Many of these peptides have stiff taste which can be bitter or sweet [ 35 ]. Table 4 presents the taste of various amino acids [ 38 ].

Putrefaction

Putrefaction refers to the series of anaerobic reactions through which amino acids detour to a mixture of amines, organic acids, and stiff-smelling sulfur compounds, such as mercaptans and hydrogen sulfide. This is a biochemical phenomenon as the presence of bacteria is exigent all through the process. Along with amino acids, indole, phenols, and ammonia are also formed due to protein putrefaction [ 39 ]. Most of these chemicals have displeasing odor. Putrefaction is quite common in meats and other protein-rich foods at temperatures greater than 15 °C. This elevated temperature facilitates microbial activities [ 35 , 39 ].

Maillard reaction

Non-enzymatic browning, which is also known also as Maillard reaction, is another primary cause of food spoilage. This reaction occurs in the amino group of proteins, or the amino acids present in foods. Color darkening, reducing proteins solubility, developing bitter flavors, and reducing nutritional availability of certain amino acids are the common outcomes of Maillard reaction. This reaction occurs during the storing of dry milk, dry whole eggs, and breakfast cereals [ 40 ].

Pectin hydrolysis

Pectins are complex mixtures of polysaccharides that make up almost one-third of the cell wall of dicotyledonous and some monocotyledonous plants [ 41 , 42 ]. Indigenous pectinases are synthesized or activated during ripening of fruits and cause pectin hydrolysis which softens the structure of food. Damages of fruits and vegetables by mechanical means may also activate pectinases and initiate microbial attack [ 35 ]. Pectin substances may also be de-esterified by the action of pectin methyl esterase. This esterification process is initiated in situ on damaged tissues, firm fruits, and vegetables by strengthening the cell walls and enhancing intercellular cohesion via a mechanism involving calcium. Metal ions catalyze the decomposition of heat-labile fruit pigments, which consist of pectin ingredients. This process causes the color change in fruit jams or jellies [ 42 ]. Therefore, jams and jellies are preserved in glass containers rather than metallic jars.

Hydrolytic rancidity

Hydrolytic rancidity causes lipid degradation by the action of lipolytic enzymes. In this reaction, free fatty acids are cleaved off triglyceride molecules in the presence of water. These free fatty acids have rancid flavors or odor [ 9 ]. The released volatile fatty acids have a stiff malodor and taste; therefore, hydrolytic rancidity is extremely noticeable in fats, such as butter [ 43 ].

Food preserving and processing methods

Food preservation refers to the process or technique undertaken in order to avoid spoilage and to increase shelf life of food [ 44 , 45 ]. Different preservation and processing techniques are presented in Fig. 5 [ 46 , 47 , 48 ].

Classification of food preservation and processing methods, recreated from references [ 46 , 47 , 48 ]

Physical processing

Drying or dehydration is the process of removing water from a solid or liquid food by means of evaporation. The purpose of drying is to obtain a solid product with sufficiently low water content. It is one of the oldest methods of food preservation [ 49 ]. Water is the prerequisite for the microorganisms and enzymes to activate food spoilage mechanisms. In this method, the moisture content is lowered to the point where the activities of these microorganisms are inhibited [ 29 , 50 ]. Most microorganisms can grow at water activity above 0.95. Bacteria are inactive at water activity below 0.9. Most of the microorganisms cannot grow at water activity below 0.88 [ 51 , 52 ].

Drying has numerous advantages. It reduces weight and volume of foods, facilitates foods storage, packaging, and transportation, and also provides different flavors and smells. With all these benefits, drying is apparently the cheapest method of food preservation [ 53 ]. However, this process also has limitations. In some cases, significant loss of flavor and aroma has been observed after drying. Some functional compounds like vitamin C, thiamin, protein, and lipid are also lost because of drying [ 54 , 55 , 56 ].

Classification of drying Drying can be classified into three major groups: convective, conductive, and radiative. Convective drying is the most popular method to obtain over 90% dehydrated foods. Depending on the mode of operation, dryers can be classified as batch or continuous. For smaller-scale operations and short residence times, batch dryers are preferred. Continuous method of drying is preferential when long periodic operations are required and drying cost is needed to curtail [ 57 ].

Drying of different foods Food items, such as fruits, vegetables, meats, and fishes, are processed by drying. Instant coffee and tea are also produced by spray drying or freeze drying [ 58 , 59 ]. Processing temperature and drying time of different food items are presented in Table 5 .

Pasteurization Pasteurization is a physical preservation technique in which food is heated up to a specific temperature to destroy spoilage-causing microorganisms and enzymes [ 64 , 65 ]. Almost all the pathogenic bacteria, yeasts, and molds are destroyed by this process. As a result, the shelf life of food increases [ 66 , 67 ]. This process was named after the French scientist Louis Pasteur (1822–1895), who experimented with this process in 1862. He used this process to treat wine and beer [ 68 ]. Table 6 presents the applications of pasteurization process to preserve different food items.

Pasteurization techniques The efficiency of pasteurization depends on the temperature–time combination. This combination is mostly based on the thermal death-time studies of heat-resisting microorganisms [ 55 ]. On the basis of temperature and heat exposure, pasteurization can be categorized as vat (batch), high temperature short time (HTST), and ultra-high temperature (UHT); HTST and UHT are continuous processes [ 16 , 69 ]. Vat pasteurizer is suitable for small plants having the capacity of 100–500 gallons [ 56 ]. Vat pasteurization requires constant supervision to prevent overheating, over holding, or burning [ 44 ]. High-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization is a continuous process pasteurizer equipped with sophisticated control system, pump, flow diversion devices or valves, and heat exchanger equipment [ 56 ]. HTST pasteurization is also known as ‘flash pasteurization’ [ 56 , 70 ]. Vat and HTST pasteurization perishes pathogenic microorganisms effectively. However, to inactivate thermo-resisting spores ultra-high temperature (UHT) pasteurization is more effective than VAT and HTST [ 55 ]. During heat treatment of food items, minimal physical, chemical, or biological changes take place [ 71 ]. After heating is done, the products are aseptically packaged in sterile containers [ 46 ]. UHT pasteurized products have a longer shelf life than other pasteurized products. Table 7 presents the comparisons between the three pasteurization methods.

High heat of pasteurization process may damage some vitamins, minerals, and beneficial bacteria during pasteurization. At pasteurization temperature, Vitamin C is reduced by 20 per cent, soluble calcium and phosphorus are reduced by 5 per cent, and thiamin and vitamin B12 are reduced by 10 per cent. In fruit juices, pasteurization causes reduction in vitamin C, ascorbic acid, and carotene. However, these losses can be considered minor from nutritional point of view [ 44 , 72 ].

Thermal sterilization

Thermal sterilization is a heat treatment process that completely destroys all the viable microorganisms (yeasts, molds, vegetative bacteria, and spore formers) resulting in a longer period of shelf life [ 44 ]. Retorting and aseptic processing are two categories of thermal sterilization [ 44 , 73 ]. Thermal sterilization is different from pasteurization. Comparison of different criteria between pasteurization and sterilization is given in Table 8 .

Retorting is defined as the packaging of food in a container followed by sterilization [ 73 ]. Foods with pH above 4.5 require more than 100 °C as sterilization temperature. The attainment of such temperature can be possible in batch or continuous retorts. Batch retorts are gradually being superseded by continuous systems [ 75 ]. Hydrostatic retorts and rotary cookers are the most common continuous systems used in food industries [ 76 ]. Table 9 presents different criteria of batch and continuous retorts.

Aseptic packaging

Aseptic packaging involves placing commercially sterilized food in a sterilized package which is then subsequently sealed in an aseptic environment [ 79 ]. Conventional aseptic packaging utilizes paper and plastic materials. Sterilization can be achieved either by heat treatment, by chemical treatment, or by attributing both of them [ 79 ]. Aseptic packaging is highly used to preserve juices, dairy products, tomato paste, and fruit slices [ 75 ]. It can increase the shelf life of food items to a large extent; as an example, UHT pasteurization process can extend the shelf life of liquid milk from 19 to 90 days, whereas combined UHT processing and aseptic packaging extend shelf life to six months or more. Packages used for aseptic processing are produced from plastics having relative softening temperature. Moreover, aseptic filling can accept a wide range of packaging materials including: (a) metal cans sterilized by superheated steam, (b) paper, foil, and plastic laminates sterilized by hot hydrogen peroxide, and (c) a variety of plastic and metal containers sterilized by high-pressure steam [ 80 ]. Wide variation of packages thus enhances proficiency of aseptic packaging and diminishes cost.

The direct approach of aseptic packaging comprises of steam injunction and steam infusion. On the other hand, indirect approach of aseptic packaging includes exchanging heat through plate heat exchanger, scrapped surface heat exchanger, and tubular heat exchanger [ 81 ]. Steam injection is one of the fastest methods of heating and often removes volatile substances from some food products. On the contrary, steam infusion offers higher control over processing conditions than steam injection and minimizes the risk of overheating products. Steam infusion is suitable to treat viscous foods [ 81 ]. Tubular heat exchangers are adopted for operations at higher pressures and flow rates. These exchangers are not very flexible to withstand production capacity alteration, and their use is only limited to low viscous foods. Plate exchangers, on the other hand, overcome these problems. However, frequent cleaning and sterilizing requirements have made this exchanger less popular in food industries [ 81 ].

Freezing slows down the physiochemical and biochemical reactions by forming ice from water below freezing temperature and thus inhibits the growth of deteriorative and pathogenic microorganisms in foods [ 82 , 83 ]. It reduces the amount of liquid water in the food items and diminishes water activity [ 84 ]. Heat transfer during freezing of a food item involves a complex situation of simultaneous phase transition and alteration of thermal properties [ 85 ]. Nucleation and growth are two basic sequential processes of freezing. Nucleation means the formation of ice crystal, which is followed by ‘growth’ process that indicates the subsequent increase in crystal size [ 58 ].

Freezing time Freezing time is defined as the time required to lower the initial temperature of a product to a given temperature at its thermal center. In general, slow freezing of food tissues results in the formation of larger ice crystals in the extracellular spaces, while rapid freezing produces small ice crystals distributed throughout the tissue [ 85 ]. The International Institute of Refrigeration (1986) defines various factors of freezing time in relation to the food products and freezing equipment. Dimensions and shapes of the product, initial and final temperature, temperature of refrigerating medium, surface heat transfer coefficient of the product, and change in enthalpy and thermal conductivity of the product are the most important factors among them [ 16 ].

Individual quick freezing Individual quick freezing (IQF) generally relates to quick freezing of solid foods like green peas, cut beans, cauliflower pieces, shrimps, meat chunks, and fish. On the other hand, freezing related to liquid, pulpy or semiliquid products, like fruit juices, mango pulps, and papaya pulps is known as quick freezing. The ice crystals formed by quick freezing are much smaller and therefore cause less damage to cell structure or texture of the food. Shorter freezing period impedes the diffusion of salts and prevents decomposition of foods during freezing. IQF also allows higher capacity for commercial freezing plants with the resultant cost reduction. However, higher investment is required to set up a quick freezing plant [ 86 ]. Different quick freezing techniques, such as contact plate freezing, air-blast freezing, and cryogenic freezing, are used to process food items. The comparison between different quick freezing techniques for fishery products is presented in Table 10 .

In chilling process, the temperature of foods is maintained between −1 and 8 °C. Chilling process reduces the initial temperature of the products and maintains the final temperature of products for a prolonged period of time [ 88 ]. It is used to reduce the rate of biochemical and microbiological changes and also to extend shelf life of fresh and processed foods [ 89 ]. In practice, freezing process is often referred to chilling, when cooling is conducted at <15 °C [ 90 ]. Partial freezing is applied to extend the shelf life of fresh food items in modern food industries. This process reduces ice formation in foods, known as super chilling [ 91 ].

Chilling can be done by using various equipments, such as continuous air cooler, ice bank cooler, plate heat exchanger, jacketed heat exchanger, ice implementation system, vacuum attribution system, and cryogenic chamber [ 92 ]. Chilling rate is mainly dependent on thermal conductivity, initial temperature of foods, density, moisture content, presence or absence of a lid on the food storage vessel, presence of plastic bags as food packaging equipment, and the size as well as weight of food units [ 93 ]. Table 11 describes various methods for chilling solid and liquid food items.

Advantages and disadvantages of chilling Chilling storage is extensively used for its effective short-term preservation competency. Chilling retards the growth of microorganisms and prevents post-harvest metabolic activities of intact plant tissues and post-slaughter metabolic activities of animal tissues. It also impedes deteriorative chemical reactions, which include enzyme-catalyzed oxidative browning, oxidation of lipids, and chemical changes associated with color degradation. It also slows down autolysis of fish, causes loss of nutritive value of foods, and finally bares moisture loss [ 90 ]. Chilling is high capital intensive since this process requires specialized equipment and structural modifications. Chilling may reduce crispiness of selected food items [ 95 ]. Chilling process also dehydrates unwrapped food surfaces, which is a major limitation of chilling process [ 96 ].

Irradiation

Irradiation is a physical process in which substance undergoes a definite dose of ionizing radiation (IR) [ 97 ]. IR can be natural and artificial. Natural IR generally includes X-rays, gamma rays, and high-energy ultraviolet (UV) radiation; artificially generated IR is accelerated electrons and induced secondary radiation [ 98 , 99 ]. IR is used in 40 different countries on more than 60 different foods [ 97 ]. The effects of IR include: (a) disinfestation of grains, fruits, and vegetables, (b) improvement in the shelf life of fruits and vegetables by inhibiting sprouting or by altering their rate of maturation and senescence, and (c) improvement in shelf life of foods by the inactivation of spoilage organisms and improvement in the safety of foods by inactivating foodborne pathogens [ 100 , 101 ]. Different factors of food irradiation techniques are listed in Table 12 .

Regulatory limits of irradiation The IR dose delivered to foods is measured in kilo grays (kGy). 1 gray is equivalent to ionizing energy dose absorbed by 1 kg of irradiated material. IR regulatory limits are set by the legislative bodies. Depending on the regulatory authority, these limits may be expressed as minimum dose, maximum dose, or approved dose range [ 98 ]. Table 13 presents different regulatory limits for food irradiation applications.

Effects of Irradiation The nutritional parameters, such as lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and most vitamins, remain unaffected by IR even at high doses [ 102 ]. At a high dose, IR may cause the loss of some micronutrients, most notably vitamins A, B1, C, and E. According to FDA, IR has effects on food nutritive value that is similar to those of conventional food processing techniques [ 102 ].

High-pressure food preservation

High hydrostatic pressure or ultra-high pressure processing (HPP) technology involves pressure attribution up to 900 MPa to kill microorganisms in foods. This process also inactivates spoilage of foods, delays the onset of chemical and enzymatic deteriorative processes, and retains the important physical and physiochemical characteristics of foods. HHP has the potential to serve as an important preservation method without degrading vitamins, flavors, and color molecules during the process [ 58 , 103 , 104 ]. Freshness and improved taste with high nutritional value are the peerless characteristics of HPP technology. This process is also environmental friendly, since energy consumption is very low and minimal effluents are required to discharge [ 105 , 106 ]. The major drawback of this technology is the high capital cost. In addition, limited information and skepticism about this technology also limit the wide application of HPP processes [ 58 , 78 , 105 ].

Mechanism and working principle HP process follows Le Chatelier’s principle and isostatic principle [ 58 ]. According to Le Chatelier’s principle, biochemical and physicochemical phenomena in equilibrium are accompanied by the change in volume and hence influenced by pressure. Regardless of the shape, size, or geometry of the products, the isostatic principle relies on the instant and uniform pressure transmittance throughout food systems [ 58 ]. HP processes affect all reactions and structural changes where a change in volume is involved. The combined effect of breaking down and permeabilization of cell membrane kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms. Vegetative cells are inactivated at 3000 bar pressure (approximate) at ambient temperature, while spore inactivation requires much higher pressure in combination with the temperature rise to 60 °C to 70 °C. Moisture level is extremely important in this context since little effect is noticeable below 40% moisture content [ 81 ]. Container processing and bulk processing are two methods of preserving foods under high pressure. Table 14 presents the advantages and limitations of in-container and bulk processing of foods under high pressure.

Pulsed electric field

Pulsed electric field (PEF) food processing is defined as a technique in which food is placed between two electrodes and exposed to a pulsed high voltage field (20–40 kV/cm). Generally, the PEF treatment time is less than one second [ 84 ]. Low processing temperature and short residence time of this process allow a highly effective inactivation of microorganisms [ 107 ]. PEF processing is much effective to destroy gram-negative bacteria than gram-positive bacteria. Vegetative cells are much sensitive than spores to this process. All cell deaths occur due to the disruption of cell membrane function and electroporation [ 29 ]. PEF technology retains taste, flavor, and color of the foods. Furthermore, this technique is not toxic [ 108 ]. However, this process has no impact on enzymes and spores. It is also not suitable for conductive materials and only effective to treat liquid foods. This process is energy extensive and may possess environmental risks [ 72 , 109 ].

Preservation of liquid foods Nonthermal food preservation processes, such as HPP and PEF, are reported to be more effective than thermal processing [ 110 , 111 , 112 ]. Microbial inactivation achieved by PEF mainly depends on electric field strength (20–40 kV/cm) and number of pulses produced during processing [ 112 ]. It has been found that most of the spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms are sensitive to PEF. However, it is noted that treatment of plant or animal cells require a high field strength and higher energy input, which increases the processing cost. In addition, this kind of field strength may destroy the structure of solid food. Therefore, PEF is more favorable to preserve liquid foods. Microbial inactivation by PEF has been found effective for fruit or vegetable juices, milk, liquid egg, and nutrient broth [ 107 ].

Processing parameters Different types of foods are processed using PEF process. Processing parameters of different PEF-treated foods are listed in Table 15 .

Biological process: fermentation

Fermentation method uses microorganisms to preserve food. This method involves decomposition of carbohydrates with the action of microorganisms and/or the enzymes [ 113 ]. Bacteria, yeasts, and molds are the most common groups of microorganisms involved in fermentation of a wide range of food items, such as dairy products, cereal-based foods, and meat products [ 114 , 115 ]. Fermentation enhances nutritional value, healthfulness, and digestibility of foods. This is a healthy alternative of many toxic chemical preservatives [ 116 ].

Classification of fermentation Fermentation can be spontaneous or induced. There are different types of fermentation used in food processing. Mechanisms of different food fermentation techniques are briefly discussed below:

Alcohol fermentation is the result of yeast action on the simple sugar called ‘hexose’ converting this into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The quality of fermented products depends on the presence of alcohol. In this process, air is excluded from the product to avoid the action of aerobic microorganisms, such as the acetobacter. This process ensures the longer shelf life of the products. The following equation illustrates alcohol fermentation by conversion of hexose [ 117 ]

Vinegar fermentation takes place after alcohol fermentation. Acetobacter converts alcohol to acetic acid in the presence of excess oxygen [ 114 , 118 ]. Under this method, food products are preserved as pickles, relishes, etc. [ 104 ]. Vinegar fermentation results in acetic acid and water by oxidation of alcohol [ 114 ]

Lactic acid fermentation takes place due to the presence of two types of bacteria: homofermenters and heterofermenters. Homofermenters produce mainly lactic acid, via the glycolytic (Embden–Meyerhof pathway). Heterofermenters produce lactic acid plus appreciable amounts of ethanol, acetate, and carbon dioxide, via the 6-phosphogluconate/phosphoketolase pathway [ 114 ].

Homolactic fermentation—The fermentation of 1 mol of glucose yields two moles of lactic acid

Heterolactic fermentation—The fermentation of 1 mol of glucose yields 1 mol each of lactic acid, ethanol, and carbon dioxide [ 114 ]

In the fermentation process, different kinds of microorganisms are used exclusively to produce flavor in foods, which are presented in Table 16 [ 113 ].

Chemical processes

Food preservation using chemical reagents is one of the ancient and traditional methods [ 119 ]. Effectiveness of this method depends on the concentration and selectivity of the chemical reagents, spoilage-causing organisms, and the physical and chemical characteristics of food items [ 120 ]. The global consumption and application of food additives and preservatives are extending. At present (2012 data), North America dominated the food preservative market followed by Asia–Pacific. It is expected that the food preservative market will reach to a volume of $2.7 billion by the end of 2018 [ 121 ]. However, using chemical reagents as food additives and preservatives is a sensitive issue because of health concerns [ 122 ]. In different countries, the applications chemical preservatives and food additives are monitored and regulated by different acts, rules, and government authorities [ 119 , 123 , 124 ].

Chemical preservatives

Preservatives are defined as the substances capable of inhibiting, retarding, or arresting the growth of microorganisms or any other deterioration resulting from their presence [ 125 ]. Food preservatives extend the shelf life of certain food products. Preservatives retard degradation caused by microorganisms and therefore maintain the color, texture, and flavor of the food item [ 125 ].

Food preservatives can be classified as natural and artificial. Animals, plants, and microorganisms contain various chemicals which have potential to preserve foods. They also function as antioxidants, flavorings, and antibacterial agents [ 126 ]. Table 17 presents different natural reagents with their functions as food preservatives. Artificial preservatives are produced industrially. These can be classified as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antienzymatic [ 127 ]. The classification of artificial preservatives used in food industry is presented in Table 18 .

Food additives

The key objectives to use food additives are to improve and maintain nutritional value, to enhance quality, to reduce wastage, to enhance customer acceptability, to make food more readily available, and to facilitate processing food items [ 131 ]. Food additives can be either natural or synthetic chemical substances that are used intentionally during processing, packaging, or storage of foods to bring desired changes in food characteristics. Food additives can be divided into two major groups: intentional and incidental. Among these two, intentional additives are strictly controlled by government authority [ 131 ]. According to the National Academy of Sciences (1973), additives are prohibited to disguise faulty process, to hide spoilage, damage, or other inferiority, and apparently to deceive consumer. Moreover, if additives cause substantial reduction in nutrition, then their uses are also unaffiliated [ 131 ]. Table 19 presents different types of food additives with their possible applications.

Possible health effects of food additives and preservatives

Chemical food additives and preservatives are mostly considered safe, but several of them have negative and potentially life-threatening side effects. For example, nitrates, upon ingestion, are converted to nitrites that can react with hemoglobin to produce met-hemoglobin (aka: met-hemoglobin), a substance that can cause loss of consciousness and death, especially in infants. Different artificial food colorings, such as tartrazine, allura red, ponceau, and benzoate preservatives, have adverse effects on the behavior of infants; these additives are credited as the cause of the hyperactive behaviors of infants [ 133 ]. Preservatives also have intolerances among people who have asthma. Sulfites (including sodium bisulfite, sodium meta-bisulfite, and potassium bisulfite) found in wine, beer, and dried fruits are known to trigger asthmatic syndromes and cause migraines in people who are sensitive to them. Sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite are also classified as ‘probable carcinogenic elements’ to humans by International Agency for Research of Cancer (IARC) [ 134 ]. Nitrites and benzoates may have adverse effects on pregnant women. Sodium nitrite intake lowers hemoglobin and hematocrit values of pregnant women. Both benzoate and nitrite induce decrease in serum bilirubin and increase in serum urea. Consequently, the mean weight and length of the fetus get lowered [ 135 ]. Nitrites, after ingestion, get converted into nitrosamines, which could be harmful to a fetus [ 136 ]. Table 20 discusses the excerpts of negative effects of harmful food preservatives.

Analysis of market economy of preserved foods: global perspective

Food processing industries hold a dominating position in global economy. The processed food market is undergoing constant growth due to technological advancements, increasing demand, and the taste and behavioral pattern of consumers. Both developed and developing countries are opting new food processing and distribution methods responding to this progress [ 142 , 143 , 144 ].

The global fruit and vegetable processing industry is expected to grow at an accelerated pace in the upcoming years. Domestic demand for industry products is expected to grow particularly strong, specifically in developing economies, such as China and India. On the other hand, demand in developed economies (such as the USA) is expected to decline at a marginal rate as consumers increasingly replace their consumption of processed fruits and vegetables with fresh produce. Trade in processed fruit and vegetable products is expected to grow at an annualized rate of 3.3% in the next five years (2016–2021); the overall industry revenue is expected to grow at an annualized rate of 3.0% (2016–2021) [ 145 ]. Figure 6 represents the present and future trend of vegetable and fruit processing industries in the world.

Present and future trend of vegetable and fruit processing industries [ 145 ]

The developing world produces majority of the world’s fresh fruits and vegetables [ 145 ]. According to data sourced from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, China produces about half of the world’s vegetables and one-third of the world’s fruits [ 142 , 145 ]. The production of processed fruits and vegetables occurs in all regions of the globe. However, high-tech, large-scale fruit and vegetable processing operations are concentrated primarily in Europe and Asia [ 145 ]. Table 21 represents the contribution of different regions in global processed fruit and vegetable production. Many leading fresh product producing countries often import fresh products from separate countries to meet the demand of their food processing industries. Production in developing nations is also growing to meet the demand of growing population. As a result, the number of industry enterprises and workers are forecast to grow at annualized rates of 2.2 and 1.6%, respectively, till 2017 [ 145 , 146 ]. After 2019–2020, a decline in the growth of global vegetable and food processing industries is anticipated (Fig. 6 ) because of the following possible reasons [ 118 , 145 , 146 ]:

Global vegetable and food processing industries are expected to face fierce competition from substitute foods, such as fresh fruit and vegetables;

Technological change will be relatively minimal and focused on improving processing efficiency; and

Industry product categories will be well defined with relatively minimal product innovation.

The chilled food market has been showing an upward trend throughout the world, and it reached to a size of 57 billion kilograms in 2015 worth of 11.4 billion euros [ 108 ]. Chilled food products include chilled fish/seafood, chilled pizza, chilled ready meals, chilled fresh pasta, sandwiches, salads, chilled meat products, and deli food which includes cured, fermented, and cooked meals [ 147 ]. The UK chilled food market had a growth rate of 3.6% in 2014 and expected to grow more than 15% over the next five years [ 148 ]. The US frozen food market revenue is expected to reach 70 billion USD by the end of 2024 [ 106 ].

Milk and alcoholic beverages mostly constitute pasteurized food market [ 149 ]. Presently, almost all the countries consume pasteurized liquid milk. Pasteurized milk constitutes 70% of global liquid milk market [ 150 ].

The world beverage market is expected to have an annual growth rate of 1.5% in 2015 [ 151 ]. In USA, the total beverage industry was more than USD $1.2 trillion [ 152 ]. Asia’s beverage market is expected to experience unprecedented growth as well by taking two-thirds of global incremental consumption by 2021. China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Thailand, and Vietnam are among the key growing markets, and in a whole Asia is predicted to take 47.2% share of global beverage market in 2021 [ 153 ].

USA and Europe hold the major share in sterilized food market. However, the Asian market is also expected to show satisfactory growth in the upcoming years. The global sterilization market was valued at $3.1 billion in 2012 and is forecast to reach $4.2 billion by 2017 at a compound annual growth rate of 6.1% [ 154 ].

One of the major revolutionary inventions of human civilization was acquiring the knowledge to preserve foods as it was the precondition to man to settle down in one place and to develop a society. However, increasing shelf lives of food items without compromising original food properties is still critical and challenging. Food is an organic perishable substance, which is susceptible to spoilage due to microbial, chemical, or physical activities. Different traditional techniques, such as drying, chilling, freezing, and fermentation, had been evolved in the past to preserve foods and to maintain their nutrition value and texture. With time and growing demands, preservation techniques have been improved and modernized. Irradiation, high-pressure food preservation, and pulsed electric field effect are the latest innovations used to increase shelf life of foods. Different chemical reagents have also been introduced as food additives and preservatives. However, there are growing concerns of using chemical additives and preservatives in food items because of possible health hazards.

To meet the growing demand of consumers, food preservation and processing sector has been expanding in a rapid manner. To ensure food safety and long shelf life of foods, it is important to understand food spoilage mechanisms and food preservation techniques. This review has compiled and discussed different food categories, different food spoilage mechanisms, and mechanisms and applications of traditional and advanced food preservation techniques. This article will be useful for the professionals and researchers working on food processing and food safety to develop effective and integrated methods to preserve foods.

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SKA and MMU carried out a major part of the literature review and drafted the manuscript. RR and SMRI carried out literature review for selected sections and helped to revise the manuscript. MSK conceived the study, supervised the research project, coauthored and supervised manuscript preparation, and helped to finalize the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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This research was supported by BCEF Academic Research Fund and CASR Research Fund, BUET. The research and manuscript are free of conflict of interest.

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Amit, S.K., Uddin, M.M., Rahman, R. et al. A review on mechanisms and commercial aspects of food preservation and processing. Agric & Food Secur 6 , 51 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-017-0130-8

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The impact of food preservation on food waste

Wayne martindale.

1 National Centre for Food Manufacturing, Food Insights and Sustainability Service, University of Lincoln, Holbeach, UK

Walter Schiebel

2 Institute for Marketing and Innovation, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the relationship between food preservation and reducing consumer waste is of value in developing sustainable meal options. The research reports insights into Austrian marketplace for frozen and fresh foods that have been obtained from a consumer survey.

Design/methodology/approach

The consumer survey methodologies indicate how preservation can change meal planning and lower food waste across frozen and fresh and ambient food purchases using freezing preservation methods.

The results show food waste can be reduced by six-fold when frozen foods are compared with fresh foods.

Research limitations/implications

This study highlights the requirement for a greater understanding of the probability that specific foods will be wasted with respect to the frequency of purchase. This is a limitation of the current study that has been investigated by other researchers.

Practical implications

This research has enabled the identification of different food waste amounts for different food product categories. The data presented could be used to guide food product development so that less consumer waste is produced.

Social implications

The research suggests a decision matrix approach can be used to can guide new product development and a model of this matrix is presented so that it may provide fit-for-purpose food preservation options for consumers.

Originality/value

This paper will continue to highlight the overlooked value of food preservation during processing and manufacturing of foods and their preparation in households.

Introduction

Consumers produce the greatest amount of food waste and loss in the food supply chains of developing and developed economies ( Gustavsson et al. , 2011 ). A recent pan-European food waste programme has identified consumer food waste as a major challenge (COST Action TD1203, EUBIS). The COST Network, EU network on food waste valorisation has given attention to solving the amount of consumer food waste produced through technological and policy interventions ( Morone et al. , 2017 ; Privett et al. , 2016 ). Reducing all food losses will result in a more secure global food system and it is important for us to show how consumers can reduce food waste in households. This is where food preservation has an important role in facilitating this waste reducing action because it improves the utilisation of food. It has also been identified that understanding why food is wasted by consumers during meal occasions develops of waste reduction strategies that can be used for different foods and preservation methods ( Martindale, 2014 ).

Previous food waste reduction initiatives have typically focussed outside of this consumer arena and they have focussed on manufacturing and retail food losses. They have been successful at designing out food waste using the right-weighting of food products (portion control) and light-weighting of packaging (material resource efficiency). Their success has been made possible through cooperative actions across the food industry that have developed joint responsibility for food waste. It is essential that these initiatives now act to reduce the food that consumers purchase but do not eat ( Mena et al. , 2011 ). Furthermore, FAO reported Food Balance statistics show supply chain losses for food groups such as meat, fruit and vegetables to be below 5 per cent of production or domestic supply quantities ( Martindale, 2017 ). While these food losses remain incredibly important it is reported by national agencies and government departments that consumers’ food waste regularly reaches 20 per cent or more of food purchased ( Defra, 2017 ).

There has been an emergence of re-distribution schemes and community focussed actions that have been successful at removing food waste from supply chains. Redistribution of foods that are close to shelf-life limits and schemes that facilitate providing food to consumers such as “community fridges” have an exceptionally important role to play in waste reduction particularly where communities experience limited accessibility and affordability of foods. The redistribution of foods from retailers and manufacturers that are close to shelf life limits or charitable donations has also seen the impact of using on-line communication technologies that connect providers with consumers of redistributed foods ( Aschemann-Witzel et al. , 2017 ; Aschemann-Witzel et al. , 2015 ). What has become evident in this arena is the reduction of food wastes from the food supply chain to the point of consumer sale is dependent on the application of many actions. That is, there is no single solution here and many actions that redistribute, involve communities and use on-line technologies will help to reduce food waste and create awareness of responsible use of foods. The study reported here highlights the value of preservation technologies and the need for food category models that take account of differing shelf life and quality considerations because these will help to guide food policy. Previous studies of fresh and frozen shelf life of foods have shown a reduction in household waste associated with frozen food use ( Martindale, 2014 ). A more recent study in the Netherlands has developed a stochastic model to show the influence of ambient, frozen and fresh preservation on household food waste ( Janssen et al. , 2017 ). This study is critically important because it shows how food preservation methods that extend shelf life of foods in the home can reduce food waste over annual time periods. These studies also suggest that knowledge of food preparation and the best use of foods in households are critical in waste reduction.

Schemes that engage and redistribute resources to reduce food waste do not fully address the issue of food and drink products being wasted by consumers because they are not designed to reduce food waste. They redistribute food that would otherwise be waste; the study reported here focusses on reducing the wastage of food that is purchased with the intention of using it. The preservation of foods and types of food preservation methods available to consumers can facilitate this because it reduces food degradation and improves the utilisation of food in the domestic environment. This is a principle that has remained largely unconsidered even though the production of food waste increases greenhouse gas emissions or the carbon footprint of food consumption ( Garnett, 2013 ; O’Rourke, 2014 ). It is crucial to consider food waste reduction as an outcome of using preserved foods because research carried out previously demonstrated it can help us to define the sustainability of meals that consumers prepare ( Martindale, 2017 ).

In this study, it is demonstrated how frozen preservation can provide greater utilisation of food by consumers and reduce household food waste. It is not intended to show frozen is the only option for reducing consumer food waste. It is hoped that the research will highlight the use of preservation methods in reducing consumer food waste and that there are several factors that must work together in food waste reduction is to be successful. Previous research carried out in the UK market compared fresh and frozen food use in households and the amount of consumer food waste was dependent on food preservation method. The study showed a 47 per cent reduction in household food waste for frozen products compared to fresh products ( Martindale, 2014 ).

Frozen food in this study is defined by all food that is frozen via quick freezing; this ensures the cell intactness and preserves the nutritional value of the food. The process of freezing food in this household focussed study is defined as non-frozen food which gets frozen via a standard freezer (at home), as such this is slow freezing where cell structure is not maintained and it is less beneficial than quick freezing but adds to shelf life significantly. The definition of fresh food in this study is all non-frozen and non-freezing food.

Working with frozen foods not only gives us an opportunity to consider the value of food preservation in households but we must also consider manufacturing factories providing efficient use of resources and continual availability ( Tukker, 2015 ). This provides us with the opportunity to develop models of food preservation that identify control points in the supply chain that can maximise food waste reduction. Frozen and freezing foods define this requirement more effectively than many other food supply chains that do not preserve foods. The consideration of frozen or freezing foods in this study has provided an opportunity to investigate these wider impacts on food resource use by consumers. For example, freezing foods provides availability of out-of-season produce which can be included in the sustainability assessments of frozen and fresh produce ( Foster et al. , 2014 ). While these benefits of food preservation are important it is the impact on consumer food waste that is investigated here. The value of localising food supply is important in the sustainability arena if it can provide what consumers demand and increased resilience. There are studies that show localising food supply can achieve this, particularly where there are strong regional food identities and a cultural preference of using food service ( Caputo et al. , 2017 ). Localisation and the value of it to the food system are not within the scope of this current study even though it is important to consider food preservation has enabled the supply of foods that are out of season to consumers. Indeed, this was why preservation of fruits and vegetables using pickling and osmotic preserving emerged traditionally ( Martindale, 2017 ).

Frozen foods have played a pivotal role in enabling the global food supply chain to evolve and without that food losses would be increased in agriculture and processing. Many of the food supply chain issues highlighted in current food loss and food waste research do not exist with frozen foods because quick freezing leads to the extended shelf life gains that many waste reduction initiatives seek ( Parfitt et al. , 2010 ). Furthermore, freezing keeps within the conditions of “clean label” labelled trends and often provides greater portion control in the home ( Shove and Southerton, 2000 ). The “clean label” trend is now clearly identified in retail environments where there are demands for ingredient labelling that clarifies ingredients and communicates any potential allergens introduced in processing and manufacturing ( Asioli et al. , 2017 ).

The Austrian market research reported in this paper allows us to extend current understanding of the utilisation of frozen foods. It also leads us to consider the broader issue of what incentivises consumers to eat a more sustainable diet. Austrian households currently produce around 369,000 tons of packed and unpacked food waste each year and there is over 23.4 million tonnes of food waste produced by households across the EC member nations ( Bräutigam et al. , 2014 ; Stenmarck et al. , 2016 ). A sustainable diet must eliminate this food waste, the Austrian food waste volume is equivalent to 300€ of food thrown away per household year ( Lebersorger and Schneider, 2011 ; Penker and Wytrzens, 2005 ). The data presented here shows both frozen food purchases and household freezing decrease food waste significantly and this has important implications for providing sustainable meals and diets.

Research method

The Austrian market data was collected via an online survey carried out by the Institute of Marketing & Innovation, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU) and Gesellschaft für Konsumforschung (GfK SE) during July 2015 ( GfK, 2016 ). The survey questionnaire obtained data from 2,800 participants on the frequency of their food purchases for fresh and frozen foods.

The survey participants were selected to represent the typical Austrian population with regard to age and educational level. The selection made for geographic distribution across the Federal States was proportional to the population in each Federal State. The selection to the panel of 2,800 was made using the GfK market survey methods used for market research. GfK are a commercial and international company that provided the survey panel of 2,800 households. GfK’s services are routinely used by the food sector by manufacturers and retailers to develop business activities and identify food and drink trends. The participants used in this survey bought food and drink for their household and were asked how much food they wasted across six food groups as a percentage of the total amount of the food they purchased. The six food groups were selected because they were important food categories in Austria that have both frozen and fresh options. Notably this included bread where the offer and purchasing of frozen bread rolls is typical for Austrian consumers.

The participants of the survey were asked to consider their household food waste in a week from the food they purchased, partly utilised food, leftovers (plate waste) and preparation residues. The core questions of the survey that asked participants to report their proportion of food purchased that was wasted as a percentage were as follows:

What percentage of fresh food from your household purchases do you throw away?
What percentage of the frozen food from your household purchases do you throw away?
What percentage of fresh food from your household purchases do you throw away per following product groups?
What percentage of frozen food from your household purchases do you throw away per following product groups?

The food groups were fruit; vegetables (including specific questions for potatoes and spinach); bread (fresh only); pasta; meat; and, fish (fish sticks also known as fish fingers for frozen foods). The core questions were developed in terms of what food product groups were wasted in households. The survey also collected demographic information so that the 2,800 participants reflected a typical sample of the Austrian population and this was determined using GfK’s demographic methods.

Research results

The amount of food waste produced in the sample of 2,800 Austrian households is shown in Figure 1 . The data show that participants reported wasted 9.3 per cent of total fresh food purchased and 1.6 per cent of total frozen food purchased. Thus, the amount of reported food waste derived from the fresh foods is 5.8-fold greater than that of frozen foods in the 2,800 households assessed. This means that the six fresh food groups have a reported food waste that is 5.8-fold greater than comparable frozen food groups (see, Figure 1 ).

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Object name is brfoodj-119-2510-g001.jpg

The amount of food waste associated with the total purchases of fresh and frozen foods in Austrian households

Figure 2 , shows the food waste for fresh and comparable frozen food groups assessed in the Austrian study of 2,800 households. The food groups are fruits, vegetables, bread, pasta, meat and fish. Data obtained for the vegetable group were also specifically obtained for potatoes and spinach because of the importance of these products in the frozen categories. A similar approach was taken for fish products where fish sticks (also known as fish fingers) are an important frozen product category.

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Object name is brfoodj-119-2510-g002.jpg

The percentage of food purchases wasted for the fresh and frozen food product categories assessed

Figure 2 , shows the amount of food waste derived from fresh food purchases is greater than frozen food purchases across the six food groups assessed apart from fish which is assessed as “other fish” in the reported frozen products here. These data are summarised in Table I where the ratio of fresh to frozen food waste is provided.

The ratio of fresh to frozen food group waste for 2,800 Austrian households for the food product groups assessed

Research analysis

The goal of the research reported is to show how food waste behaviours connect many sustainability issues across the complex food choices consumers make when meals are prepared. Our research shows food manufacturers and food retailers occupy critical points in supply that can determine how these food consumption behaviours can be transformed into more sustainable ones. An important way of achieving this is through reducing the food waste associated with every meal.

Figure 1 , shows fresh foods purchased have a reported 5.8-fold greater food waste compared to frozen food purchases in a survey of 2,800 Austrian households. The assessment of waste from different food groups provides important insights into how households utilise fresh and frozen foods ( Figure 2 ). Table I , shows the ratio of fresh to frozen food waste across the food groups shown in Figure 2 . It can be seen that fresh food is wasted in greater amounts than frozen food in every category except fish where fresh food waste is 0.9 of frozen food waste. The ratios show that the greatest differences between fresh and frozen food groups are seen for fruit where fresh is 10.3-fold greater than frozen and potatoes where fresh is 7.8-fold greater than frozen.

Notably, the fresh to frozen ratio of specific food products ( Figure 2 ), include fresh vegetables and frozen spinach which is 13.8; and, for fresh fish and frozen fish sticks (also known as fish fingers) it is 2.0 in Austrian households. Spinach and fish sticks are specifically tested here because they are extremely popular for meal purchases in the Austrian and other European marketplaces. The 13.8-fold greater fresh vegetable waste than frozen spinach waste; and 2.0-fold greater fresh fish waste than fish stick waste is important because these products are developed to be directly placed into meals. They emphasise the impact of food product development when it is aligned to the portioning of food in meal preparation and if this is made to be optimal there is less food waste. This relationship between method of food preservation and portioning is also apparent with other food groups such as potatoes and pasta ( Table I ).

The reduction of food waste and correct meal portioning of specific food products are important because when they align and work together they can reduce food waste. This means data collected from consumers regarding what they consider to be the correct portion size in a meal is exceptionally valuable in waste reduction actions and it is rarely done. Obtaining such data is a challenge future research into food waste will need to address so that it can be transferred to food product development operations for maximum impact. The data collected here does not consider correct portion size data specifically but it does indicate its importance. The Austrian research reported here has shown that the fresh food thrown away per household per person for this sample was 37.48 kg each year while the frozen food thrown away per household per person was 6.46 kg and per year. The nutritional losses associated with food waste have yet to be fully characterised but they are an important component of food waste projections ( Halloran et al. , 2014 ).

While we can determine the environmental impact of consuming foods in terms of their carbon footprint, it is the impact of wasting foods as an outcome of consumption that concerns us here. This is important because assessment of the environmental value of foods requires considerable investment of finance, knowledge and skills. It seems futile to make this investment if the assessed foods are wasted downstream in the food supply chain as they are prepared and consumed. New supply chain models are required to promote the value of reducing food waste and guide processes such as freezing that can reduce food waste. The data presented in Figure 1 , clearly demonstrate a means to reduce the environmental impact of the food we choose to eat by reducing waste if frozen and freezing options are considered. The difficulty is that consumers choose foods based on what they like and this frequently changes, the choices made will rarely consider the impact of high level issues such as climate change but food waste reduction will be considered. This is because there is a very clear financial benefit to eliminating household food waste.

Current carbon footprinting methods show us that agri-production and global distribution can be the least of our problems because food wastage can be up to 20 per cent of food purchases and food losses across the supply chain can be far greater than this ( Foster et al. , 2014 ). It is difficult to communicate such sustainability trade-offs in consumer arenas because debates are too complex to be made at the point of purchase. This is partly because carbon footprinting results are extremely variable due to the diversity of different food production systems and this has been tackled by developing certifications that target many sustainability goals. These have changed consumption of food by highlighting specific issues so that more ethical purchases are made such as those concerned with sustainable fishing, rainforest produce and so on. But it is day-to-day food waste at home and in supply chains that can make any diet unsustainable regardless of food certification used. Different preservation formats can reduce food waste and in the case of frozen food we know it can be reduced with respect to fresh foods because less of it is thrown away. There is no evidence that the nutritional values of frozen foods are any different to fresh foods if robust quality standards are in place from farm to fork. The nutritional losses resulting from food waste are significant and it is important to develop a food supply chain that is not losing these resources through wastage. There is not currently a certification that shows food produced with less waste or the use of food products that result in less waste and it is evident that there is a requirement to at least highlight the value of reducing consumer food waste. Food certification schemes that take household food waste reduction into account must be a future consideration in food and drink fast-moving consumer goods.

These ideas lead us to summarise the research presented here as a decision matrix model ( Table II ). The decision matrix highlights the major themes of consumer food waste reduction using frozen foods or freezing foods in households. It is proposed that such a matrix can be used to help food technologists guide the development of products with respect to preservation format and household food waste reduction. What is evident from the decision matrix analysis is a requirement to highlight the value of food preservation in reducing household food waste in the consumer space. This can be achieved by communicating through food companies’ Corporate Social Responsibility programmes as well as interventions that improve culinary knowledge in households. There are several emerging methods for achieving these interventions including digital applications that aim to reduce food waste and social media communications by creating consumer interest movements. It is important that food waste reduction initiatives integrate with these communication methods that consumers use ( Martindale, 2017 ).

The decision matrix used to define the use of food preservation to reduce consumer food waste

Research conclusion

The research reported here shows purchased fresh foods have a six-fold greater food waste compared to purchased frozen food in a survey of 2,800 Austrian households. The research supports previous research conducted in the UK where a 47 per cent food waste reduction was demonstrated for frozen foods compared to fresh foods. This relationship shows maximal resource use is achieved for frozen food products that are manufactured for the convenience of being included in meals. The conclusion is that food manufacturers, food retailers and policy makers must consider the role of food preservation in delivering a sustainable diet. The decision matrix approach here provides initial guidance in new product development a basis for doing this and it is supported by data sets that have now been obtained in the Austrian and UK markets.

Acknowledgments

The APC has been sponsored by MPC Research Ltd.

Biographies

Dr Wayne Martindale is a Project Director for the Food Insights and Sustainability Service at the National Centre for Food Manufacturing, University of Lincoln. He is CSIRO McMaster and OECD Fellow directing a diverse folio of consumer focussed research in food and drink.

Professor Walter Schiebel is a University Professor of Agricultural Marketing and Nutritional Economics with extensive experience in International Academic and Consulting Projects in Western and Eastern Europe.

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Biology Article
Food Preservation Methods Food Poisoning

Food Preservation Methods - Food Poisoning

Food is a source of energy for all of us. Unhealthy or spoiled food is the major cause of diseases in humans. This is known as food poisoning. To prevent this the food needs to be preserved in a variety of ways. Read on to explore what is food preservation and different methods of food preservation.

Food Preservation Definition

“Food preservation is the technique to prevent food spoilage, food poisoning, and microbial contamination in food.”

What is Food Preservation?

Food preservation is one of the methods to protect food from unwanted microbial growth. After the food is produced, we store and protect by covering the rice and curry with lids to keep away flies and other insects. By this, we are protecting it from any infection caused by them. This is a short-term condition. Food preservation, on the other hand, is done to preserve food for a longer time.

Objectives of Food Preservation

Following are the important objectives of food preservation:

To prevent microbial contamination.
To kill pathogens.
To minimise food spoilage and food poisoning.

Food Preservation Methods

Food preservation started long back in ancient times. Cooling, freezing, fermentation, sun-drying, etc., are few age-old food preservation techniques. With the advent of technology, modern methods of food preservation were developed. Chemicals and other natural substances were used for preservation. These substances are known as preservatives. Let us discuss some of the methods of preservation in detail.

Methods of Food Preservation

Chemical Method

Salt and edible oils are two main preservatives which are used since ages to prevent microbial growth. This is why we add extra oil to pickles. Preservation by salt is known as salting. Salting helps to preserve fruits for a long term. Meats and fishes can also be preserved by salting.

Other synthetic preservatives include vinegar, sodium benzoate, sodium metabisulphite, etc.

Sugar is another common preservative used in jams and jellies. Sugar is a good moisture absorbent. By reducing moisture content, it restrains the microbial growth.

Heat and Cold Methods

Boiling and refrigeration prevent around 70 percent of microbial growth. Boiling kills the microorganisms that cannot tolerate extreme temperatures. Thus, it helps in food preservation.

Refrigerators have very low temperatures. Since microbes do not get optimum temperature they need for growth, their growth is inhibited. Pasteurization developed by Louis Pasteur is used until today to preserve milk.

Smoking prevents dehydration in fish and meat and thus prevents spoilage. The wood smoke contains a large number of anti-microbial compounds that slow the rancidification of animal fats.

The food contents are sealed in an airtight container at high temperatures. Meat, fish, fruits are preserved by canning.

Sterilization

This method is carried out to remove microbes from food. For eg., milk sterilization at 100°C kills the microbes.

Dehydration

It is the process of removal of water from food. It is the simplest method and prevents food spoilage by removing water.

Lyophilization

This is the process of freezing and dehydration of the frozen product under vacuum.

This method is also known as cold sterilization. The UV rays, X rays, gamma rays kill all the unwanted microbes present in food.

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Overview of The Research on Food Preservation by Sugar and Salt

Categories: Food Safety Salt Sugar

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Published: Feb 11, 2023

Words: 1916 | Pages: 4 | 10 min read

Introduction, conclusion , recommendation.

The attack by pathogens disease causing microorganisms, such as bacteria and molds;
Oxidation that reasons the destruction of indispensable biochemical compounds and/or the destruction of plant and animal cells.
Advisory Committee on the Microbiological Safety of Food (ad hoc Group on Vulnerable Groups). Increased incidence of listeriosis in the UK (draft report). 2008
Ainsworth P, Plunkett A. Reducing salt in snack products, Reducing salt in foods: Practical strategies. Kilcast D, Angus F, editors. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead P; 2007. pp. 296–315
Barbut S, Tanaka N, Maurer AJ. Effects of varying levels of chloride salts on Clostridium botulinum toxin production in turkey frankfurters. Journal of Food Science. 1986;51(5):1129–1131.
Baublits RT, Pohlman FW, Brown AH Jr, Yancey EJ, Johnson ZB. Impact of muscle type and sodium chloride concentration on the quality, sensory, and instrumental color characteristics of solution enhanced whole-muscle beef. Meat Science. 2006;72(4):704–712
Bautista-Gallego J, Arroyo-Lopez FN, Duran-Quintana MC, Garrido-Fernandez A. Individual effects of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium chloride salts on Lactobacillus pentosus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae growth. Journal of Food Protection. 2008;71(7):1412–1421

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Free Report About History Of Food Preservation

The history of food preservation begins with the understanding that the spoilage of food

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A New Law Would Remove Many Architectural Protections in Miami Beach

Lawmakers say preservationists held too much power over decisions on whether buildings should be demolished and what should be allowed to replace them.

Palm trees in front of the Sherry Frontenac hotel. Different facets of the hotel are alternately painted in white and light blue.

By Julia Echikson

The oceanfront Eden Roc Hotel is an icon of Miami Modernist architecture, a style that epitomized the postwar glamour and grandeur of Miami Beach. Two turquoise panels wrap the white facade. The oval canister perched atop the building resembles a cruise ship’s funnel. Crooners like Frank Sinatra, Harry Belafonte, and Sammy Davis, Jr., stayed and played there.

But a new Florida law could make it easier for hotels like the Eden Roc and other architectural icons along Miami Beach’s coastline to be demolished.

The battle pits the pressures of development and climate change against the benefits of historical preservation, in a city that has long paved over its past and prizes the new, shiny, and glitzy.

Supporters say the law addresses environmental and safety challenges of aging properties after the deadly 2021 collapse of the Champlain Towers South condo. But critics believe the legislation is a pretext to facilitate the demolition of historical buildings — ones that give Miami Beach its distinct look — to make way for high-rise luxury condos.

The new law effectively strips Miami Beach Historic Preservation Board of its long-held power to say whether historic structures can be demolished and, if a structure is knocked down, to ensure that at least some elements of its design are preserved or replicated.

“Let’s just bulldoze the past — that’s their idea,” said Daniel Ciraldo, the executive director of the nonprofit Miami Design Preservation League. “I don’t think we’ve seen such an attack on our local controls since the 1980s, back when the city first started to do historic preservation.”

The legislation, signed last week by Gov. Ron DeSantis, is known as the Resiliency and Safe Structures Act, had been passed easily by both houses of the Republican-controlled Florida Legislature by a 36 to 2 vote in the Senate and an 86 to 29 vote in the House.

Moris Moreno for The New York Times

It allows owners to demolish buildings in high-risk coastal flood zones if local officials deem the structures unsafe, if the local government has jurisdiction, or if the buildings don’t conform to the base flood elevation requirements set by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Preservationists warn that few, if any, historical buildings meet the federal agency’s current standards.

The law targets oceanfront buildings along the so-called coastal construction control line, a border created to delineate how close developers can build to the coast. In Miami Beach, the endangered properties are concentrated among the Miami Modernist, or MiMo-style resorts along Collins Avenue in the Mid Beach and North Beach neighborhoods, such as the Faena, Casablanca, Carillon, Sherry Frontenac, Edition hotels, as well as a handful of Art Deco buildings in the South-of-Fifth neighborhood, such as the Savoy Hotel.

As sea levels continue to rise around Florida and hurricanes grow strong and frequent, legislators believe local preservation boards have grown too powerful to the detriment of property owners, making a change in the law necessary.

“Boards have weaponized this process,” said Spencer Roach, a state representative who cosponsored the bill, during a committee hearing last month.

Representative Roach said the preservation boards were requiring owners to build their properties back to the original specifications. “It renders them prohibitively expensive to insure and guarantees that these buildings will be demolished again the next time a storm comes along,” added the lawmaker, who represents North Fort Myers, which was hit hard by Hurricane Ian in 2022.

Buildings erected replace historic structures would be subject to regular zoning laws, making input from preservation boards obsolete.

After a 2017 electrical fire at the Deauville — a MiMo resort, where The Beatles performed on the “Ed Sullivan Show” in 1964 — the Miami Beach government sued the owners, the Meruelo family, to compel renovations. The Meruelos said they didn’t have the funds. By 2022, months after the Champlain condo collapse, the hotel had fallen into such disrepair that a local building official deemed it unsafe and ordered it to be demolished. The Miami Design Preservation League appealed the building official’s demolition order to the Miami-Dade Board of Rules and Appeals, but a Miami judge upheld the order, and the building came down in 2022.

Preservationists fear that the new legislation will incentivize other owners to follow suit.

Architecture helped put Miami Beach on the map as a global destination. Colorful, sleek Art Deco represented a lifeline for the city during the Great Depression. Despite the hard times, some developers still saw an opportunity in Miami Beach hospitality, thanks to the town’s reputation for freewheeling hedonism that reigned during Prohibition. With their limited resources, the developers built short, two to three-story hotels, opting for the trendy urban aesthetic at the time, which was Art Deco.

After a lull in construction during World War II, the next architectural style that swept Miami was homegrown: Miami Modernism. Inspired by the boxy, white structures of European modernist architecture and the retrofuturist aesthetic of midcentury design, MiMo embodied the postwar economic boom of the 1950s and 1960s. The architect Morris Lapidus led the charge, drawing up wide and tall resorts, such as the now iconic Fontainebleau and Eden Roc that attracted the Hollywood stars.

But in the late 1970s, Miami Beach faced financial woes and developers threatened to tear down old properties. Activists, led by Barbara Baer Capitman , saw the historic preservation of the Art Deco and later MiMo buildings as a way of reviving the city. The renewed attention helped attract artists and designers, such as Gianni Versace, who rebranded the seedy beach town as a cosmopolitan party destination.

Had preservationists lost, “Miami Beach would be no different than any other beach resort,” said Robin F. Bachin, a history professor at the University of Miami.

Neither Representative Roach nor his co-sponsor on the bill, Bryan Avila, a Florida state senator, responded to several requests for comment by telephone and email.

This was the second time legislators tried to pass a law. The initial effort failed last year after strong opposition from some local officials and preservationists. This time around, the law exempts St. Augustine, Palm Beach, Key West, and the famed section of the Ocean Drive promenade in Miami Beach, which is lined with pastel-colored Art Deco buildings, as well as individual buildings such as the Fontainebleau Hotel.

In recent years, Miami Beach residents have pushed back on development. In November, Miami Beach voters elected a new mayor who vowed to “stop overdevelopment.” In 2022 referendums, Miami Beach voters rejected two proposals to redevelop city-owned properties into office and mixed-use developments, as well as the replacement project for the Deauville hotel that was designed by the architect Frank Gehry.

The pull and tug between construction and conservation is nothing new for Miami Beach, a town long powered by showmanship and real estate speculators. “It was capitalism that created South Beach in the ’30s,” said Keith D. Revell, a professor of public administration at Florida International University, whose research focuses on the redevelopment of South Beach.

And then “the preservation movement came along and said ‘This is not just real estate. They’re historic, valuable — we need to acknowledge that.’”

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A Brief History of Food Preservation

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Food Preservation: Methods and Their Importance

Methods of Food Preservation

Drying Methods

Dehydration Method

Food Preservation by Fermentation

Preservation by Cold Treatment

Food Preservation by Heat Treatment

Preservation by Blanching

Preservation by Irradiation

Food Preservation by Canning

Importance of Food Preservation

Drawbacks of Food Preservation

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