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A More Sustainable Path to 2050

Science shows us a clear path to 2050 in which both nature and 10 billion people can thrive together.

August 30, 2019

Written for The Nature Conservancy Magazine Fall 2019 issue by Heather Tallis, former lead scientist for TNC.

A few years ago The Nature Conservancy began a process of reassessing its vision and goals for prioritizing its work around the globe. The resulting statement called for a world where “nature and people thrive, and people act to conserve nature for its own sake and its ability to fulfill and enrich our lives.”

That sounds like a sweet future, but if you’re a scientist, like I am, you immediately start to wonder what that statement means in a practical sense. Could we actually get there? Is it even possible for people and nature to thrive together?

Our leaders had the same question. In fact, when the vision statement was first presented at a board meeting, our president leaned over and asked me if we had the science to support it.

“No,” I said. “But we can try to figure it out.”

There is a way to sustain nature and 10 billion people.

Explore the path to a better world. Just 3 changes yield an entirely different future.

Ultimately, I assembled a collaborative team of researchers to take a hard look at whether it really is possible to do better for both people and nature: Can we have a future where people get the food, energy and economic growth they need without sacrificing more nature?

Modeling the Status Quo: What the World Will Look Like in 2050

Working with peers at the University of Minnesota and 11 other universities, think tanks and nonprofits, we started by looking into what experts predict the world will look like in 2050 in terms of population growth and economic expansion. The most credible projections estimate that human population will increase from about 7 billion people today to 9.7 billion by 2050, and the global economy will be three times as large as it is today.

Our next step was to create a set of mathematical models analyzing how that growth will influence demand for food, energy and water.

We first asked how nature will be doing in 2050 if we just keep doing things the way we’ve been doing them. To answer this, we assumed that expanding croplands and pastures would be carved out of natural lands, the way they are today. And we didn’t put any new restrictions on the burning of fossil fuels. We called this the “business as usual” scenario. It’s the path we’re on today. On this current path, most of the world’s energy—about 76%—will come from burning fossil fuels. This will push the Earth’s average temperature up by about 5.8 degrees Fahrenheit, driving more severe weather, droughts, fires and other destructive patterns. That dirty energy also will expose half of the global population to dangerous levels of air pollution.

Dig into the Research

Explore the models behind the two paths to 2050 and download the published findings.

We first asked how nature will be doing in 2050 if we just keep doing things the way we’ve been doing them.

Meanwhile, the total amount of cropland will increase by about the size of the state of Colorado. Farms will also suffer from increasing water stress—meaning, simply, there won’t be enough water to easily supply agricultural needs and meet the water requirements of nearby cities, towns and wildlife.

In this business-as-usual scenario, fishing worldwide is left to its own devices and there are no additional measures in place to protect nature beyond what we have today. As a result, annual fish catches decline by 11% as fisheries are pushed to the brink by unsustainable practices. On land, we end up losing 257 million more hectares (about 10 Colorados) of our native forests and grasslands. Freshwater systems suffer, too, as droughts and water consumption, especially for agriculture, increase.

Overall, the 2050 predicted by this business-as-usual model is a world of scarcity, where neither nature nor people are thriving. The future is pretty grim under this scenario—it’s certainly not a world that any of us would want to live in.

We wanted to know, “does it really have to be this way?”

Modeling a More Sustainable 2050

Next, we used our model to test whether predicted growth by 2050 really requires such an outcome. In this version of the future, we allowed the global economy and the population to grow in exactly the same manner, but we adjusted variables to include more sustainability measures.

The 2050 predicted by the business-as-usual model is a world of scarcity, where neither nature nor people are thriving. The future is pretty grim under this scenario—it’s certainly not a world that any of us would want to live in.

We didn’t go crazy with the sustainability scenario. We didn’t assume that everyone was going to become a vegan or start driving hydrogen cell cars tomorrow. Instead, the model allowed people to continue doing the basic things we’re doing today, but to do them a little differently and to adopt some green technologies that already exist a little bit faster.

In this sustainable future, we limited global warming to 2.9 degrees Fahrenheit, which would force societies to reduce fossil fuel consumption to just 13% of total energy production. That means quickly adopting clean energy, which will increase the amount of land needed for wind, solar and other renewable energy development. But many of the new wind and solar plants can be built on land that has already been developed or degraded, such as rooftops and abandoned farm fields. This will help reduce the pressure to develop new energy sources in natural areas.

We also plotted out some changes in how food is produced. We assumed each country would still grow the same basic suite of crops, but to conserve water, fertilizer and land, we assumed that those crops would be planted in the growing regions where they are most suited. For example, in the United States we wouldn’t grow as much cotton in Arizona’s deserts or plant thirsty alfalfa in the driest parts of California’s San Joaquin Valley. We also assumed that successful fishery policies in use in some places today could be implemented all over the world.

Under this sustainability scenario, we required that countries meet the target of protecting 17% of each ecoregion, as set by the Convention on Biological Diversity. Only about half that much is likely to be protected under the business-as-usual scenario, so this is a direct win for nature.

What 2050 Could Look Like

The difference in this path to 2050 was striking. The number of additional people who will be exposed to dangerous levels of air pollution declines to just 7% of the planet’s population, or 656 million, compared with half the global population, or 4.85 billion people, in our business-as-usual scenario. Air pollution is already one of the top killers globally, so reducing this health risk is a big deal. Limiting climate change also reduces water scarcity and the frequency of destructive storms and wildfires, while staving off the projected widespread loss of plant and animal species (including my son’s favorite animal, the pika, that’s already losing its mountain habitat because of climate change).

In the sustainability scenario we still produce enough food for humanity, but we need less land and water to do it. So the total amount of land under agricultural production actually decreases by seven times the area of Colorado, and the number of cropland acres located in water-stressed basins declines by 30% compared with business as usual. Finally, we see a 26% increase in fish landings compared to 2010, once all fisheries are properly managed.

Although the land needed for wind and solar installations does grow substantially, we still keep over half of nearly all the world’s habitat types intact, and despite growth in cities, food production and energy needs, we end up with much more of the Earth’s surface left for nature than we would under the business-as-usual scenario.

Our modeling research let us answer our question. Yes, a world where people and nature thrive is entirely possible. But it’s not inevitable. Reaching this sustainable future will take hard work—and we need to get started immediately.

3 Sustainable Changes To Make Now

That’s where organizations like TNC come in. The Conservancy is working on strategies with governments and businesses to adopt sustainable measures, providing near- and long-term benefits to society as a whole. Our research shows there’s at least one path to a more sustainable world in 2050, and that major advances can be made if all parts of society focus their efforts on three changes.

First, we need to ramp up clean energy and site it on lands that have already been developed or degraded. In the Mojave Desert, for instance, TNC has identified some 1.4 million acres of former ranchlands, mines and other degraded areas that would be ideal for solar development. We need to do much more to remove the policy and economic barriers that still make a transition to clean energy hard. Technology is no longer the major limiting factor. We are.

The most critical action each of us can take is to support global leaders who have a plan for stopping climate change in our lifetimes.

Second, we need to grow more food using less land and water. One way to do that is by raising crops in places that are best suited for them. The Conservancy has been piloting this, too. In Arizona, TNC partnered with local farmers in the Verde River Valley to help them switch from growing thirsty crops like alfalfa and corn in the heat of the summer to growing malt barley, which can be harvested earlier in the season with less draw on precious water supplies. This is not a revolutionary change—the same farmers are still growing crops on the same land—but it can have a revolutionary impact.

Finally, we need to end overfishing. The policy tools to do so have been available for many years. What we must do now is get creative about how we get those policies adopted and enforced. One example I have been impressed by is our work in Mexico, where TNC is involved in looking at the root causes of what’s limiting good fishing behavior. The answer is unexpected: social security debt that many fishers have accrued by being off the books for many years. The Conservancy is exploring an ambitious partnership and a novel financial mechanism that could forgive this debt and persuade more fishers to report their catch and adopt sustainability measures.

The Most Important Change Now: Clean Energy

These are just a few examples from North America. There are many more from around the world. To achieve a more sustainable future, governments, industry and civic institutions everywhere will have to make substantial changes—and the most important one right now is to make a big investment in clean energy over the next 10 years. That’s a short timeline, but not an impossible one. I don’t like what I’m seeing yet, but I’m hopeful. It took the United States just a decade to reach the moon, once the country put its mind to the goal. And solar energy is already cheaper (nearly half the price per megawatt) than coal, and outpacing it for new capacity creation—something no one predicted would happen this fast.

We need to do much more to remove the policy and economic barriers that still make a transition to clean energy hard. Technology is no longer the major limiting factor. We are.

How will we get there? By far the most critical action each of us can take is to support global leaders who have a plan for stopping climate change in our lifetimes. Climate may not feel like the most pressing issue at times—what with the economy, health care, education and other issues taking up headlines. But the science is clear: We’ve got 10 years to get our emissions under control. That’s it.

We’ve already begun to see the impacts of climate change as more communities face a big uptick in the severity and frequency of droughts, floods, wildfires, hurricanes and other disasters. Much worse is on the way if we don’t make the needed changes. It’s been easy for most of us to sit back and expect that climate change will only affect someone else, far away. But that’s what the people in Arkansas, California, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas, Washington, the Dominican Republic, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Mexico, the United Kingdom, the Philippines, India and Mozambique thought. Every one of these places—and many more—have seen one of the worst disasters on its historic record in the past 10 years.

There are so many paths we could take to 2050. Clearly, some are better than others. We get to choose. Which one do you want to take?

Stand up for a More Sustainable Future

Join The Nature Conservancy as we call on leaders to support science-backed solutions.

Getting to Sustainability

Carbon Capture

The most powerful carbon capture technology is cheap, readily available and growing all around us: Trees and plants.

Energy Sprawl Solutions

We can ramp up clean energy worldwide and site it wisely to limit the effect on wildlife.

Fishing for Better Data

Electronic monitoring can make fisheries more sustainable.

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The long day wanes: the slow moon climbs: the deep Moans round with many voices. Come, my friends, ‘Tis not too late to seek a newer world. -Alfred, Lord Tennyson

IMAGINE A NEWER WORLD: A Vision of a Nature-Rich Future, One We Can Create Together

This essay, which I sometimes share in my speeches, appeared in longer form in the 2012 paperback edition of “The Nature Principle.” In April 2017, in Vancouver B.C., at the Children & Nature Network’s International Conference, 864 delegates from 22 countries moved us a few steps closer to creating a nature-rich future. We’d love to hear your thoughts about what that future could be.

I magine a newer world.

A world in which all children grow up with a deep understanding of the life around them. Where all of us know the animals and plants of our own backyards as well as we know the televised Amazon rainforest, or better. Where the more high-tech our lives become, the more we experience nature in our lives. Where we come to all our senses, including our sense of humility. Where we feel more alive.

We seek a newer world where we not only conserve nature, but create it where we live, work, learn and play. Where yards and open spaces are alive with native species. Where bird and butterfly migration routes are healed by human care. Where wildlife (and childlife) corridors in every city serve as the bronchial and arterial passages of life and meaning. Where we transform public and private property, garden to garden, yard to yard, into a homegrown national park — and beyond that into a worldwide homegrown park.

Imagine a newer world where nature-rich cities serve as engines of biodiversity. Where decaying suburbs and inner-city neighborhoods and redundant, aging shopping malls are transformed into nature-rich ecovillages.

Where empty lots and green roofs become natural play spaces and community gardens. Where skyscrapers become vertical farms, with spirals and decks that produce food and enrich the health of people and other animals. Where, through biophilic design, built environments not only conserve energy but produce their own energy, including human energy — in the forms of higher productivity, creativity and health.

Where every hospital offers a healing garden, and pediatricians and other health professionals prescribe nature. Where park rangers become para-health professionals. Where antidepressants and pharmaceuticals are needed less and nature prescribed more. Where obesity – of children and adults – is reduced through nature play.

A newer world where the point of education is not rote and drill, but wonder and awe. Where education uses the power of the natural world to stimulate our ability to learn and create. Where “hybrid minds” are nurtured, amplifying the sensory and creative benefits of both virtual and natural experience.

Where every school has a natural space where children experience the joy of learning through play once again. Where teachers are encouraged to take their students on field trips to the nearby woods and canyons and streams and shores. Where educators feel their own sense of hope and excitement returning to their profession and to their own hearts.

Imagine a world where connecting people to nature becomes a growth industry. Where new businesses transform our homes, our workplaces, our lives, through nature. Where every regional economic study includes the measurable and immeasurable worth of watersheds and natural systems, and the restorative and healing powers of the natural world.

A newer world where children and adults feel a deep sense of identity with the bioregions in which they live. Where natural history becomes as important as human history to our regional and personal identities; where hstory is defined less by the battle of war and more by the stories of our kinship.

Where humans and other animals no longer live in oppostion. Where human-nature social capital enriches our daily lives, and where, as a species, we no longer feel so alone.

A world where children experience the joy of being in nature before they learn of its loss, where they can lie in the grass on a hillside for hours and watch clouds become the faces of the future.

Where every child and every adult has a human  right  to a connection to the natural world, and shares the responsibility for caring for it. Where  every  child regardless of race or economic status or gender or sexual identity or set of abilities has the opportunity to help create that nature-rich future.

Imagine a world where the strength of our spirit is not measured by the specificity of our language, but by the care and kinship we share with each other and with our fellow species on this Earth.

A world in which our last days are lived in the arms of mother nature, of land and sky, water and soil, wind and sea. A newer world we seek and to which we return.

Commentaries on the C&NN website are offered to share diverse points-of-view from the global children and nature movement and to encourage new thinking and debate. The views and opinions expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the position of C&NN. C&NN does not officially endorse every statement, report or product mentioned.

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Richard Louv is Co-Founder and Chairman Emeritus of the Children & Nature Network, an organization supporting the international movement to connect children, their families and their communities to the natural world. He is the author of ten books, including “Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children from Nature-Deficit Disorder,” “The Nature Principle,” and “Vitamin N.” His newest book is “Our Wild Calling: How Connecting to Animals Can Transform Our Lives — and Save Theirs.” In 2008, he was awarded the Audubon Medal. He speaks frequently around the country and internationally.

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Resources for a Newer World

• A FIELD GUIDE TO THE NEW NATURE MOVEMENT
• CHILDREN & NATURE NETWORK’S RESEARCH LIBRARY
• C&NN’s GREEN SCHOOLYARDS INITIATIVE
• C&NN’S NATURAL FAMILIES NETWORK
• BIOPHILIC CITIES PROJECT
• 8 80 CITIES

More reading

RESTORING PEACE: Six Ways Nature in Our Lives Can Reduce the Violence in Our World

• LET’S CREATE A WORLDWIDE HOMEGROWN PARK
• WE’RE RICH (IN NATURE)! by Nicholas Kristof, The New York Times

Women’s Herstory Month: Nature connectors and protectors who inspire the children and nature movement

The urgent case for green schoolyards during and after covid-19, csu researchers forge new trails to bridge the gap between research and practice in outdoor programming, girls who click: inspiring young female nature photographers, steam beans is demystifying nature — and science — for black girls, stay inspired: subscribe.

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Bringing the Nature Futures Framework to life: creating a set of illustrative narratives of nature futures

• Special Feature: Original Article
• Operationalizing the Nature Futures Framework to Catalyze the Development of Nature-future Scenarios
• Open access
• Published: 04 May 2023

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• América Paz Durán 1 , 2 ,
• Jan J. Kuiper   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6655-9355 3 ,
• Ana Paula Dutra Aguiar 3 , 4 ,
• William W. L. Cheung 5 ,
• Mariteuw Chimère Diaw 6 , 7 ,
• Ghassen Halouani 8 ,
• Shizuka Hashimoto 9 ,
• Maria A. Gasalla 10 ,
• Garry D. Peterson 3 ,
• Machteld A. Schoolenberg 11 ,
• Rovshan Abbasov 12 ,
• Lilibeth A. Acosta 13 ,
• Dolors Armenteras 14 ,
• Federico Davila 15 ,
• Mekuria Argaw Denboba 16 ,
• Paula A. Harrison 17 ,
• Khaled Allam Harhash 18 ,
• Sylvia Karlsson-Vinkhuyzen 19 ,
• HyeJin Kim 20 , 21 ,
• Carolyn J. Lundquist 22 , 23 ,
• Brian W. Miller 24 ,
• Sana Okayasu 11 ,
• Ramon Pichs-Madruga 25 ,
• Jyothis Sathyapalan 26 ,
• Ali Kerem Saysel 27 ,
• Dandan Yu 28 &
• Laura M. Pereira 3 , 29  

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To halt further destruction of the biosphere, most people and societies around the globe need to transform their relationships with nature. The internationally agreed vision under the Convention of Biological Diversity—Living in harmony with nature—is that “By 2050, biodiversity is valued, conserved, restored and wisely used, maintaining ecosystem services, sustaining a healthy planet and delivering benefits essential for all people”. In this context, there are a variety of debates between alternative perspectives on how to achieve this vision. Yet, scenarios and models that are able to explore these debates in the context of “living in harmony with nature” have not been widely developed. To address this gap, the Nature Futures Framework has been developed to catalyse the development of new scenarios and models that embrace a plurality of perspectives on desirable futures for nature and people. In this paper, members of the IPBES task force on scenarios and models provide an example of how the Nature Futures Framework can be implemented for the development of illustrative narratives representing a diversity of desirable nature futures: information that can be used to assess and develop scenarios and models whilst acknowledging the underpinning value perspectives on nature. Here, the term illustrative reflects the multiple ways in which desired nature futures can be captured by these narratives. In addition, to explore the interdependence between narratives, and therefore their potential to be translated into scenarios and models, the six narratives developed here were assessed around three areas of the transformative change debate, specifically, (1) land sparing vs. land sharing, (2) Half Earth vs. Whole Earth conservation, and (3) green growth vs. post-growth economic development. The paper concludes with an assessment of how the Nature Futures Framework could be used to assist in developing and articulating transformative pathways towards desirable nature futures.

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Introduction

What type of living world will exist in 50 or 100 years? How will human activities be intertwined with natural processes? Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) have agreed to move towards a world in which humanity is “Living in harmony with nature”, by 2050. There are many ways that people could plausibly live in harmony with nature; however, there exist only a limited number of scenarios that describe a desirable future for both nature and people, covering a relatively narrow range of possibilities and pathways (Leclère et al. 2020 ; Wyborn et al. 2020 ).

Popular discussion of environmental futures, in novels, TV series, and films, is dominated by dystopian visions of human ill-being and environmental degradation (Bennett et al. 2016 ; McPhearson et al. 2016 ; Berber 2018 ). This is understandable, because recent history has been characterised by the rapid unravelling of the fabric of life that supports humanity (Diaz 2022 ). However, shifting to a trajectory that reweaves the web of life will require transformative change (Diaz et al. 2019 ; IPBES 2019 ; Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2020 ), and a key step to promote such change is the identification of pathways to reach a world that achieves the goal of “living in harmony with nature” (Wyborn et al. 2020 ; IPBES 2016 ; Shin et al. 2019 ).

It is important that alternative visions or pathways towards the goal of “living in harmony with nature” are considered, because people and organisations have multiple views of what such a world would look like, what values such a world should recognise and embrace, and what types of changes are needed to create such a world. Alternative views generate debates that range over many connected topics. For example, there is a well-established, and much criticised, debate within conservation as to whether land sparing (separation) or land sharing (integrating) of conservation and food production would maximise sustainability outcomes (Fischer et al. 2014 ; Loconto et al. 2020 ; Collas et al. 2023 ). A second debate has emerged over whether biodiversity conservation would benefit more from a ‘Half Earth’ approach that protects half the earth, including land and ocean, from human impact (Wilson 2016 ), and with a focus on justice for non-human species (Kopnina 2016 ) versus a ‘Whole Earth’ approach that argues that biodiversity would be better protected by addressing the main drivers of biodiversity loss (Büscher et al. 2017 ). Another debate focuses on the configuration of economies away from a growth-oriented paradigm as being pivotal in achieving biodiversity conservation targets (Moranta et al. 2022 ; Otero et al. 2020 ) and there has been a call to include post-growth scenarios in the analysis of different climate trajectories (Hickel et al. 2021 ). These are three examples of the most influential debates of which changes are needed for people to live in harmony with nature, as sought for under the CBD. A scenario framework to systematically assess alternative trajectories of nature needs to be able to include plural perspectives to enable a transparent debate on the value choices underlying each potential intervention.

While academic work on global futures does include futures in which humanity manages to address climate change and development challenges, few scenarios exist that describe a future in which global biodiversity targets are achieved (Pereira et al. 2020a , b ; Schipper et al. 2020 ). Global assessment studies, such as the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the IPBES Global Assessment, have assessed how well different futures succeed in achieving at least a few key targets on biodiversity, but generally these studies indicate that even “sustainability scenarios” are unlikely to achieve global biodiversity targets (Sala et al. 2005 ; Shin et al. 2019 ; Schipper et al. 2020 ). Some target-seeking scenarios do exist, showing that biodiversity loss can be reversed if a portfolio of additional measures is incorporated, including increased conservation efforts and the critically important inclusion of measures tackling the drivers of biodiversity loss (Chai et al. 2019 ; Leclère et al. 2020 ). A greater diversity of pathways that articulate alternative nature-rich futures is needed to enable people and organisations to better imagine strategies, policies and actions that can achieve the CBD’s goals of living in harmony with nature.

The Nature Futures Framework

The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) supports the development of new nature-oriented scenarios. The IPBES Plenary at its 7th session (2019) established a task force on scenarios and models, whose role includes catalysing the further development of scenarios and models by the broader scientific community for future IPBES assessments. This work builds on the IPBES Methodological Assessment of Scenarios and Models of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services that identified a range of knowledge gaps and challenges (IPBES 2016 ). Following decision IPBES-4/1 by the IPBES Plenary, the task force began a participatory process to catalyse the filling of knowledge gaps and development of desired nature futures. This led to the development of the Nature Futures Framework, a flexible tool to support the development of scenarios and models of desirable futures for people, nature and Mother Earth, Footnote 1 described in Pereira et al. ( 2020a , b ), and the foundations of which have been welcomed by the IPBES Plenary at its ninth session (IPBES 2022a ).

The Nature Futures Framework focuses on the multiple types of values that underpin relationships between people and nature. It was specifically designed to bridge diverse ways that humans value nature in the efforts to create more nature-centred visions and scenarios. As there are many ways of ‘living in harmony with nature’, depending on what particular value perspectives on nature are considered to manifest ‘harmony’, the Nature Futures Framework builds on stakeholder consultations that generated a wide range of visions of desirable futures for biodiversity and people (Lundquist et al. 2017 ; Pereira et al. 2020a , b ), as well as on the terminology used in the IPBES guidance on values that identifies intrinsic, instrumental, and relational nature values (Pascual et al. 2017 ; IPBES 2022b ). The Nature Futures Framework places values that people have for nature at its core (IPBES 2022c ). This focus differs from other global scenarios that have considered nature and people’s connection to nature as outcomes (Rosa et al. 2017 ).

These diverse ways in which people value nature can be used to characterise a diverse range of relationships that people have with nature, and based on these, to develop possible future scenarios. The Nature Futures Framework identifies a minimal triangular space that represents the relative influence of three value perspectives on the relationship between people and nature: Nature for Nature (NN) , Nature for Society (NS) and Nature as Culture/One with Nature (NC) (Fig.  1 ). Relationships between people and nature can be visualised using this triangular space. Each corner illustrates a different type of relationship between people and nature—underpinned by its corresponding nature value—while the interior of the triangle represents a combination of these idealised types (Fig.  1 ), for example, reindeer pastoralism that is part cultural and partly for subsistence. Desirable futures for nature are represented within the triangle where nature is highly valued, whereas undesirable states for nature and people are represented by the space outside the triangle. Nevertheless, the framework does not aim to prescribe any particular narratives or scenarios as preferred based on their location in the Nature Futures Framework, reflecting that value preferences vary culturally and geographically (IPBES 2022a , b , c ). The coloured circles (Fig.  1 ) associated with each value perspective blend together where they intersect, showcasing that they are not mutually exclusive (IPBES 2022a ).

The Nature Futures Framework (NFF) and the three main value perspectives constituting the relative space within the NFF (from Pereira et al. 2020a , b ; IPBES 2022a , b , c )

The Nature Futures Framework can be used to assess models and scenarios in terms of what types of nature values they emphasise (e.g. Quintero-Uribe et al. 2022 ). It provides a tractable way of organising multiple types of nature values, which allows the Nature Futures Framework to be applied across diverse social, geographical, and sectoral contexts. This pluralism is especially important in developing scenarios, because different values of nature continually co-exist, conflict, and combine and result in diverse configurations of human-nature relationships (Jacobs et al. 2020 ; Pascual et al. 2021 ). Currently, the IPBES task force on scenarios and models is developing methodological guidance to support the operationalisation of this framework by scientific communities and other stakeholders to use it to improve models and develop scenarios (IPBES 2022c ).

In this paper, members of the IPBES task force on scenarios and models use the Nature Futures Framework to develop a methodological approach for the creation of narratives that characterise different types of people–nature relationships. The information captured in these types of narratives can be used to assess and develop scenarios and models whilst acknowledging the underpinning value perspectives on nature. We also present the narratives resulting from this methodological exercise, which can be used as illustrative examples for future work on the framework implementation and scenario development.

Narratives provide a frame in which to discuss and interpret quantitative results, as well as to highlight issues to model, and as a result they play a key part in the design of scenarios and models (O’Neill et al. 2017 ). The narratives developed here, referred to as illustrative narratives, seek to help users of the Nature Futures Framework to translate nature values represented within the framework’s triangle into concrete forms of people–nature relationships, such as the way we farm, acquire energy for living, or manage land for nature conservation. The term illustrative reflects that these narratives exemplify the multiple ways in which desired nature futures can be represented. The pluralistic and qualitative information captured by the illustrative narratives can be used as the basis for scenarios and models development. A prior step to narrative development is the characterisation of “scenario skeletons” (Alcamo and Henrichs 2008 ; Pereira et al. 2017 ), which represent a scenario’s main structure and core features. Scenario skeletons provide enough detail to communicate, compare, and elaborate the conceptual and technical components of a set of scenarios and models prior to their quantitative data analysis. If these skeletons are developed as full scenarios, it is then possible to link the latter to their corresponding underlying nature values.

This paper outlines the methods used to develop a set of scenario skeletons consistent with the Nature Futures Framework and its relative space, which were then used to build their corresponding illustrative narratives. We articulate lessons from this process that can be used to support the operationalisation of the Nature Futures Framework. The paper concludes by explaining how this work can contribute to the advancement of modelling multiple value perspectives on nature, and provide some suggestions on how to further operationalise the Nature Futures Framework to facilitate scenario development.

Materials and methods

In February 2020, the IPBES task force on scenarios and models organised a workshop in Shonan Village, Hayama, Japan, to develop illustrative scenario narratives from the Nature Futures Framework (PBL 2020 ). Nine members of the task force attended in person and 24 remotely due to the COVID-19 pandemic. There were also follow-up online activities among the task force to elaborate, revise, and refine the developed narratives and methodology (PBL 2020 ).

The goal of the workshop was to test the Nature Futures Framework by developing a set of scenario skeletons for “new narratives for nature”, using insights gained during previous consultations and workshops (Lundquist et al. 2017 ; PBL 2019a , b ). This was done through four steps described below: (1) reviewing the Nature Futures Framework and its triangular space; (2) defining scenario skeletons through thematic characterisation; (3) developing illustrative narratives within the Nature Futures Framework space; and (4) aligning and comparing narratives.

Reviewing the Nature Futures Framework and its ‘relative space’

The Nature Futures Framework illustrates how it is possible to acknowledge a diverse mixture of values of nature depending where in the triangle one is situated. Accordingly, different locations within the triangle are associated with different combinations of specific nature values, represented in each of the corners of the triangle: intrinsic, instrumental, and relational. In this regard, the triangle of the Nature Futures Framework can be understood as a ‘relative space’. The mixture of nature values associated with a location has to be coherent and consistent with the surrounding location’s values, including the three main corners. For instance, if one is situated at the ‘Nature for Nature’ corner where the intrinsic value is at its maximum and moves halfway towards the ‘Nature for Society’ corner (Fig.  1 ), the nature values and its corresponding people–nature relationships represented in this new location must coherently and consistently incorporate elements of instrumental values represented by the ‘Nature for Society’ corner.

Exploring the relativity of the triangle space was the first step of the process of narrative development, whereby we identified the locations within the triangle to be developed into scenario skeletons, whilst outlining the mixture of interconnected nature values associated with these locations. To this end, workshop participants chose six locations within the Nature Futures Framework (Fig.  2 ): the three corners of the triangular space (extreme value perspectives) and the three sides (locations that represent a combination of two corresponding value perspectives). A seventh location was considered, in the centre of the triangle space—consisting of a mix of the three value perspectives in the corners of the triangle, but we decided not to characterise it because the extremes and combinations of two values were clearer and allowed for paired comparisons (" Aligning narratives to capture the nature values gradient ").

Adapted from Kim et al. ( 2021 )

Value perspective locations (circles) and descriptive characteristics (bullets) of the illustrative narratives. These scenario skeletons lay within a fully relational space (axes); the position of each scenario skeleton is dictated by its relation to the adjacent and opposite one.

A preliminary characterisation of the nature values was done by reviewing and extracting information from IPBES workshops’ reports (Lundquist et al. 2017 ; PBL 2018 , 2019a , b ; Pereira et al. 2020a , b ), and by considering, in particular, the visions of desired nature futures that were created during a large stakeholder workshop in Auckland, New Zealand, in 2017 (Lundquist et al. 2017 ). The seven visions resulting from the Auckland workshop emphasised different preferences for people–human relationships and could be, therefore, distributed across the triangle space based on their associated underlying nature values (PBL 2019a ). For example, while some visions emphasised the indirect and intangible benefits of biodiversity, others emphasised the direct uses of nature (Lundquist et al. 2017 ). We note that, while these visions were considered a logical starting point for the sense-making of the locations in the triangle, the framework offers enough flexibility to implement other participatory approaches to identify locations within the triangle and characterise their nature values.

In the process of defining the interdependence among locations and corresponding nature values, it was important to identify common features that could be considered desirable across the futures. For instance, futures where the Sustainable Development Goals (UN 2016 ) were met was considered as a starting point, recognising that there are several possible pathways to meet these goals and that each would result in a different future. For example, we included poverty eradication (SDG 1), nutritious diets (SDG 2), access to clean water (SDG 6), and gender equity (SDG 5), among others. In addition, it was considered necessary for the direct drivers of climate change to be managed for the futures to be ‘desirable’. This includes futures where strong climate mitigation has limited global warming to 1.5–2 °C, habitat loss and overexploitation have been halted, and pollution has been greatly reduced.

Defining scenario skeletons through thematic characterisation

The six identified locations across the triangle of the Nature Futures Framework provided a relative space of nature values that permitted the characterisation of each scenario skeleton, which in turn would establish the structure of the illustrative narratives. At this point, it was important to perform a structured characterisation of scenario skeletons, since this would allow us to systematically compare the resulting narratives to extract their differences and similarities (further details in " Developing illustrative narratives within the Nature Futures Framework space " and " Aligning narratives to capture the nature values gradient ").

To build each skeleton, we characterised a set of themes which were expected to be important components of social–ecological systems (e.g. trade, agriculture, law, energy) and should therefore be addressed in scenarios that describe desirable nature futures (Table 1 ). Categories of the STEEP framework (Social, Technological, Economical, Environmental, Political), which is widely used in strategic foresight (Schultz 2015 ), were used as a starting point to elaborate a total of 22 scenario themes. The thematic characterisation for each skeleton was performed using a cross-comparison table, where columns represented skeletons and rows represented the themes. Using this table, participants discussed how the six scenario skeletons differed from one another in terms of structure, functions, feedbacks, and how changes from the current world could produce these future visions. This imaginative exercise was designed to push beyond the boundaries of existing frameworks to ensure that six distinct desirable futures would capture diverse manifestations of people–nature relationships. The theme characterisation focused on one theme at a time (i.e. row by row) and considered the relativity of each theme across the six skeletons. At the same time, participants checked the coherence and consistency within each scenario skeleton across the themes. After describing the themes with the use of a cross-comparison table, participants titled the scenario skeletons with names that emphasised their corresponding value perspectives. The full cross-comparison table is presented in the supplementary information (ESM 1).

Developing illustrative narratives within the Nature Futures Framework space

The scenario themes were grouped into five overarching categories to provide a coherent structure for writing the illustrative narratives (Table 1 ). These categories were designed to group closely related themes so that similar themes were considered together in narrative development to promote consistency and efficiency. Participants wrote narratives for each scenario skeleton following a standard format based on one paragraph per overarching category. Drafting the paragraphs used the information in the cross-comparison table from Step 2.2 to ensure that each of the 22 themes were addressed within the five overarching categories. This standardised format for the six narratives enabled them to be systematically compared. Based on the captured similarities and differences, we then distributed narratives throughout the relative space of the triangle (see details in " Aligning narratives to capture the nature values gradient ").

Aligning narratives to capture the nature values gradient

A key objective of illustrative narratives is to acknowledge and track the (often implicit) underlying nature values of scenarios and models. To this end, it is important to be able to evaluate how the different elements of each narrative are interlinked, and how these would be differentiated and quantified in subsequent scenarios and models. To explore this, we arranged the six skeletons along three gradients represented by each of the three areas of the transformative change debate, specifically, the land sharing versus land sparing debate (Loconto et al. 2020 ), the Half Earth or Whole Earth approach (Büscher et al. 2017 ), and the green growth versus post-growth economic paradigms (Otero et al. 2020 ). These three areas were chosen to represent relevant debates that can be explored and analysed using scenarios and models. Each of the three gradients has two opposite points of view represented in the debate, with associated value perspectives on nature. We positioned the six skeletons along these three nature value gradients whilst maintaining a coherent interdependence of their characterised themes and nature values . Specifically, this exercise followed Hegel's system of dialectics in logic, where the “opposing sides” are different definitions of logical concepts that are opposed to one another (Hegel 2014 ). We considered this to be a useful framing, because it does not mean that one side is ‘right’ while the other is ‘wrong’, but, instead, says that they are opposing logics that cannot be simultaneously maintained, i.e. it is not possible to simultaneously have land sharing and land sparing, but it is possible to hold a relative space between them. Further, this is by no means an exhaustive list of transformative change interventions, but it allowed the skeletons to illustrate how diverse concepts on transformative change could be included in future scenarios for nature, whilst maintaining internal coherence.

To capture the relative positions of narratives along the gradients, we performed a paired comparison among narratives to extract and summarise specific differences and similarities. This paired comparison was facilitated by the structured format of the narratives, which followed the five overarching thematic categories. The full table with the paired comparisons is presented in the supplementary information (ESM 3).

Relative space within the Nature Futures Framework and scenario skeletons

Nature values of six locations within the triangular space are reflected in the characterisation of the scenario skeletons (Table 2 ). Since the three corners of the triangle represent the extreme value perspectives, their corresponding scenario skeletons were dominated by such a value perspective. The corner position of the triangle where the ‘Nature for Nature’ (NN) perspective is located is reflected by a scenario where nature’s value is intrinsic. This skeleton envisions a future where wilderness is dominant and therefore management intensity is low (Fig.  2 ). To characterise a society that functions under an intrinsic value for nature, participants described themes that pushed the boundaries of technology, architecture, governance and land management so humanity would minimise its scope while maximising nature’s. Accordingly, this skeleton was named ‘Arcology’ (NN, Table 2 ). The scenario skeleton that sits directly opposite the NN corner of the triangle is positioned between the ‘Nature as Culture’ (NC) and ‘Nature for Society’ (NS) corners, and therefore reflects a balanced point between the relational and instrumental nature values of these two corner perspectives (i.e. NC–NS; Fig.  2 ). The NC–NS location also reflects values that are coherently oppositional to the NN corner. As such, although this scenario skeleton envisions a context where management intensity is high (Fig.  2 ), the use of nature is innovative and respectful, therefore capturing the desirable relational and instrumental values represented in its location in the triangle. The resulting skeleton from this location was named ‘Sharing through sparing’ (NN–NS, Table 2 ).

The scenario skeleton located in the ‘Nature for Society’ corner emphasises an instrumental value perspective for people–nature relationships. While still sustainable, this skeleton frames a society that seeks to optimise the use of nature for people’s benefit, thus it is named ‘Optimising Nature’ (NS). In the opposite location, between ‘Nature for Nature’ (NN) and ‘Nature as Culture’ (NC), instrumental values towards nature are low (Fig.  2 ). Here, the scenario skeleton envisions a future where nature is lived as a culture that responds to the needs of people and communities while balancing the intrinsic values of nature. This skeleton was named ‘Innovative Commons’ (NC–NS).

The scenario skeleton located in the ‘Nature as Culture/One with Nature’ corner reflects a future with high relational values (Fig.  2 ), where values of reciprocity and harmony drive people’s relationships with nature at all levels of human organisation. This skeleton was named ‘Reciprocal stewardship’ (NC). The scenario skeleton opposite this corner, between ‘Nature for Nature’ (NN) and ‘Nature for Society’ (NS), reflects a vision with low relational values (Fig.  2 ). Here, the scenario skeleton envisions a society with a fairly strong use orientation towards nature, but that recognises that broad extents of wilderness are required to allow for the fundamental processes of nature. This skeleton was named ‘Dynamic Natures’ (NN–NC). Table 2 presents an overview of the comparison table and a summary of each of the scenario skeletons.

Illustrative narratives

Based on the characterised themes and skeletons, participants developed six narratives that followed the same structure. Because certain themes were more central to some scenario skeletons than others, the extent to which each specific theme is addressed varied. Below, we present a summary of each narrative (approximately 600 words), and a two-line summary of each narrative can be found in Table 2 . Full narratives (1,000–1,500 words) are in ESM2.

Narrative: Arcology (Nature for Nature)

This world is built on the Nature for Nature perspective. In this vision, people respect and value all life on Earth because it has intrinsic value. The world is characterised by extreme land sparing with optimal use of space within cities, while vast areas of land and sea are strictly protected. This alludes to the spirit of the Arcology—or spaceship living—built on high efficiency, no waste principles, and strongly regulated behaviour. People live in dense self-sustaining urban areas designed to minimise the impact of people in the biosphere and to preserve wild, autonomous nature.

To ensure highly connected wilderness areas and effectively preserve wilderness, more than 70% of natural areas are strictly protected. The high seas are designated as Marine Protected Areas with no take zones. All people live in high-tech cities that are very efficient in water use and recycling and designed to minimise pollution and the impact of resource extraction. In these city-states, the economy is mostly based on services and knowledge production. The city-states are controlled and operated under a strong and effective governance at the global level facilitated by highly structured international cooperation.

Human infrastructures are exclusively limited to urban areas and optimised to be respectful to the environment whilst adequately meeting the needs of the population. Underground hyperloops and drones are used to connect cities to minimise anthropogenic impacts on nature. In the interests of efficiency, the production of energy is highly optimised at large scale to supply the city-states and especially the data centres. All the energy is produced by the new generation of thermonuclear fusion reactors for a clean energy transition. To preserve water resources, the natural water cycle runs with little human intervention and all internal city water is cycled with the highest efficiency.

The management of microbiological processes is implemented for the delivery of nature’s contribution to people within cities (e.g. microbiotic systems for sanitising water quality, food production, etc.). To meet nutritional outcomes, technological advancements such as laboratory-grown meat have optimised meals to improve flavour and mimic cultural diversity of foods. Fresh food is limited to vertical urban gardens. The catches from marine and freshwater fisheries are limited, as most ecosystems are set aside as protected areas. Aquaculture production is restricted to specific areas and dominated by seaweed at scales that are well within ecological capacity and make use of technological processes like microalgae production.

Well-being is primarily generated through virtual reality and supported by smart technological systems based on the Internet of things. People willingly accept restrictions in their occupation of space. Environmental conservation and protection are the highest priority in constitutional law and by-laws. Therefore, environmental principles are integrated in all components of education. Policies enforce conservation and environmental laws and aim at facilitating their translation into the lives of people in city-states. Global policies and regulations establish political and diplomatic relations as well as norms of communication and behaviour outside the megacities and in the ways the arcologies must exchange and live with each other. To this end, although there is a high efficiency of material recycling, mining takes place under strict global protocols and can only take place underground, with no impacts to be felt in the biosphere. Asteroid mining is being contemplated to address these concerns. Urban security has precedence over personal privacy and this is reflected in preeminent policies, regulations, and laws which are carefully monitored and enforced.

Narrative: Sharing through Sparing (Nature for Nature/Nature for Society)

This vision sits in between Nature for Nature and Nature for Society . Societies have a fairly strong use orientation towards nature. However, people recognise that biodiversity and natural processes are fundamental to the resilience of the biosphere and enable humanity to stay within planetary boundaries. Thus, people do not seek to fully control, engineer or optimise the natural world. Rather, there is a deeply rooted understanding that benefitting from nature’s services, especially regulating services on a global scale, requires allocating and protecting extensive areas on the planet where natural dynamics can occur at large scale and biodiversity can thrive, aligning with a ‘Half Earth’ vision. Remaining areas are used intensively, but efficiently and sustainably.

Protected areas (PAs) are the primary tool to enable wilderness and natural dynamics. PAs focus on those areas that matter most for safeguarding the self-regulating capacity of the biosphere. No predetermined percentage of PAs is pursued; the percentage results from an evidence-based assessment of earth system science combined with algorithmic optimisation that considers human rights. An accounting system is in place to distribute costs and benefits related to the protection of nature among nation states and their citizens, supported by a mediation and arbitration institute that resolves conflicts. Extraction of natural resources outside PAs is heavily monitored and controlled to achieve sustainability, for which international treaties are in place. For marine systems this results in very limited bycatch, with all destructive fishing methods prohibited and historically collapsed stocks rebuilt. In terrestrial areas, where society does not let nature run its course, people engineer with nature to optimise ecosystem services.

Cities are nature inclusive and redesigned to cope with sustainability challenges and natural disasters. Urban lifestyles are fairly homogeneous and resource efficient, as an important part of people's lives unfold online. Tensions in communities that may result from this lifestyle are prevented through social innovation, with a large role for education. A combination of highly engineered nutrition-balanced diets with a range of fresh local and seasonal produce contributes to healthy lives. Governance is decentralised to a scale determined by urban areas and their surrounding landscapes, seascapes and protected areas. Outdoor agriculture generates high yields by making use of ecological principles and is complemented with high-tech greenhouse horticulture minimising resource input and maximising recycling to prevent pollution. This includes vertical horticulture in cities such as hydroponics and aeroponics. Aquaculture occurs in designated areas where nutrients are circulated as much as possible and focuses on low trophic level species (e.g. algae, bivalves) and multi-trophic systems of ‘high productivity, high protein' species. International trade is moderate, enabling geographically optimised generation of provisioning services.

Cities rely on local and regional energy generation from an optimal mix of renewables with smart grids. All water-, heat- and energy-use systems are within a circular economy framework with local and regional production, management and use. Transport is clean, efficient, and fossil fuel free, with dominant use of public transport for short to medium trips and limited use of personal transportation. Global and long-distance transportation is largely by air (clean blimp tech) and hyperloops. The economy has shifted to a green, interconnected market economy that is decoupled from environmental impacts, including telecoupled ones. Environmental sustainability is thus prioritised over economic growth. The private sector operates within a strict framework of rules, regulation, taxes, and natural capital accounting. Land-use and tenure regulations allow for productive use, with some protectionism limiting potential negative impacts on biodiversity and climate. Policies emphasise the primacy of global security over privacy rights with strict measures on protected areas and prioritising environmental and sustainable economy policies.

Narrative: Optimising Nature (Nature for Society)

This vision is based on the Nature for Society perspective. Societies seek to maximise efficient and sustainable utilisation of nature’s contributions to people, while ensuring maintenance of the key ecosystem functions that underlie them. The world is highly organised and regulated through top-down, centralised governance systems with a high degree of global cooperation. Following an emphasis on green growth, governmental institutions work closely with the private sector to advocate evidence-based decision-making that ensures resources are used efficiently and distributed equitably. Technological innovations are co-developed between producers, researchers, and industry to make use of local biodiversity, and to assess and monitor optimal ways of utilising nature’s contributions to people over time. Most people live in high-tech cities that are designed to maximise the efficiency of resource use and to support the sustainable delivery of multiple urban services, for example through pollination corridors, vegetated buildings, and artificial wetlands. Cities are highly connected through the transfer, sharing and trading of goods, services, knowledge, and technology. Cities are also highly connected with surrounding clusters of rural settlements.

Societies appreciate “tamed” nature which stimulates innovative entrepreneurship across urban–rural landscapes and localised ecosystem services flows (e.g. closing the nitrogen cycle at the landscape scale). Development projects employ natural capital accounting and focus on nature-based solutions for securing long-term prosperity. The ecologically literate population has a high awareness of the consequences of lifestyle choices, and the role of women’s knowledge in the sustainable use of biodiversity is well recognised and valued. People use environmentally friendly carbon-neutral public transport for connectivity across the planet. This reduces access inequalities and enhances liveability of rural areas. Energy supply is from renewable energy sources: decentralised, but connected by efficient ‘smart’ energy grids.

Food systems are global and fully integrated. Large international corporations together with effective government regulations ensure that production systems are highly efficient with low ecological impacts. Food processing technology is advanced, resulting in almost 100% use of biomass and nutrients from food products. Land use is multifunctional, and managed sustainably within a landscape matrix that supports ecosystem functioning, whilst delivering multiple co-benefits of NCP (Nature’s Contributions to People) and not simply food. This includes agro- and mixed-forestry systems, wetlands, and connected habitat mosaics to provide recreation and aesthetic value as well as supporting ecosystem resilience. Large land areas are used for crop and livestock production due to agricultural extensification, but to minimise trade-offs with nature, practices are biodiversity friendly, avoiding excess nutrients from fertilisation and minimising waste. Deforestation is avoided through restoration of degraded lands for production. Genetically modified crops are socially accepted and widely used. Almost all aquatic systems are used for food production from fisheries and aquaculture including the high seas and Exclusive Economic Zones, but technology allows for precise extraction of biomass to maximise for ecosystem-level production with low biodiversity loss. Incentive systems allow for efficient and effective control, monitoring, and regulation. Ecological extensification happens in aquaculture in both freshwater and marine systems with new multi-trophic aquaculture techniques and systems allowing for efficient utilisation of nutrients with minimum ecological impacts.

New knowledge and technology allow for precise and effective allocation of water resources to maximise its benefits to people, whilst ensuring environmental flows to support aquatic ecosystems. Other non-food extractive uses of natural resources, such as energy production and mining, take place on land and at sea. The use of data, technology, and strong multi-level governance ensure accurate environmental impact assessments. Limited losses of biodiversity and landscape modifications are considered socially acceptable if they do not adversely affect the long-term delivery of nature’s contributions to people. The few protected areas that exist safeguard key ecological functions that are essential for supporting nature’s contribution to people.

Narrative: Innovative Commons (Nature for Society/Nature as Culture)

This world sits between Nature for Society and Nature as Culture . In this vision, people have built a world of innovative ecological commons and live in interconnected blue-green cities and rural settlements across landscapes. Nature is lived as a culture that responds to the needs of people and communities, recognising a land sharing perspective where most biodiversity is conserved through use. This is made possible by a thriving blue-green social economy (i.e. reliant on circular principles and local solutions) that is interconnected through equitable trade of goods. The economy is regenerative: it does not just use markets, but creates new economic value through diverse value streams (e.g. domestic labour and community work), breaking away from profit-maximising exploitative relations. A wide diversity of socially oriented organisations (e.g. cooperatives, associations, social enterprises, community-based and integrated landscape initiatives) and institutions give shape to the social nature of the economy.

Governance is largely decentralised, but emphasises links between urban nodes to well connected rural groups across regions. Global governance is based on equitable representation of strong, autonomous regions. It strengthens a global movement for regional, decentralised systems that ensure that benefits do not accrue only to powerful actors. Medium-sized blue-green cities are designed around community-friendly ecological principles to deliver services, from spiritual gardens to universal clean water. They link with rural settlements to form a network of interconnected semi-autonomous entities across the landscape. Advanced nature-based technologies are shared and balanced by the decentralised nature of the digital commons and by P2P (peer to peer) networks that link virtual communities with “real” rural and urban communities of practice. A strong place-based cultural identity is diffused and shared throughout community-based networks and collaborative commons.

Transport is multimodal, using public as well as individual means of transport by land, air, sea and river, but it is based on innovative, low-impact technologies that connect people and goods locally and regionally. The energy system is a collaborative energy regime in which millions of people produce their own renewable energy (solar, wind, thermal, etc.) with the help of medium and micro–power plants, as well as advanced storage technology, including hydrogen, to store intermittent energy. Excess energy is freely traded over the energy Internet by autonomous energy-producing and -consuming communities. Commoning, reciprocal credit, and barter trade are essential and prevail over old supply and demand market pricing.

The overall ecological infrastructure is based on a combination of traditional practices and novel technologies and targets the conservation of culturally significant species in community conserved areas and co-managed landscapes. Protected areas represent no more than 14% of land areas, mainly in the form of community conserved areas and used mainly for eco-tourism. In marine systems, people practise ecological restoration and management of marine resources to sustain local economies and maritime cultures and trade. Communities use their local and traditional knowledge, and technology, to expand the use of biodiversity and also to enhance understanding and recognition for various cultures among communities. Natural biological resources (e.g. nutraceuticals) are widely accessed and sustainably used. Benefits arising from genetic resources are equitably shared.

An important part of policy is to secure free access to a 10G-1Q worldwide web through advanced types of open-source licences. Policies incentivise knowledge–policy integrations that facilitate resource-saving innovations and allow for more ecological production. Formal regulations are limited by the primacy of citizen networks and informal agreements and a strong role of education systems. Networked citizens form a strong basis for environmental awareness and are actively engaged with political processes and law enforcement. Laws emphasise community rights, and citizen participation through economic cooperation in the commons is incentivised.

Narrative: Reciprocal Stewardship (Nature as Culture/One with Nature)

This vision illustrates a world where values of reciprocity and harmony drive people’ relationships with nature at all levels of human organisation. It sits at the Nature as Culture corner of the Nature Futures Framework. Biological and cultural diversity are co-conserved and co-managed across a wide range of interconnected bio-cultural systems.

This vision is supported through governance processes that take precedence at the scale of self-determined jurisdictions, rather than nation states, resulting in a rich diversity of governance systems. The latter recognise Indigenous people’s sovereignty over their lands and knowledge systems, and capture the identity and needs of local communities. Restricting the access of people to nature’s benefits is anathema in this future, echoing a Whole Earth approach. The wide variety of governance systems is challenging to manage in an integrated way, since these are very context dependent and self-determined. Nevertheless, the shared fundamental values towards nature facilitate cross-system interactions. Horizontal governance systems work at the level of small cities, interconnected with a patchwork of autonomous rural settlements.

Globally, the world is post-growth. Economic exchange focuses on the social value of things rather than their monetary value. The development of new metrics such as a new Gross National Happiness Index are vital to guide regional and international collaborations. Technology is advanced, but it is specialised for functions that reinforce interpersonal relations and cultural connectivity with and through nature. Communities live connected to nature through evolved and traditional practices co-developed with the latest technology, thus creating a resilient and functional continuous bio-cultural landscape.

Infrastructure is designed to handle small-scale processes, activities and community needs. Transport is based on multimodal travel (e.g. bikes, horses, shared cars). This infrastructure enables trade of local products within regions. Infrastructure for energy is decentralised: each building and system produces its own energy from different renewable sources of energy. The design of freshwater infrastructures stems from the rooted socio-cultural value towards this “living system”.

Food production is small scale and for local consumption, based on the cropping and harvesting of a wide diversity of edible species. Food consumption patterns are highly seasonal, and the cultural significance of eating is a core value. The maintenance of indigenous and traditional practices is fundamental within production systems. Traditional aquaculture (e.g. clam gardening, mixed agriculture–fish pond) complements agriculture, as does the harvesting of crops’ wild relatives, resulting in highly heterogeneous land and seascapes. These types of productivity systems are only attained with strong collaboration within families and communities, which is fostered by a strong sense of place and spiritual connection with nature, all contributing to health and well-being. The strong sense of place, cultural identity, and mental and spiritual connection with nature, all contribute to a good quality of life.

The persistence of terrestrial and marine biodiversity and associated ecological processes are secured through traditional stewardship. Culturally significant species are conserved at the expense of others in co-managed land- or seascapes with no protected areas that keep people away from the land. Deep relational values with nature have established a fundamental understanding about the complexity of ecosystems and permit practical, integrated conservation of land/seascapes and species. Respectful dialogue between indigenous and local knowledge systems and science facilitates community resource management and maintains cultural identity through sustainable consumption of wild species.

Laws emphasise community rights, socialisation is high, and enforcement is done mainly through social networks, and in conformity with social norms. Policies and regulations aim at reinforcing the cultural fusion of ecological dynamics with community histories and priorities. Much of this effort is directed towards the educational system and social institutions, and largely governs reciprocity between people who use the abundant harvests of nature and give back by nurturing nature.

Narrative: Dynamic Natures (Nature as Culture/Nature for Nature)

This narrative sits between Nature for Nature and Nature as Culture . Human societies respect, value, and accommodate the dynamism of nature through both traditional and innovative lifestyles that take into consideration the natural systems' resilience, cultural heritage and traditional ecological knowledge. Healthy and biodiverse ecosystems enable traditional socio-cultural reproduction, spiritual values and connections to be re-established and new ones to be shaped.

This is a polycentric world of nested social–ecological systems governed by largely self-sufficient units that are defined by their ecosystem rather than social boundaries (e.g. watersheds, biomes). Nations states are no longer necessary and the world has moved beyond measuring development through growth metrics, reflecting a post-growth society. Whilst there is limited global trade and resource sharing, there is a high level of cooperation between the units to ensure global compliance with global environmental legislation for the freedom of movement of all species and for regional knowledge sharing and governance. Adaptive and dynamic land and water management practices account for the season and geography, and are very context dependent and flexible.

Water is identified as key to life resulting in a strong demand for the recognition and restoration of the socio-cultural role of rivers as living systems. These now have legal standing, together with the environment as a whole. Rivers flow freely without impediment. People use local and less globalised resources within circular economies, and focus on the creation of dynamic ecological infrastructure with much fewer roads. This means there are no more dams or large-scale permanent inorganic infrastructure.

Human settlements are dynamic and adapted to the movements of nature while being flexible (some nomadic) to ecological shifts using innovative technologies such as floating houses. Adaptive, dynamic transport uses tides, wind power and new technology that is able to capture these natural forces, building on traditional knowledge (e.g. Polynesian/Pacific Islander boats). Travel by air and sea is therefore enhanced, making the planet truly connected. To consume the minimum amount of resources, buildings are well integrated with their environment (in some instances being embedded within hills (like hobbit homes) or cave dwellings). There is a community-driven demand for decentralised, local control over resources. Energy is produced from renewable sources. More effort is put into reducing energy consumption than producing it and so each community is energy secure and self-sufficient.

Diets are diverse and seasonal, based on what can be grown locally and ecologically without monocultures. Food production relies on harvesting from traditional production systems that have evolved with and are adapted to ecological dynamics. Pastoralism and gathering of wild fruits and cultivation of short-season crops are preferred over permanent agricultural structures. Agro-ecological landscapes, including agro-forestry, are linked with traditional technologies (e.g. terracing). Fishing is limited to traditional grounds within exclusive economic zones, dominated by small-scale fisheries, with limited production of high-value food products that are primarily to support local communities and livelihoods. Community-based and ecosystem-based fisheries management are in place. Traditional multi-trophic eco-aquaculture systems as well as aquaculture are tightly integrated with agricultural systems.

There are no protected areas per se, but rather entire ecological communities are protected in situ (land and sea) as this is especially important for the conservation of migratory species. Many species are indirectly conserved as people make way for nature and benefit from connected dynamic ecosystems, including novel dynamic conservation areas within a broader cultural landscape that recognises the rights of local communities. Ecological laws are enforced by community monitoring through citizen networks using the latest in drone and other non-invasive technologies. Strong environmental education is developed based on different cultural/traditional backgrounds and contexts. Every person feels connected to their community and values of reciprocity, harmony and relationality that reflect a variety of shifting relationships with nature.

Capturing gradients in nature values

The similarities and differences between narratives extracted from the paired comparison allowed us to arrange the six skeletons along three gradients relevant to debates in transformative change, thus exploring interdependencies between the underlying values of each skeleton. With a fundamental characterisation of ‘Nature for Nature’ as leaving space for nature separate from humanity, Arcology (NN) sits at one extreme end of the land sharing, land sparing dialectic, with Innovative Commons (NC–NS) sitting at the opposite end, where land sharing is the most common practice, due to the ‘commons’ aspect in this narrative (Fig.  3 c). Dynamic Natures (NN–NC) was seen to be most at the centre of these extremes, with Reciprocal Stewardship (NC) tending more to the land sharing side and Sharing through Sparing (NN–NS) lying closer to the land sparing extreme (as defined in its name).

Summary descriptions of the illustrative narratives across three thematic groups, illustrating how the stories are diverse and contrasting, yet coherent and consistent

The alignment of the narratives along the protected areas gradient, characterised by the Half Earth vs Whole Earth debate, is similar to the land-use gradient described above (second gradient in Fig.  3 c). In this instance, Reciprocal Stewardship (NC) sits at the extreme end of that dialectic as it is defined by no separation between nature and society (i.e. the Whole Earth approach with no strict protected areas that divide people from nature) and so the opposite end of the gradient (i.e. the Half Earth approach with strict protected areas measures), is found within Sharing through Sparing (NN–NS; the side directly opposite the ‘Nature as Culture’ corner of the triangle). The other narratives then map onto this gradient in terms of the degree to which protected areas are relevant within the scenario narratives. Hence, Optimising Nature (NS; the ‘Nature for Society’ corner) was seen to lie between the two extremes of the gradient, with Dynamic Natures (NN–NC) further towards Half Earth, and Innovative Commons (NC–NS) slightly further towards Whole Earth. It was clear in the writing of the narratives that in terms of how land is allocated for use, Arcology (NN) and Sharing through Sparing (NN–NS) were closest in terms of how protected areas were deployed as a potentially transformative intervention. This relationship of land allocated for different uses was reinforced in both the first and second gradients, where you can see these two narratives cluster somewhat.

The final gradient is one of economic growth. It is plausible that the full gradient from green growth at one extreme to post-growth at the other could fit most of the narratives as they currently stand. However, this is an important debate around transformative change, so it was important to test how the narratives could map onto this gradient. The scenario most closely aligned with the green growth perspective is Optimising Nature (NS), at the ‘Nature for Society’ corner, reflecting the current dominant instrumental value perspective. This meant that the post-growth narrative would align with the opposite location to Optimising Nature (NS), that is, Dynamic Natures (NN–NC) . This was consistent as the latter is a world of flux and flexibility to nature’s movements that would not be easily configured around contemporary neoliberal economics, nor would the other narrative that falls close to this extreme ( Reciprocal Stewardship (NC)). As worlds defined by investment in the deployment of technology for efficient production systems, it was consistent for Sharing through Sparing (NN–NS) and Arcology (NN) to be positioned on this gradient with economic paradigms closer to green growth (Fig.  3 c).

In this section, we discuss how the process of developing scenario skeletons and their corresponding illustrative narratives led to an improved understanding of what the Nature Futures Framework offers to the development of new scenarios for nature, both in terms of relativity and mechanisms for navigating between plural values, as well as in exploring the implications of diverse discussions on transformative change.

Lessons from applying the Nature Futures Framework

We learned two key lessons from applying the Nature Futures Framework to the development of pluralistic scenarios related to relativity and ongoing debates about transformation.

Lesson 1: relativity

Developing illustrative narratives showed that the three value perspectives are connected to one another. As a result, the narratives needed to highlight not only the main differences between the corners, but also how they relate to each other (ESM3).

The original Nature Futures Framework (Fig.  1 ) depicts three coloured circles representing each value perspective ( Nature for Nature , Nature as Culture , and Nature for Societ y). Some parts of each circle fall outside of the triangle, indicating future states based on individual nature value perspectives that are not desirable. Thus, a corner needs to offer the most extreme articulation of that value perspective that is still considered compatible with the other two value perspective corners, or of what is objectively ‘desirable’. For example, unhindered commercial exploitation of fisheries to meet societal needs could be considered an example of a ‘Nature for Society’ benefit, but infringes on the ‘Nature as Culture’ and ‘Nature for Nature’ value perspectives and so cannot fall within the triangle. Similarly, a ‘Nature for Nature’ intervention that seeks to eliminate people or their right to reproduction would also not lie within the triangle as it infringes on the ‘Nature for Society’ and ‘Nature as Culture’ perspectives.

Moving closer to one value perspective automatically means moving away from one of the others. It is important to capture this relativity consistently, not just in narrative description, but also in quantification. This relativity between extreme value perspectives ensures that emerging narratives are therefore inclusive, pluralistic, and representative of the many sustainable combinations that can take place within the triangle. The narratives described above depict one possible configuration. There are many other alternatives.

Exploring the edges of the Nature Futures Framework is a way to describe a set of extreme examples of ‘living in harmony with nature’, but that is also consistent with the three value perspectives. In essence, the edges of the triangle are the bounds of desirable futures (i.e. the space outside is not consistent with a ‘desirable’ space for nature) and everything within the framework can be a messy combination of all three value perspectives. This is important to emphasise as it does not limit the development of narratives around the edges of the triangle, but encourages a plural interpretation of what can happen inside, relative to each corner.

Even though the assessed gradients of protected areas and land sparing/sharing were to an extent similar, we think they served different functions in the discussion on how transformative change can be operationalised. The former is focused more on how to protect nature from people, whilst the other is largely a debate on how we produce food and fibre, either via sustainable intensification on land, leaving the rest to nature (land sparing), or an approach that includes biodiversity and nature within the food production process (land sharing). We also realised that this positioning was based on our linking these gradients to the original narratives and that other attempts at illustrative narratives could land in slightly different locations, but this is an important first attempt at mapping options and how they relate to each other. Considering the narrative positions on both of these gradients is also important for maintaining internal coherence of the narratives. For example, it would be inconsistent to have a world where protected areas are not part of the value discourse, but extreme land sparing is. The important outcome of this process is that it is possible to see how the richness of the narratives can open an important discussion of different combinations of transformative ideas, and how some are more aligned than others, but that they each have an element of differentiation, allowing for the full range of the triangle to be discussed.

Lesson 2: a space to hold ongoing debates on transformation

A core objective of our work was to situate desirable narratives for people and nature in ongoing discussions of futures for nature. Both the IPBES Global Assessment (Diaz et al. 2019 ; IPBES 2019 ) and the 5th Global Biodiversity Outlook (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2020 ) based on the IPBES Global Assessment, stress that internationally agreed sustainability goals cannot be achieved without transformative change, defined as “fundamental, system-wide reorganisation across technological, economic and social factors, including paradigms, goals and values”.

Yet, while the need for transformative change is starting to resonate in the global environmental governance arena, and some influential institutions are taking a stance on specific concepts, we are only just beginning to understand how systems and cultures can be actively transformed at the scale that is needed. What all these concepts have in common is that they are highly contested whilst under-explored. We argue that narratives of transformative change are needed as a starting point for consolidating these ideas into actual policies that may be applied. IPBES is currently working on an assessment of transformative change to come out in 2024 and within the scoping document is a need to find and assess visions and pathways of transformative change towards desirable futures (IPBES 2021 ). We offer these narratives based on the Nature Futures Framework as one example of what such transformed futures could look like.

Narratives of transformative change help people imagine and grasp the far-reaching implications of transformation and negotiate which transformed futures are considered just and desirable, and for whom (Wyborn et al. 2020 ). Evidence is starting to suggest that powerful frames and compelling narratives, more than rational arguments, influence positions on what is desirable and legitimate in the biodiversity and natural resource conservation agenda, therefore presenting alternative narratives can broaden policy approaches that are just and more inclusive of plural values (Louder and Wyborn 2020 ). New narratives created through the Nature Futures Framework will thus hopefully be able to challenge conventional modes of thinking, modelling and planning (Pereira et al. 2022 ). For many people, the prospect of profound change is not easy to accept and difficult to comprehend (Pereira et al. 2020b ) and further, transformations are also not necessarily good for all; rather, they can have a ‘dark side’ that must also be acknowledged (Blythe et al. 2018 ). This is relevant within the discussion of potential positive’ tipping points for sustainability, many of which require complete reconfigurations of current systems, starting with what drives them in the first instance (e.g. consumption aspirations or economic growth targets). It may be possible to reach sustainable futures without such transformation in drivers and feedbacks, but as described above, we intentionally explored the more radical transformative changes that may be needed, such as the reconfiguration of economic and governance systems, as a starting point because we think it is important to be able to describe in a narrative format what futures could emerge from such interventions, so that more quantitative analysis can follow. Descriptions of transformation in the future may be instrumental to opening up discussions on transformative changes in the present, which is the intention of thinking about the future, or anticipatory governance, in the first place (Vervoort and Gupta 2018 ). With this in mind, it is important to note that the narratives we present here are not prescriptive; however, we offer these narratives as examples of what futures could look like if we were open to exploring diverse opportunity spaces. The possible narratives created by applying the Nature Futures Framework offer a starting point for people to realise how open the future really is if we are brave enough to make changes now. We also note that illustrative elements do not need to be specific to a certain Nature Futures Framework space; even in the same space of the triangle, different narratives can be written. The six narratives presented here can serve as guides for users to formulate additional and alternative narratives.

Improving the development of illustrative narratives

The illustrative narratives presented in this paper are a step towards better inclusion of pluralistic values in nature futures. There may be multiple narratives that correspond to any given position within the Nature Futures Framework (hence the name ‘illustrative narratives’), reflecting how different cultures, societies, and geographies may translate the Nature Futures Framework into a local context and their future aspirations. It is important to note that the narratives we present here are all products of the participants’ viewpoints and interpretations of what could be considered ‘preferable’ from their own expertise and knowledge of key debates in the literature. These are therefore in no way intended to be blueprints towards a sustainable future. Rather, we acknowledge that each narrative is a product of negotiation between our own worldviews and understanding within a framework to ensure internal consistency and relationships between the six scenario skeletons and their associated specific value perspectives. These should therefore be read as illustrations of how a diverse group of people undertook the co-production of transformative visions of the future that they themselves consider to be plausible. In this regard, we consider that the proposed methodological approach would benefit from incorporating additional methodological steps to better track the underlying value assumptions contributed by each participant and therefore acknowledge and address biases.

We urge further development, including using other methods to develop alternative visions across scales and levels (Pereira et al. 2020a , b ). One of the challenges in building narratives using the Nature Futures Framework is how to assess the desirability of a particular vision of the future. A general principle is that, at minimum, perspectives inside the framework should reflect an ambition to meet the Sustainable Development Goals, but the boundaries between desirable and undesirable futures are often context or place specific. Thus, deciding on the border between desirable and undesirable futures requires broad participation.

Models that can quantitatively evaluate nature and nature’s contributions to people could help critically evaluate whether futures described in qualitative narratives can be considered plausible and sustainable (for a review of such models used in recent global model intercomparison projects, see Weiskopf et al. 2022 ). However, the ability to quantify the narratives is impeded by the limitations of existing models, such as the ability to quantitatively evaluate the nexus between different global and local changes, telecoupling, and projections of transformative actions (IPBES 2022a , b , c ). In this regard, improving existing models of nature and nature’s contributions to people and integrating them (Weiskopf et al. 2022 ) is important to facilitate the further development of the narratives in line with the Nature Futures Framework (Kim et al. in review).

Further implementation and operationalisation of the NFF and illustrative narratives

Increased availability of new scenarios based on the Nature Futures Framework could help policy makers and other stakeholders to explore the pathways to achieve the 2050 Vision for Biodiversity of ‘Living in Harmony with Nature’ (CBD/COP/14/9) as well as the 2030 Agenda and its Sustainable Development Goals. To catalyse the development of such new scenarios, the task force drafted the preliminary methodological guidance on how to use the Nature Futures Framework for scenario development and analysis, building on a series of stakeholder consultations, including those attended by IPBES’ national focal points (IPBES 2022c ). The latest work of the task force on the Nature Futures Framework and its methodological guidance can be found in IPBES document IPBES/9/INF/16 (IPBES 2022c ).

The methodological guidance is still evolving and will be further updated. To further operationalise the Nature Futures Framework, knowledge gaps that need to be addressed by broader scientific communities include: (1) developing additional illustrative narratives as examples to showcase the plurality of scenario narratives that can be created using the Nature Futures Framework; (2) identifying and using indicators for the Nature Futures Framework that can be associated with different value perspectives; (3) addressing knowledge gaps in social-ecological feedbacks; and (4) advancing current modelling frameworks to facilitate the application of the Nature Futures Framework (IPBES 2022c ).

In addition, the Nature Futures Framework could be used as a framework of scenario archetype analysis where future scenarios with similar underlying narratives, assumptions, and trends in drivers of change are grouped and located within the Nature Futures Framework considering their association with the three value perspectives (e.g. Kuiper et al. 2022 ; Quintero-Uribe et al. 2022 ). Also, the Nature Futures Framework can be used to assess underlying value perspectives and their implications within existing future scenarios, and modify them to become more nature positive. For example, there is an ongoing effort to modify the shared socioeconomic pathways (SSP) scenarios in the marine environment to assess the future of the fisheries sector (Cheung 2019 ; Cheung and Oyinlola 2019 ) by attributing one or multiple value perspectives of the Nature Futures Framework to the SSP scenarios and expanding the range of drivers, sectors, and policies (IPBES 2022c ).

The mandate of the task force is not to do this work, but rather to catalyse such activities by the wider scientific community, including the formation of new research consortia and research projects that will create multi-scale (from local to global) Nature Futures Framework-based scenarios to be further developed and refined over the long term.

Conclusions

In this paper, we illustrated how the Nature Futures Framework can be used to generate a diversity of scenario narratives that have nature at the heart of their storyline, and which are positive for nature and people. We provided a series of methodological steps to write these narratives, so the desirable futures captured by their storylines reflect their underlying value perspectives. Future work could strengthen the methodology by developing and integrating an additional process to better track each participant’s underlying values and associated assumptions, thus acknowledging and addressing biases. This would also facilitate the implementation of the proposed narratives across scales and levels by recognising areas, location or groups with associated underlying value assumptions.

This exercise also contributed to the ongoing effort to develop inclusive and pluralistic scenarios of desirable nature futures. We strongly believe that additional narratives could support the endeavour of expanding a new family of scenarios and models, so society can better map the actions, conditions and decisions needed to reach a future that represents everyone’s voice.

Data availability

Authors can confirm that all relevant data are included in the article and/or its supplementary information files.

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Acknowledgements

The workshop was organised by the IPBES task force on scenarios and models, supported by the IPBES technical support unit on scenarios and models, based at PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. The workshop was hosted by the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), with support from the research team on “Predicting and Assessing Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services through an Integrated Social-Ecological Systems Approach (PANCES)” based at the University of Tokyo, the Research Institute for Humanity and Nature (RIHN), and the United Nations University, with generous financial support from the Ministry of the Environment of Japan. We sincerely appreciate the valuable comments and suggestions made by Laetitia Navarro and two anonymous reviewers, which helped us in improving the quality of the manuscript. This work received further support from: The Swedish Research Council FORMAS Projects No. 2020-00670, 2018-02371 and 2016-48301, 2019-01648. Supported by the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) with funds provided by the CGIAR Fund Council, Australia (ACIAR), European Union, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), New Zealand, Netherlands, Switzerland, UK, and Thailand. The National Research Foundation of South Africa (Grant number 115300). Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity-Chile (Grant ANID PFB210006; ANID ACE210006). The UK Research and Innovation's Global Challenges Research Fund (UKRI GCRF) through the Trade, Development and the Environment Hub project (project number ES/S008160/1). The US Geological Survey, North Central Climate Adaptation Science Center. Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada and Killam Faculty Research Fellowship. The UK Natural Environment Research Council award number NE/R016429/1 as part of the UK-SCAPE programme delivering National Capability. Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the US Government. Funding was provided by Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Biodiversidade e Produtos Naturais [Grant no. PIA APOYO CCTE AFB170008]

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Durán, A.P., Kuiper, J.J., Aguiar, A.P.D. et al. Bringing the Nature Futures Framework to life: creating a set of illustrative narratives of nature futures. Sustain Sci (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-023-01316-1

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-023-01316-1

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The Future of Nature

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Nature Essay for Students and Children

500+ words nature essay.

Nature is an important and integral part of mankind. It is one of the greatest blessings for human life; however, nowadays humans fail to recognize it as one. Nature has been an inspiration for numerous poets, writers, artists and more of yesteryears. This remarkable creation inspired them to write poems and stories in the glory of it. They truly valued nature which reflects in their works even today. Essentially, nature is everything we are surrounded by like the water we drink, the air we breathe, the sun we soak in, the birds we hear chirping, the moon we gaze at and more. Above all, it is rich and vibrant and consists of both living and non-living things. Therefore, people of the modern age should also learn something from people of yesteryear and start valuing nature before it gets too late.

Significance of Nature

Nature has been in existence long before humans and ever since it has taken care of mankind and nourished it forever. In other words, it offers us a protective layer which guards us against all kinds of damages and harms. Survival of mankind without nature is impossible and humans need to understand that.

If nature has the ability to protect us, it is also powerful enough to destroy the entire mankind. Every form of nature, for instance, the plants , animals , rivers, mountains, moon, and more holds equal significance for us. Absence of one element is enough to cause a catastrophe in the functioning of human life.

We fulfill our healthy lifestyle by eating and drinking healthy, which nature gives us. Similarly, it provides us with water and food that enables us to do so. Rainfall and sunshine, the two most important elements to survive are derived from nature itself.

Further, the air we breathe and the wood we use for various purposes are a gift of nature only. But, with technological advancements, people are not paying attention to nature. The need to conserve and balance the natural assets is rising day by day which requires immediate attention.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Conservation of Nature

In order to conserve nature, we must take drastic steps right away to prevent any further damage. The most important step is to prevent deforestation at all levels. Cutting down of trees has serious consequences in different spheres. It can cause soil erosion easily and also bring a decline in rainfall on a major level.

Polluting ocean water must be strictly prohibited by all industries straightaway as it causes a lot of water shortage. The excessive use of automobiles, AC’s and ovens emit a lot of Chlorofluorocarbons’ which depletes the ozone layer. This, in turn, causes global warming which causes thermal expansion and melting of glaciers.

Therefore, we should avoid personal use of the vehicle when we can, switch to public transport and carpooling. We must invest in solar energy giving a chance for the natural resources to replenish.

In conclusion, nature has a powerful transformative power which is responsible for the functioning of life on earth. It is essential for mankind to flourish so it is our duty to conserve it for our future generations. We must stop the selfish activities and try our best to preserve the natural resources so life can forever be nourished on earth.

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Essay on Importance of Nature

Students are often asked to write an essay on Importance of Nature in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Importance of Nature

Understanding nature.

Nature is all around us, from the vast forests to the tiny flowers. It’s vital because it provides us with everything we need to survive, like air, water, food, and shelter.

Nature’s Role in Health

Being in nature can reduce stress and improve our mood. It also helps us stay healthy by providing fresh air and clean water.

Learning from Nature

Nature is a great teacher. It teaches us about life cycles, ecosystems, and the importance of balance. We learn to appreciate beauty and understand our place in the world.

Protecting Nature

It’s important to protect nature. If we don’t, we risk losing all the benefits it provides. We can do this by reducing pollution, recycling, and planting trees.

Also check:

• Paragraph on Importance of Nature

250 Words Essay on Importance of Nature

The intrinsic value of nature.

Nature, in its myriad forms, is indispensable to our existence. It not only provides us with the resources necessary for our survival, but also offers aesthetic pleasure and spiritual solace. The intrinsic value of nature lies in its inherent beauty and its capacity to stimulate our intellect and emotions.

Ecological Balance

Nature plays a critical role in maintaining the planet’s ecological balance. The biodiversity found in various ecosystems, from lush forests to arid deserts and from freshwater bodies to marine environments, ensures the stability of life on Earth. The extinction of a single species can trigger a domino effect, disrupting the entire ecosystem. Hence, preserving nature is tantamount to preserving life itself.

Nature as a Healer

Nature is often regarded as a healer. The tranquility and serenity it offers can significantly reduce stress levels and improve mental health. Numerous studies have shown that exposure to nature can lower blood pressure, heart rate and muscle tension.

Climate Regulation

Nature plays a pivotal role in climate regulation. Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing CO2 and other greenhouse gases, thereby mitigating the effects of climate change. Wetlands, on the other hand, act as natural barriers against floods and sea-level rise.

In conclusion, the importance of nature cannot be overstated. It is our duty to respect and protect it, not just for our sake, but for the sake of future generations as well. As we stand at the crossroads of environmental sustainability, let us remember that nature does not need us; it is we who need nature.

500 Words Essay on Importance of Nature

The significance of nature in human life is profound, influencing our health, wellbeing, and the very fabric of our existence. Nature is not merely a provider of resources but a complex network of interconnected systems that sustain life on our planet.

Nature as a Provider

Nature is an indispensable provider, offering us essential resources such as water, food, and raw materials. These resources form the foundation of human survival and economic growth. The agricultural sector, for instance, relies on nature’s bounty in the form of fertile soils, rainfall, and sunlight to grow crops. Similarly, industries depend on natural resources like minerals, timber, and energy sources to function and thrive.

Nature and Human Health

Beyond the material, nature significantly impacts our physical and mental health. Research suggests that exposure to natural environments can lower blood pressure, reduce stress, and improve mood. The concept of ‘forest bathing’ in Japan, where individuals spend time in forests to improve their wellbeing, is a testament to this fact. Moreover, many medicines are derived from plants, highlighting nature’s role in healthcare and disease prevention.

Nature’s Role in Climate Regulation

Nature is a key player in global climate regulation. Forests, oceans, and other ecosystems act as carbon sinks, absorbing CO2 emissions and mitigating the effects of climate change. Wetlands and mangroves provide natural defenses against storm surges and flooding, while forests prevent soil erosion and maintain water cycles.

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

Biodiversity, a fundamental aspect of nature, ensures ecosystem resilience and provides us with ecosystem services. These services include pollination of crops by bees, pest control by birds, and decomposition of waste by microbes. Biodiversity loss, therefore, not only threatens species survival but also the stability and productivity of ecosystems.

The Ethical and Aesthetic Dimensions of Nature

Nature also holds immense aesthetic and ethical value. The beauty of natural landscapes inspires art, literature, and even scientific curiosity. Ethically, many argue that nature has intrinsic value beyond its utility to humans and deserves respect and conservation. This perspective promotes a more sustainable and harmonious relationship with nature.

Conclusion: The Imperative of Protecting Nature

In conclusion, the importance of nature is multifaceted, touching every aspect of human life. As we face the escalating challenges of climate change and biodiversity loss, it becomes increasingly critical to protect and restore our natural world. Recognizing and respecting nature’s value is not just a moral obligation, but a prerequisite for our survival and wellbeing. As college students and future leaders, we have a vital role to play in this endeavor, shaping policies and practices that safeguard nature for generations to come.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

• Essay on Conservation of Nature
• Essay on Beauty of Nature
• Essay on My Hobby Watching T.V.

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Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Biodiversity — The Beauty of Nature

The Beauty of Nature

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Published: Mar 16, 2024

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The aesthetic appeal of nature, the healing power of nature, the importance of biodiversity, the role of nature in human creativity.

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New 3D cosmic map raises questions over future of universe, scientists say

Researchers say findings from map with three times more galaxies than previous efforts could challenge standard idea of dark energy

The biggest ever 3D map of the universe, featuring more than 6m galaxies, has been revealed by scientists who said it raised questions about the nature of dark energy and the future of the universe.

The map is based on data collected by the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (Desi) in Arizona and contains three times as many galaxies as previous efforts, with many having their distances measured for the first time.

Researchers said that by using this map, they have been able measure how fast the universe has been expanding at different times in the past with unprecedented accuracy.

The results confirm that the expansion of the universe is speeding up, they added. However, the findings have also raised the tantalising possibility that dark energy – a mysterious, repulsive force that drives the process – is not constant throughout time as has previously been suggested.

Dr Seshadri Nadathur, a co-author of the work and senior research fellow at the University of Portsmouth’s Institute of Cosmology and Gravitation, said: “What we are seeing are some hints that it has actually been changing over time, which is quite exciting because it is not what the standard model of a cosmological constant dark energy would look like.”

Prof Carlos Frenk, from Durham University and a co-author of the research, said that if dark energy was indeed constant in time, the future of the universe was simple: it would expand on and on, for ever. But if the hints found in the map stood up, that would be called into question.

“Now all of that goes out the window and essentially we have to start from scratch, and that means revising our understanding of basic physics, our understanding of the big bang itself, and our understanding of the long-range forecast for the universe,” he said, adding that the new hints left open the possibility that the universe might undergo a “big crunch”.

The research, which has been published in a series of preprints – meaning it has yet to be peer-reviewed – reveals how the team first created the 3D map, then measured patterns in the distribution of galaxies that relate to sound waves that occurred in the early universe, known as baryon acoustic oscillations.

As the size of these patterns is known to be regular, the team was able to calibrate the distances to different galaxies in the map, allowing them to work out how fast the universe has been growing over the last 11bn years, with a precision better than 0.5% over all times, and better than 1% between 8bn and 11bn years ago.

Frenk said the precision itself of the measurements was notable given that galaxies could be billions of light years away, and billions of years old. “It’s mind-boggling that we can measure anything to a precision of 1%, which is precision you get in the laboratory in physics for high-precision measurements,” he said.

Andrew Pontzen, professor of cosmology at University College London and author of the book The Universe in a Box, who was not involved in the work, said Desi was one of a slew of exciting new astronomical surveys cataloguing the night sky, with one of the primary goals being to measure the rate at which our expanding universe has speeded up.

“Like measuring the acceleration of a car, charting the universe’s expansion tells us about the ‘engine’ powering cosmic acceleration. That engine is known as dark energy,” he said.

However, Pontzen noted that our knowledge of how dark energy operates was limited. “The new data, when combined with existing measurements, would seem to contradict the simplest possible explanations for dark energy,” he said.

“At face value, that’s an exciting step forward. But as the team themselves caution, there is a huge amount still to understand about this data and early results should be taken with a healthy grain of salt.”

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Essay About the Beauty of Nature: 4 Examples and 9 Prompts

Read this article for essay examples and prompts to use so you can start writing essay about the beauty of nature.

Nature is complex and beautiful. Our ecosystem covers every aspect of Mother Earth, including the evolution of the earth & life, the various cycles, all the living things, and more. Collectively, they create something so beautiful and perfect that it can be hard to believe it exists. 

The beauty and power of nature can be pretty overwhelming. Whenever you want to feel these emotions, reading or writing essays about the beauty of nature can help you grasp those ideas. 

Below are examples of essays on nature and its beauty and prompts to help you get started on your next essay.

1. Essay on Beauty of Nature for Children and Students on Study Mentor

2. descriptive essay on beauty of nature on performdigi, 3. essay on beauties of nature by gk scientist, 4. descriptive essay on mother nature by neetu singh, 1. activities that appreciate nature, 2. the beauty of nature in renaissance art, 3. mindful methods of appreciating the beauty of nature, 4. literature pieces that define the beauty of nature well, 5. video games that captured the beauty of nature, 6. beautiful nature photo ideas and tips you can do with a phone, 7. difference between nature and science, 8. philosophical understanding of nature, 9. biomimicry: nature-inspired engineering.

“Each and everything in nature, including living or non-living organisms, play an important role in maintaining the balance to create a viable environment for all of us, which is called ecological balance. We need to make sure that the ecological balance should be maintained at all times to avoid a catastrophic situation in the future.”

The first essay discusses nature’s significance, the natural resources, and how to conserve them. It has an educational tone, encouraging the reader to care for nature and protect its beauty. The second essay focuses on the non-harmful ways of enjoying nature and protecting it from modern daily processes. You might also like these authors like Wendell Berry .

“Nature has many faces. They are everywhere. The human eye is always in contact with good things.”

This descriptive essay about the beauty of nature discusses the immortal, infinite, and eternal beauty of nature and nature as a reflection of the art of Allah. It covers the beauty of everything found in nature, including the changing seasons, birds, beasts, fish, reptiles, humans, the environment, and more.

“To enjoy these beauties of nature, one has to live in nature’s company. A countryman enjoys nature well. A town dweller cannot enjoy the beauties of nature.”

This essay on nature talks about nature and personifies it as a woman by using the pronouns she and her. The essay considers the various elements in nature, seasons, and unique environments. It also provides some wisdom to encourage the reader to care for nature.You might also be interested in these articles about the beauty of nature .

“As nature is the main life force of all living beings on earth. It is our duty to preserve and protect nature and all its creations alike. We must also love her in return as she loves us.”

In this essay, nature is God’s most tremendous boon to humanity. Thus, we must protect it from corruption, pollution, and other artificial and harmful manufactured things. The essay also gave examples of environmental problems that have impacted nature significantly. The end of the essay states that we must stand, preserve, and protect nature.

9 Prompts for Writing an Essay About the Beauty of Nature

Writing an essay about the beauty of nature can feel repetitive and overdone. You can avoid repeating the usual themes or ideas you saw above. Instead, use the essay prompts on nature below.

Here’s a tip: If writing an essay sounds like a lot of work, simplify it. Write a simple 5 paragraph essay instead.

Do you want other people to enjoy and appreciate nature? With this essay, you can list the various methods of appreciating nature. The activities can be simple such as planting a tree, hugging a tree, and watching sunsets.

For help with this topic, read this guide explaining what persuasive writing is all about.

Renaissance art is rich with meanings and symbolism portrayed through nature. For example, although flowers universally stand for beauty, different flower types can have different meanings. Dark clouds and streaks of lightning in the skies can portray dark moods or omens. Many renaissance male artists saw nature as a mother, mistress, or bride. If you like interpreting renaissance art, you’ll enjoy this essay topic.

Mindfulness and nature share a very positive relationship. Being in nature can make you more mindful. Being mindful while in nature enhances your connectedness to it. This essay focuses on mindfulness in nature.

 Consider your connection to it, be aware of your surroundings, and actively appreciate its various parts. Connecting to nature will open you to change, the natural cycle of life and death, and more.

Literature is more flexible than visual art because it taps the imagination through ideas and concepts rather than images. For example, various poets, writers, and playwrights have likened the beauty of nature to love, characters, powerful forces, and intense emotions. 

Avid literature readers will enjoy writing about the beauty of nature through their favorite authors, themes, and stories.

No matter what their genre, more video games today feature realistic graphics. One of the best ways to show off these high-tech graphics is by showing nature’s beauty in a scene or environment. 

Some examples of the top video games that have captured the beauty of nature include Ghost of Tsushima, Red Dead Redemption II, and The Last of Us: Part Two. Write about how the beauty of nature can be captured in a video game and the methods used to create vivid digital worlds.

Are you an enthusiast of nature photography and amateur photography? Bring these two things together by writing an essay about taking nature photos with a phone. Write what you learned about taking nature photos. 

You can also provide sample nature photos you or others took with a smartphone. Remember, nature photography can cover many subjects, like animals, plants, landscapes, etc.

Have you ever stopped to think about the difference between nature and science? Science has many methodical and measurable aspects and is as young as humanity. The opposite is true for nature because it has existed far longer than humans have. Yet, we can use science to study nature. 

When you pick this essay idea, discuss the loose ideas mentioned above in more detail. Researching and reading about nature vs. science can also help. Discuss this in your next essay for an inspiring and intriguing essay topic.

Philosopher students will enjoy writing an essay about the beauty of nature. You can argue that nature does not exist because it is not measurable. It doesn’t exist outside of any solid examples we can give, like the environment, animals, weather, and plants. 

You write about the philosophical aspects of nature and use key research to back up your ideas and arguments made in the essay. Look for scientific research papers, books by philosophers, and opinion essays to create this essay.

Biomimicry is a sustainable solution to human challenges. It imitates the designs found in nature’s time-tested strategies and patterns and incorporates them into technology. 

This is a fascinating essay topic that can inspire your next written piece. Conduct research into biomimicry, and let the reader know your thoughts and opinions on this subject.

 Do you need more inspiration? Read these 13 essays about nature .

Maria Caballero is a freelance writer who has been writing since high school. She believes that to be a writer doesn't only refer to excellent syntax and semantics but also knowing how to weave words together to communicate to any reader effectively.

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60 Topic Examples to Write an Essay About Nature

Sometimes you can’t find inspiration no matter how hard you try, especially when it comes to writing assignments. Many students get confused when they have the freedom to choose a topic for their essays.

If you don’t know what topic to choose, you can always get assistance from talented experts at a reliable essay writing service like EssayShark . Your assistant will help you develop a relevant topic about nature that also covers your interests. Therefore, it will not be boring for you to cope with this assignment.

You can get all your exam need from one destination such as examsnap , and for essays meanwhile, you can get the necessary inspiration from this selection of great topic examples.

General Nature Essay Topics

Let’s start with a general overview of nature essay topic examples:

• The significance of preserving biodiversity in natural ecosystems
• Climate change and its impact on wildlife
• The role of natural topography in promoting human health
• The advantages of outdoor education programs for children and adults
• The effect of human activities on marine ecosystems and possible conservation efforts
• The ethics of animal testing and its impact on nature
• The relationship between nature and spirituality
• The importance of nature in literature, art, and music
• The prospect of renewable energy sources to minimize environmental damage
• The implication of sustainable agriculture in preserving natural resources
• Deforestation and its effect on the environment and efforts to combat it
• Urban parks and their role in promoting biodiversity and environmental education
• The consequences of pollution in terms of public health
• The significance of protecting and conserving endangered species
• Plastic waste and its impact on marine life and solutions to the problem
• National parks and their role in preserving natural marvels and educating visitors
• The relationship between indigenous cultures and the natural world
• Invasive species and their impact on local ecosystems
• The challenges of ecotourism for local communities and the environment
• The connection between human civilization and the world of nature.

Topic Examples on the Protection of Nature

What can we do to protect nature and avoid the extinction of endangered species? Let’s discuss:

• The significance of environmental education in encouraging sustainability
• Strategies for reducing air pollution
• The significance of clean water sources
• Ocean acidification and possible solutions to the problem
• Ways of reducing carbon emissions and transitioning to renewable energy sources
• Wildlife conservation programs and their significance
• Overfishing and efforts to regulate it
• Reducing waste and increasing recycling rates
• Deforestation and its impact on the environment
• Industrial pollution and environmental justice
• The strategy of using pesticides
• Ways of promoting environmental monitoring and protection
• Energy efficiency solutions
• Noise pollution and its impact on wildlife
• International cooperation in addressing global environmental issues.

Topic Examples on the Future of Nature

What the future world of nature is going to look like? How will modern technological advancement impact it? Here are some topic examples that can inspire you to examine these questions:

• The effect of emerging technologies on ecological monitoring
• The impact of population growth on the environment
• The potential for geoengineering
• The future of renewable energy sources
• The result of artificial intelligence on environmental conservation
• The consequences of urbanization in terms of natural habitats
• Genetic engineering and conservation biology
• The potential for biomimicry to inspire sustainable design
• The impact of space exploration on our usage of natural resources
• The future of sustainable food production
• Nanotechnology and addressing the environmental challenges
• Climate refugees and global migration patterns
• The future of water resource management
• Carbon capture and storage to minimize the climate change consequences
• Virtual reality, environmental education, and awareness.

Nature Essay Debatable Topics Examples

Taking care of nature and the environment should be a priority of every human being. After all, we use its gifts and often exhaust its resources. There have been many debates around this topic. Here are some of them that might come in handy when writing a nature essay:

• Is prioritizing conservation efforts for endangered species more effective than other environmental crises?
• Is it moral to introduce non-native species to an ecosystem to foster biodiversity?
• Should people ban plastic production and consumption to reduce its environmental impact?
• Is hunting an ethical way of managing wildlife populations?
• Should we choose renewable energy sources over traditional ones, even if it means paying higher prices?
• Should we permit logging in protected areas to boost economic development and job creation?
• The ethics behind using animals in scientific research to benefit humans
• Should we permit the expansion of wildlife areas for tourism and recreation purposes?
• Is it ethical to use genetically modified organisms in agriculture?
• Should we prioritize the protection of natural areas or the development of infrastructure which leads to economic growth?

Even though you have many ideas on what to write a nature essay about, there might be some obstacles in your way. For instance, you might lack time to cope with this assignment properly. Or you might be afraid of making too many grammar and spelling mistakes. No matter what writing difficulties you might experience, remember that there is always an effective solution for each of them. You can turn to a trustworthy cheap essay writing service to hire an experienced assistant. It might be challenging to pick a company that fits your requirements, though. Read the reviews of others to learn about the strengths and weaknesses of the popular writing services. You will make the right choice as soon as you have enough relevant information.

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• Published: 26 January 2023

A non-academic perspective on the future of lithium-based batteries

• James T. Frith 1   na1 ,
• Matthew J. Lacey 2   na1 &
• Ulderico Ulissi 3   na1  

Nature Communications volume  14 , Article number:  420 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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• Energy storage
• Engineering
• Materials for energy and catalysis

In the field of lithium-based batteries, there is often a substantial divide between academic research and industrial market needs. This is in part driven by a lack of peer-reviewed publications from industry. Here we present a non-academic view on applied research in lithium-based batteries to sharpen the focus and help bridge the gap between academic and industrial research. We focus our discussion on key metrics and challenges to be considered when developing new technologies in this industry. We also explore the need to consider various performance aspects in unison when developing a new material/technology. Moreover, we also investigate the suitability of supply chains, sustainability of materials and the impact on system-level cost as factors that need to be accounted for when working on new technologies. With these considerations in mind, we then assess the latest developments in the lithium-based battery industry, providing our views on the challenges and prospects of various technologies.

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Introduction

Lithium-ion batteries should be recognized as a “technological wonder”. From a commercial point of view, they are the go-to solution for many applications and are increasingly displacing lead-acid and nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) systems 1 . At the same time, they represent a prime example of the successful results of joint academic and industrial research.

Lithium-ion batteries are complex, multi-component devices with a long list of inventors, key inventions, and contributions 2 . According to Akira Yoshino, lithium-ion batteries were born in 1986 after the successful safety testing of early prototypes 3 . Since then, the performance of lithium-ion cells (the fundamental building block of a battery pack) has improved substantially, and the specific energy and energy density have more than doubled from 120 Wh kg −1 /264 Wh L −1 (Sony, 1991) 4 to today’s ≥270 Wh kg −1 /≥ 650 Wh L −1 5 . These values represent mass-produced commercial cells. Plants today typically produce over 1–10 GWh annually. Suppliers need to demonstrate the ability to manufacture at this scale to pass the stringent qualification tests of automakers and for the manufactured cells to be cost-competitive 6 . Mass production contributed to a sharp decline in cell prices, which fell 98% from ca . 5000 $ kWh −1 in 1991 to 101 $ kWh −1 in 2021 (Fig.  1 ) 7 , 8 . Low cost and high energy density cells resulted in the so-called “decade of the smartphone” around 2007 9 . Since then, demand for lithium-ion batteries has grown more than ten-fold, from ca. 30 GWh in 2011 to 492 GWh in 2021 10 . Demand is set to grow steadily and is forecasted to reach 2–3.5 TWh by 2030 11 . Growing demand for batteries can be expected to lead to further improvements in performance and falls in prices, with lithium-ion technology becoming ubiquitous.

“Observed Consumer electronics” price data comes from ref.  8 and reflects the prices paid for cells used in consumer electronics between 1991 and 2010. “Observed BNEF” price data comes from ref.  197 and reflects the average price paid for cells used in electric vehicles and stationary storage applications. “Experience curve” shows the battery price decline trend as deployments increase. The relationship is described by Wrights-law and shows that every time the cumulative volume of cells deployed doubles, prices fall by 25%. Prices have been converted to real 2021 US $.

Cost and performance improvements have come from cell chemistry/design changes, pack engineering, and manufacturing processes. Sony commercialized cells in 1991 using lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO 2 or LCO) “cathodes” and carbon-based “anodes”, in which the positive electrode active material is comprised of 60% cobalt by mass 12 . Note that from this point forward, we use “positive” and “negative” electrodes in place of the common terminology “cathode” and “anode” to avoid ambiguity since the latter terms are only valid for the discharge of a rechargeable battery.

The current state of the art 13 lies in cells with specific energy over 270 Wh kg −1 . These require a high nickel, low cobalt positive electrode active material, for example, lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi 1-a-b Mn a Co b O 2 where a + b = 1, or NMCxyz where x:y:z reflects the molar ratio of metals Ni:Mn:Co). A particularly important example is NMC811, which contains only 6% cobalt by mass. The low cobalt content means that the raw material cost, excluding processing costs (for example, raw material refinement cost or active/inactive material and cell manufacturing costs 14 , 15 ), is less than half that of LCO: 54 $ kWh −1 compared to 135 $ kWh −1 , based on January 2022 raw material prices from Shanghai Metals Market, SMM 16 . It is worth highlighting that these are spot prices, which may not be representative of long-term contract pricing.

Adopting new materials that increase energy content and decrease the raw material cost of cells has contributed significantly to reducing cell/pack costs ($ kWh −1 ). However, starting in 2020, similar improvements in both energy and cost have been obtained by employing existing positive electrode chemistries, such as lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO 4 or LFP) in a cell-to-pack (CTP) configuration. In this configuration, an LFP-based cell with a specific energy of ca. 160 Wh kg −1 and energy density of 330 Wh L −1 can lead to pack-level energies of ca. 135 Wh kg −1 and 210 Wh L −1 . This represents a 64% packing efficiency on a volume basis, compared to a 35–40% pack efficiency for a standard pack 17 . These CTP systems have the additional benefit of using a comparatively safer and potentially cheaper 18 positive electrode active material than NMCxyz.

As lithium-ion batteries and the current generation of positive electrodes, i.e., those based on intercalation reactions, are reaching their theoretical performance limits, manufacturers and researchers are focusing on other key components and processing techniques. Negative electrodes with high silicon content, lithium metal negative electrodes, solid electrolytes, negative electrode pre-lithiation strategies and dry electrode coatings promise decreased cost, increased performance or both in the medium term (5–10 years). Looking further out, positive electrode active materials based on conversion reactions, like sulfur or oxygen, could present an opportunity for the further cost reduction of lithium-based batteries, although generally at the expense of cell performance.

However, particular attention must be devoted to the type of research carried out to advance lithium-based batteries. Indeed, as also recently discussed 19 , researchers should consider the current trajectory of battery technology, how to approach the industry and to present their work to provide the maximum benefit to the research community.

When carrying out research focusing on industrial product development, researchers should develop products that solve a problem rather than develop a solution that needs to find a problem to solve. We believe that lithium-ion batteries are an example of an industrial product, and research should focus on solving existing problems with the technology. However, a growing portion of research published on lithium-based batteries today does little to solve the industry’s challenges. Often this result from a lack of understanding of the wider end uses and performance parameters required for lithium-based batteries in end applications.

In this perspective, we present a non-academic view on applied research in electrochemical energy storage to help bridge the gap between academic and industrial research. We primarily consider lithium-based batteries, focusing on the automotive sector: a sector that has driven technological development in recent years, dominates today’s demand and is expected to grow significantly in the coming years. While we recognize that there are other emerging technologies, such as Na-ion batteries, as well as other application sectors, such as stationary energy storage, we choose to focus on electric vehicles (EVs), which are a core area of the energy transition. However, we recognize that these other topics warrant their separate discussions. To illustrate this perspective, we discuss technology maturity scales and what we believe are common pitfalls when evaluating performance requirements to bring a technology to market. We then select a few technologies as case studies. We use these to discuss what we believe the market will need and not need, provide practical, numerical examples, consider opportunities and barriers when scaling up, and ultimately explore which technologies currently show distinct promise.

Technology readiness level from the lithium-ion battery perspective

First proposed by NASA in 1974, the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 20 is a scale used to estimate the maturity of a technology. Although a specific TRL scale has been recently proposed for battery manufacturing 20 , in Fig.  2 , we propose a different TRL scale that considers the steps required for EV adoption to help decision-makers assess the actual status of technology development on the pathway to commercialization.

The “Risk of Failure” arrow indicates risks of project failure or technology not transitioning to the next level. The scale starts with lab innovation and considers key milestones in cell manufacturing to reach EV qualification and vehicle Start-of-Production (SOP). The definitions of A- and C-samples are discussed later in the “Challenges in scaling up” paragraph. Risk increases with decreasing TRL number. US dollar figures are ballpark estimates of the minimum investment required per project based on industrial data or publicly available press releases. The present TRL scale is based on the consideration of energy storage innovation disclosed in ref. 198 .

Technologies at a lower TRL are associated with a higher risk of project failure or technology not transitioning to the next level. However, this risk is offset by lower capital investments required to complete a project, e.g., 10k-100k $ at TRL 1-2 for battery science. Moving across TRLs generally requires increasing levels of capital investments. For example, over 1–10B US $ are the typical investments required to scale-up battery cell production to 4–20 GWh annually and reach vehicle Start-of-Production (SOP) at TRL 8 or to develop a new EV platform/powertrain and manufacture a vehicle at scale TRL 9-10. The capital figures are ballpark estimates of the minimum investment required per project based on industrial data or publicly available press releases.

Academic researchers usually operate at TRL 1–4, so they are generally less concerned with or unexposed to end-user requirements or criticalities that need to be considered when scaling up and manufacturing an energy storage device. Batteries in a research laboratory are often tested using conditions and parameters very far from commercial devices 21 . Moreover, scientific research in electrochemical energy storage is generally plagued by misrepresentation of data and a lack of transparency. This leads to a high risk of over-extrapolation, exacerbated by a lack of reproduced or even reproducible studies. Criticism of this situation is often kept within the community but has recently been spotlighted by various commentary and editorial articles 22 , 23 , 24 .

Within the battery industry, there have been several high-profile examples of companies investing in over-hyped technologies which failed to meet the promised performance. For example, Envia, a spin-out from Argonne National Laboratories (USA), was close to securing an investment from automaker General Motors to bring the technology to mass market EVs. However, the latter could not reproduce the results that Envia claimed, eventually leading to the demise of Envia 25 . Similarly, in 2015 the consumer products company Dyson acquired the US-based solid-state battery start-up Sakti3 for 90 million US $. Three years later, in 2018, the company wrote off the investment 26 .

Practical evaluation of lithium-ion battery performance

Battery research and development is strongly driven and judged on a series of metrics with an often-complex connection between the requirements set by the application and the cell itself. For an EV, requirements on safety, range, available pack installation space, cost, power, and lifespan will heavily inform requirements at the cell level, such as energy density, chemistry, cell design, as well as calendar and cycle life. These requirements will depend not only on the demands of a specific application but also on other factors, such as legally mandated safety requirements in target markets.

Research into new battery chemistries (e.g., lithium-sulfur, solid-state, sodium-ion) and other concepts (e.g., redox flow, metal-air), regardless of application, has for many years been heavily driven by improving on these metrics, particularly (but not limited to) energy density, cycle life and cost. These metrics have a complex relationship between the material properties typically investigated at the fundamental research stage and the eventual application. We can take energy content on a weight or volume basis as a relevant example.

The left panel of Fig.  3 presents the specific energy (Wh kg −1 ) and energy density (Wh L −1 ) for a broad selection of Li-ion and so-called “post-Li-ion” cells 27 with publicly available specifications grouped by chemistry type. A list of cell specifications used to construct this plot is given in Supplementary Table  1 . Commercially available Li-ion batteries range from as low as ~50 Wh kg −1 , 80 Wh L −1 for high-power cells with a lithium titanium oxide (Li 4 Ti 5 O 12 or LTO) negative electrode, up to around ≥270 Wh kg −1 , ≥650 Wh L −1 for cells with high-energy layered oxide positive electrodes (e.g., NMC811) and blended graphite/silicon composite negative electrodes 28 . Various prototypes of battery technologies under development, particularly those with pure silicon or lithium metal negative electrodes, show encouraging results in the development of high-energy cells 28 . However, graphical representations such as the left panel of Fig.  3 do not always allow us to understand the practical hurdles to translating single-cell performance into expected system-level performance. Moreover, these graphs do not necessarily predict where new battery chemistries may fall.

Left) energy density vs specific energy for selected Li-ion and “post-Li-ion” cells from publicly available specifications; right) schematic of the reduction in energy on a weight and volume basis between the theoretical maximum for the active materials and usable pack-level energy density for state-of-the-art NCA and LFP battery technologies. The symbols on the left chart are scaled based on cell size in terms of Ah. The data on which this figure is based are reported in Supplementary Note  1 . Error bars are smaller than the data points for Fig.  3 right, and the reader is referred to Supplementary Note  1 for the range of values used. “DoD” refers to “depth of discharge”, the utilized fraction of the battery’s nominal capacity.

A schematic depiction of this in the context of energy is given in the right panel of Fig.  3 , which describes the reduction in specific energy (Wh kg −1 ) and energy density (Wh L −1 ) from the theoretical level (“Theory”, which considers the calculable maximum energy release of the electrochemical reaction of the fully charged active materials, assuming no other inactive component) to the installed device (“Pack”, which considers structural and auxiliary components, among other practical limitations). This comparison is based on two contrasting state-of-the-art battery pack concepts: one based on small, high-energy-density cylindrical lithium nickel-cobalt-aluminium oxide (NCA) or high-nickel NMCxyz, in 18650 or 2170 cylindrical format cells, as currently used by companies such as Tesla. The other is based on large format LFP cells, such as those used in CTP concepts developed by companies such as BYD (“Build Your Dreams Co. Ltd.”) and CATL (“Contemporary Amperex Technology Co. Limited”) in which packing efficiency is increased by eliminating the use of smaller modules within the pack. The calculations carried out to produce the graph in the right panel of Fig.  3 are disclosed in Supplementary Note  1 . The numbers should be interpreted as guidelines for these specific examples to highlight the crucial differences and not as descriptions of the full range of possible systems.

These two pack concepts contrast significantly at each stage of their implementation. From the right panel of Fig.  3 , it can be seen that NCA (with a small, e.g., 3.5 wt. % inclusion of silicon oxide in the negative electrode) has approximately double the theoretical energy density of the graphite||LFP chemistry due to a higher cell voltage, capacity, and material density. However, the fraction of the theoretical energy content that can be reversibly obtained (repeatedly charged and discharged) is presently smaller for graphite-SiO x ||NCA than graphite||LFP. Constructing a functioning rechargeable Li-ion cell requires the addition of inactive weight and volume, such as current collectors, separators, electrolyte, and packaging, which can be 50% by weight or more of the cell and reduces the energy density accordingly. For large systems such as EV batteries, comprising hundreds or thousands of cells, the cells must be installed into a pack with additional structural components and auxiliary systems such as cooling and electronic control. Other practical limitations might be required to realize certain requirements. For example, packs based on high-Ni-content NMC or NCA chemistries are typically limited further in terms of charging voltage (i.e., state-of-charge (SoC) and depth-of-discharge (DoD) ranges) to ensure an acceptable lifetime; the same limitations do not bind LFP-based batteries.

System (pack)-level design considerations may differ considerably with different chemistries; we can consider the comparison in the right panel of Fig.  3 as an example. Small, high-energy density cylindrical cells using high nickel content positive electrodes, with <20 Wh stored energy, are preferred by some original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) as thermal propagation in the event of thermal runaway can be more easily managed. Here we consider OEMs to be companies that produce battery packs. Other companies can use these packs as components to produce finished items, such as EVs, sold to users.

In contrast, the good thermal stability of LFP allows for relatively large (300–1000 Wh) cells with lower energy density and less stringent thermal management requirements. This fact, coupled with innovation in cell design, has recently enabled the development of LFP packs with improved packing efficiency, enabling pack-level energy densities competitive with high-Ni-content packs with energy-dense cells. However, recent announcements by several companies on innovations such as larger-format cylindrical cells (e.g., “4680”) 29 and NMC-based CTP systems 30 , as well as further integration (e.g., cell-to-vehicle concepts, where the pack forms part of the vehicle structure) 31 , 32 show that we can expect significant advancements in system-level engineering in the coming years, hence increased “cell-to-pack efficiency” (i.e., cell energy divided by pack energy, either gravimetric or volumetric) for NMC/NCA-based battery systems.

Figure  3 also implies that lithium-ion cells have been continuously optimized. Achieving today’s cell performance has been far from trivial, requiring a holistic approach to research and development and three decades of incremental improvements since market introduction. Because the positive electrode active material provides energy to the system during discharge, ideally, the mass and volume of all other components should be minimized while maximizing cell lifetime and performance without compromising safety. To achieve these targets, it is essential to realistically acknowledge the state-of-the-art and what are, or could be, practical constraints when conceiving a design of experiments. One should consider key variables, often referred to as key performance indicators (KPIs), such as the ratio of the capacities of the negative relative to the positive electrode (“N/P ratio”), practical electrode capacities, coating thicknesses, porosities and electrolyte loadings (Table  1 ). Typical lab-scale cells generally fall short of this in many respects: routine experiments use a large excess of Li metal and electrolyte. These factors can readily mask practical performance and lifetime achievable at both cell and system levels.

The risk of excessive extrapolation

Over-extrapolation of early findings in battery research and development presents risks to the appropriate direction of public and private funding and policy decisions. In this context, over-extrapolation may often be fallacious inferences of future performance related to new materials beyond the experiments’ scope. For example, from results obtained in prototypical laboratory coin cells using Li metal as a counter/reference electrode 33 , a nanostructured positive electrode might indicate the possibility of batteries that fully charge in seconds, or a new negative electrode material might indicate better than state-of-the-art capacity retention. Such lab-scale cells are often free of several limitations that govern practical applications 21 . Over-extrapolation of this sort may be made by journalists 34 , by university press offices 35 , and, in some cases, by scientists authoring peer-reviewed scientific articles due to the often extreme pressure to motivate research funding.

A prominent recent example of excessive extrapolation is the 2016 Energy & Environmental Science research article by Braga et al. 36 of a battery concept in which the alkali metal (Li or Na) was stated to reversibly plate and strip at both negative and positive electrodes with an extremely high theoretical energy density, despite the absence of an overall chemical reaction. The study gained worldwide attention following a university press release 37 . However, the study also received strong criticism and was subsequently disputed on theoretical and experimental basis 38 , 39 . At the time of writing, the peer-reviewed results obtained by Braga et al. 36 have not been independently reproduced, and the papers disputing their results have received far less attention.

It is critical to scientific integrity and appropriate use of public resources that research funding organizations do not incentivize over-extrapolation at any level and support initiatives to improve data availability and transparency. In this regard, since 2015 40 , various scientific publishers and journals have suggested the development of standards in reporting experimental results and analysis in the broader field of energy research 24 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 . Another practice to support reproducibility and third-party validation is the publication of raw datasets. Indeed, the creation of community-led, open databases has already been considered in the battery field 47 , 48 . Another option could be to encourage the adoption of a “limitations of the study” section in peer-reviewed scientific articles as a standard practice, similar to that applied in other fields, notably the social sciences 49 , 50 . In this way, the scientists can clearly discuss methodological limitations, and the authors can clarify what remains outside the scope of their study in the article itself.

Industrial development of lithium-based battery components

Electrolytes.

A. Volta 51 first described the importance of the electrolyte (i.e., an electron-insulating and ion-conductive layer, either liquid or solid, interposed between the negative and positive electrodes) in an electrochemical energy storage device in 1800. Currently, the state-of-the-art electrolyte for EV application 52 , 53 , 54 is represented by solid lithium salts, e.g., lithium hexafluorophosphate, dissolved in non-aqueous organic-based carbonate solvents, e.g., ethylene carbonate and dimethyl carbonate. Electrolytes generally represent, depending on cell format and design, ca. 8–15 wt. % of a cell. Despite being continuously developed, these electrolytes are expected to continue limiting cell safety due to their combustibility and limited cell operating temperature range of −10 °C to 60 °C in the most optimistic scenarios.

Electrolyte chemistry plays a major role in determining cell safety, cycle life 55 , power capability, and reversibly accessible energy content 55 , 56 . It plays a key role in determining the nature of the so-called solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) forming at the interface between the electrolyte and the active material, especially at the negative electrode 57 , 58 . For most commercial battery cells, these kinetically stable interphases are critical for preventing the cell’s capacity and power degradation.

Moreover, innovative electrolyte formulations are considered key enablers for next-generation negative (e.g., lithium metal 59 and silicon 60 ) and positive (e.g., Mn-rich and polyanionic compounds 61 ) electrode active materials. Academic and industrial researchers are trying to develop tailored liquid electrolyte formulations, e.g., using fluorinated solvents 62 to enable efficient lithium metal cycling 59 , 63 . Room-temperature ionic liquids (RTIL, i.e., a class of salts that are liquid at room temperature) are also being considered 53 , 64 . Although RTILs are often touted as being safer than standard non-aqueous carbonate-based electrolytes 53 , 64 , there is limited evidence of long-term stability at TRL ≥ 5, particularly after an extended number of cycles. Start-up Cuberg has recently shown a cycle life of more than 670 cycles for a 5 Ah cell prototype containing an IL-based electrolyte 65 .

There is a strong push from the automotive industry to consider organic or inorganic solid-state electrolytes and so-called “solid-state batteries” (SSB), arguably among the most hyped technologies of this decade so far 66 . Unfortunately, despite the large volume of work reported in the scientific literature 67 , 68 , 69 , no consistent and comprehensive classification is available for all-solid-state batteries. For this reason, in Supplementary Fig.  1 , we propose a classification to help guide the readers in what is being actively researched in the field.

We identify two main categories of all-solid-state cells: (i) thin film, with capacities in the µAh-mAh (or µWh-mWh) range which are already commercially available 70 , 71 , for example, in medical devices, smart electronics and circuit boards. These thin film batteries are generally produced by vacuum/vapour deposition, a technique which generally leads to low cell manufacturing throughput, compared to cell manufacturing for EV traction batteries 72 , and (ii) bulk-type, which are comparable, in principle, to current generation commercial lithium-ion batteries, i.e., with thick electrodes (~100 µm) and sizes ranging between 2 and 200 Ah. Below we summarise the various material approaches to solid-state electrolytes.

Inorganic solid-state electrolytes

Inorganic solid-state electrolytes are already available in niche commercial electrochemical energy storage devices such as high-temperature rechargeable, liquid electrode Na-S, Na-NiCl 2 batteries used for stationary energy storage 73 and primary Li-I 2 batteries 73 . More recently, in 2019, Hitachi Zosen, a Japanese engineering corporation, showcased an all-solid-state 140 mAh pouch cell prototype for space-based applications that will be trialled on the International Space Station (ISS) 74 , 75 . The Hitachi Zosen cell uses a sulphide-based electrolyte with other undisclosed cell components and operates between −40 and 100 °C 74 , 75 , retaining performance at environmental pressures of 0.01 Pa 74 , 75 . Although this could be an advanced prototype in aerospace, sitting at least at TRL 7 for this niche application, it would sit at TRL 4 (i.e., laboratory scale) for EV application. Unfortunately, as of today, there is no off-the-shelf product that meets the stringent requirements of the passenger electric vehicle market.

Nevertheless, some solid-state electrolyte technologies hold much promise. For example, some inorganic solid electrolytes are stable and retain high ionic conductivities at room temperature 76 , 77 , e.g., > 10 −2  S cm −1 , while at the same time possibly improving safety due to a lower risk of thermal events 78 . These advantages could lead to increased volumetric and gravimetric energy at the pack level, i.e., by reducing the need for thermal management or engineering safety components around the battery pack.

The different nature of the electrode|solid electrolyte interface might also enable long-term cycling of negative (e.g., lithium metal) and positive (manganese- or sulfur-containing materials) electrode active materials, a performance hardly attainable with conventional non-aqueous liquid electrolytes today. Some solid electrolytes offer the possibility of thermodynamic stability (e.g., at the Li|LLZO interface). In contrast, some others offer the possibility of better kinetic stability by removing processes such as interface dissolution into a liquid or throttling solvent mass transport to the electrode interface 79 , 80 , 81 . However, in certain conditions, solid-state electrolytes can also become electrochemically active 74 . Thus, it is paramount to evaluate the electrode|solid electrolyte interaction during the development of all-solid-state batteries 82 .

Organic semi-solid and solid-state electrolytes

In the organic solid electrolyte category, we include commercially available, gel-type poly(vinylidene difluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP) electrolytes and gel-type poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-based electrolytes, such as those commercialized by Bolloré 83 . Although this company launched a pilot car-sharing program in North America, Europe and Asia to use this cell technology in electric city cars, this kind of lithium-metal-polymer (referred to as LMP®) battery never reached the mass market adoption in passenger cars 84 . One factor contributing to its poor commercial adoption is that they can only be used at relatively high temperatures (50 to 80 °C) 85 and in a low voltage range (up to 4.0 V vs Li/Li + ) 52 . However, these batteries are now deployed in commercial vehicles like the Mercedes eCitaro city bus 85 . To the best of our knowledge, there is no demonstration of prototype cells (e.g., at TRL 5) that work at room temperature (i.e., at around 25 °C) using a purely solid-state polymer electrolyte.

The semi-solid category includes highly viscous electrolytes, such as solvent-in-salt mixtures, i.e., electrolyte solutions with salt concentrations higher than the “standard” 1 M, which can reach as high as 4 M concentration or saturation points. A point of concern for concentrated electrolyte mixtures is the relatively high content of fluorinated salts, which also brings into question the lithium content (i.e., kg Li /kWh cell ) and environmental impact of such a class of electrolytes. Indeed, a holistic approach to understanding opportunities for commercialization would also require a comprehensive life cycle analysis. It is also important to consider semi-solid electrolytes that can be prepared using commoditized chemicals. They could be easier to integrate into EVs versus cells comprising components that remain under development, such as ceramic separators.

Hybrid electrolytes

Concerns about the manufacturability and scalability of solid-state electrolytes and requirements on stack pressure continue to motivate the development of cell designs also incorporating non-aqueous liquid electrolyte solutions in hybrid solid-liquid configurations. Liquids can be employed to improve cell performance, e.g., by decreasing interfacial resistance or improving particle contact and Li-ion conductivity 86 . Hybrid solutions include solid-state cells using a mix of inorganic and organic electrolytes, as researched and proposed by several start-up companies that employ “catholytes” (i.e., electrolytes confined to the vicinity of the positive electrode) to enhance battery performance 87 , 88 .

General considerations for commercial development of electrolytes

One of the greatest opportunities that solid electrolytes present is to improve safety, energy, and extend cycle life, e.g., by increasing the voltage stability window in synergy with the electrode active materials. However, evaluating the introduction of alternative liquid- or solid-state electrolytes should be done carefully 23 .

Whenever a solid-state electrolyte layer is considered for cell production, its manufacturing is not a trivial process. Indeed, regardless of the battery chemistry, it is necessary to fabricate dense (~100%), non-porous, and thin (e.g., <20 µm) solid electrolyte films at a high yield (e.g., >30 m/min) 72 . Laboratory-scale type cells generally consist of solid-state electrolyte pellets (or membranes) hundreds of microns thick produced via non-scalable manufacturing techniques using single-side coated electrodes. These solid-state cells hardly represent the performance needed of a 10–100 Ah cell, which is considered the required target for EV-grade cells.

A solid-state electrolyte generally acts as a separator, and its weight and thickness (both larger compared to liquid electrolyte-filled polyolefin-based Li-ion cells separators) are crucial variables that must be tuned to reach specific energy and energy density of ≥350 Wh kg −1 and ≥900 Wh l −1 , respectively, as expected for the first generation of commercial products. For both liquid- or solid-state electrolytes, it is crucial to test cells using realistic electrolyte loadings, doable from TRL 4, and to provide clear safety and performance testing of scaled-up prototypes, e.g., at TRL 5 or 6, both at the beginning and end-of-life, and different SOC.

Comprehensive safety testing is key to achieving higher TRL, as batteries always present a certain degree of safety-related risk. Solid-state electrolytes are not necessarily incombustible since some polymer and inorganic electrolytes can react with oxygen or water, generating heat and toxic gases, posing both a chemical and an explosion risk 74 . The amount of energy that can be released by a battery in single-cell format is a function of several factors, but primarily of the electrical and thermal energy stored. A holistic, system-level view and safety testing are ultimately required, as in the event of a fire, plastic, casing and pack materials could contribute to uncontrolled combustion.

It is also essential to provide a clear description of the thermal and mechanical requirements, e.g., applied stack pressure to make these cells work at room temperature and ideally in an extended temperature range (e.g., −30 to 100 °C) to compare with state-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries. Ultimately, it is necessary to understand the implications of integrating multiple single cells into a larger and more complex battery system (Fig.  3 ).

Negative electrodes

While there have been steady advances in the performance of positive electrode materials used in lithium-ion batteries over the past 30 years, the negative electrode active material used in commercial cells has remained relatively unchanged 89 , 90 . However, various negative electrode active materials have been proposed for use in lithium-ion batteries; these materials are broadly summarised in Supplementary Fig.  2 .

Insertion-based negative electrodes

Natural and artificial graphites are the most commonly used negative electrode active materials in commercial Li-ion batteries 91 . Natural graphite is obtained from mining and refining processes, while synthetic graphite is artificially prepared via high-temperature pyrometallurgical processes 91 . In recent years, an increasing amount of artificial graphite has been used alongside natural graphite in negative electrodes 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 . Natural graphite is a cost-effective material capable of delivering a specific capacity close to its theoretical value of 372 mAh g −1 at moderate specific currents (e.g., 100 mA g −1 ). In contrast, artificial graphite is more expensive and has a slightly lower specific capacity, but it enables a longer cell cycle life 95 .

Lithium titanate (LTO) has been used as an alternative to graphite in high-power applications. However, its adoption has been limited due to its high cost per energy unit and low energy density. LTO’s higher operating potential, around 1.5 V vs Li/Li + , with a voltage cut-off above 1.0 V vs Li/Li + , minimizes low-voltage degradation at the negative electrode|electrolyte interface. However, at the cell level, the low specific capacity (i.e., 170 mAh g −1 ) 96 and a low nominal discharge voltage (limited to around 2.3 V) of LTO-based negative electrodes limits cell specific energy <100 Wh kg −1 and energy density <200 Wh L −1 when coupled with NMC-based positive electrodes and “standard” 1 M non-aqueous liquid electrolytes.

Beyond LTO, companies such as Toshiba 97 , Echion Technologies 98 and Nyobolt 99 are looking at innovating this cell concept with similar materials. These new cell chemistries could find a niche in applications such as hybrid vehicles, e.g., for heavy-duty applications. For example, niobium-based negative electrodes, although still at TRL 5 100 , can have capacities as high as 225 mAh g −1 at 34.3 mA g −1 and promise average cell discharge voltages of 2.3 V, which would result in higher energy densities than LTO-based cells 101 , but still lower than graphite-based cells. A near-monopoly of Nb supply could pose a risk to adoption 102 , and it is important to consider which technique is used for ore refinement and Nb purification 103 . Similarly to LTO, commercial adoption of these cells could be hampered by the higher $ kWh −1 cost compared to cells with graphite-based negative electrodes. However, as these technologies mature, end users of batteries could be willing to pay a higher upfront cost to access the performance requirements demanded by their specific application, in this case, power and cycle life, currently not achieved with graphite-based cells.

Conversion-alloy and alloy-based negative electrodes

Another important class of materials are alloys and conversion-alloys, first commercialized in a battery called “Nexelion” by Sony in 2005 9 , 104 , employing a negative electrode incorporating amorphous Sn-Co nanoparticles. Despite this high-TRL cell not being a commercial success, the development attracted research interest in alloy-based negative electrodes 89 , such as silicon-based materials 104 .

Commercially available lithium-ion cells are now beginning to use an increasing amount of silicon in the negative electrode in the form of silicon oxide, SiO x 91 , 105 , where the high theoretical specific capacity of silicon (up to 3579 mAh g −1 94 based on the mass of silicon) allows for improvements in energy density at the cell level even when silicon compounds only comprises a small fraction of the negative electrode (e.g., 2–10 wt. % 105 , 106 ). However, this generally results in a trade-off with cycle life. Although there are no detailed accounts of who first commercialized silicon oxide in lithium-ion cells 2 , the material has been found in commercial cells manufactured as early as 2013, e.g., by Samsung 105 , 107 , and Tesla, which was the first major automaker to include silicon, as silicon oxide, in EV batteries 92 . Today, the percentage of silicon oxide in graphite-based negative electrode materials is generally estimated at around 2–10 wt. % 105 , 106 .

Industry is working towards a gradual increase in silicon content in the negative electrode, with GAC Motors claiming to be close to commercializing higher silicon content battery packs 108 . Companies such as Umicore 109 have been developing the technology for over ten years. Umicore claims that the next steps include the “activation” of SiO x using lithium or magnesium to increase initial cycle efficiency. Further steps include the introduction of silicon-carbon (Si-C) composite materials in the negative electrode, with blended graphite/Si-C electrode active materials having capacities in the range of 500–550mAhg −1 (active material) 109 , 110 , values that suggest a moderate amount of silicon, around 10 wt. % 109 , (we consider a moderate amount of silicon up to 20 wt. %). In parallel, several start-ups, collaborating with suppliers and automotive OEMs 29 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , have been developing silicon-rich or silicon-dominant negative electrodes, i.e., up to 20–100 wt. %, in which the largest capacity contribution comes from silicon. Although some of these materials have been commercialized in niche applications, such as consumer electronics 115 or aviation and aerospace 116 , no player has officially reached TRL 6 for supplying the automotive sector. Companies working on silicon-dominant batteries are generally expected to reach TRL 6-7 by 2025 29 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 .

Research on silicon-based negative electrodes focuses on buffering or reducing material volume changes upon lithiation and decreasing irreversible capacity loss during cell formation (e.g., via pre-lithiation) and cycling 109 , 117 , 118 . These drawbacks can be mitigated through several different approaches. Strategies include silicon-rich, monolithic or 3D-structured electrodes, such as those proposed by Enevate 119 , and negative electrodes prepared by vapour deposition, as developed by LeydenJar 120 . Vapour deposition can be used to grow silicon fibres and nanowires. Startup Amprius has used vapour deposition to deposit silicon on carbon nanotubes; this negative electrode material has been used in 3–10 Ah pouch cells 121 with energies between 360–500 Wh kg −1 , 890–1400 Wh L −1 , and cycle life between 200–1,200 cycles, with fast charging capability 121 . Pure silicon nanowires can also be grown by vapour deposition; startup OneD Battery Science is taking this approach to grow silicon nanowires on graphite 122 . Various (nano-)structured, porous or templated silicon-based active materials, which could be integrated into standard lithium-ion manufacturing, are also considered and referred to as ‘drop-in’ technologies (e.g., by slot-die coating), such as those of Group14 114 . Automotive cells using silicon-rich anodes with up to 30 wt. % silicon are at TRL 5 today, with A-samples being sent to automakers. We estimate that automotive cells using >30 wt. % silicon are at TRL 4.

Unlike changing the positive electrode material, silicon-rich negative electrode active materials may require a significant redesign of the negative electrode and electrolyte system 60 , 123 , such as introducing new binders and new electrolyte additives. Hence, silicon-rich negative electrode materials can be considered a step change compared to the gradual improvements represented by using SiO x 123 .

Lithium metal-based negative electrodes

In the last five years, there has been a move towards the commercialization of rechargeable cells with lithium metal anodes, which have been proposed since the 1980s 9 . A variety of different concepts, such as (lithium metal negative electrode)|(sulfide electrolyte), (“anode-free” negative electrode)|(oxide electrolyte), (lithium metal negative electrode)|(polymer electrolyte), (lithium metal negative electrode)|(ionic liquid electrolyte), and many more, are also currently under development by several start-up companies, battery suppliers and automotive OEMs 9 .

Concepts using a negative electrode where no lithium metal is present during cell assembly and is extracted solely from the positive electrode on the first charge are often referred to as “anode-free” 124 . These present the most advantages from an energy perspective and the largest challenges for cell cycle life since any unwanted side reaction directly leads to a loss of capacity in the cell. “Anode-free” cells are also subject to larger volume fluctuation between charge and discharge (i.e., reversible and irreversible cell swelling, also termed “breathing”) 125 , which can require high stack pressures, and also lead to complex integration at the battery pack level. However, lithium metal’s low density (0.534 g cm −3 at 25 °C) means that silicon, with a density of about 2.33 g cm −3 at 25 °C, does not necessarily carry any penalty from an energy density perspective (Fig.  4 ).

Volume change is visualized as a change in one dimension, namely thickness. In general, materials can expand in all three dimensions. The top panel shows that the deposition of 4 mAh/cm 2 of lithium metal would lead to an increase in cell thickness of about 19 µm per negative electrode layer, based on a specific capacity of 3860 mAh/g and a density of 0.53 g/cm 3 , i.e., a volumetric capacity of 2045 mAh/cm 3 . The bottom panel shows that at the end of charge, the same amount of lithium (i.e., lithium equivalents) in an alloying reaction with silicon to form Li 15 Si 4 would lead to an increase in cell thickness per negative electrode layer of 12 µm, and a comparable overall negative electrode thickness of 18 µm. A density of 2.33 g/cm 3 was used for pure silicon and a volumetric capacity of 2194 Ah/cm 3 for Li 15 Si 4 . Positive electrode and electrolyte layer are assumed to have a constant thickness. Volumetric capacity and density determine cell energy density, affecting how much space a cell would occupy, e.g., in a battery pack. Increasing cell energy density can allow, for example, more electrode layers or cells to be integrated into the same space.

For this purpose, it is worth considering the theoretical uniaxial volume change of lithium and silicon (Fig.  4 ). Both materials, upon lithiation, can undergo reversible cell stack volume changes of 10–20% (e.g., considering a positive electrode thickness of 100 µm and an electrolyte thickness of 20 µm or lower), which needs to be considered when battery cells are assembled and cycled in a battery pack. This requires a volume buffering strategy to be in place. Interestingly, if only the theoretical volume change is considered, lithium- and silicon-based cells can experience different magnitudes of swellings but can have comparable energy densities. With a minimally viable N/P ratio of 1, where the relative volume change would be highest 89 , 126 , 127 , 128 , a silicon electrode would be expected to exhibit a uniaxial volume change of 280% and an energy density of 2194 Ah cm −3 at the fully charged state 89 , 126 . The uniaxial volume change for lithium negative electrodes is higher than for pure silicon, as lithium metal has a lower density than that of lithiated silicon.

Manufacturability is an open issue that needs to be solved to enable the use of lithium metal electrodes for the battery industry (Fig.  5 ) 129 . Conventional lithium metal foil manufacturing (Fig.  5 top, top-down approach), generally carried out under a dry or inert atmosphere (which can add to processing costs), includes an extrusion process, and leads to foils with a minimum thickness of 100 µm 130 , 131 . This thickness constitutes a large excess at the cell level (100 µm ≈ 21 mAh cm −2 ), particularly considering that the active lithium is generally already contained in the positive electrode material, with the cell assembled in a discharged state. A roll pressing procedure is commonly employed for thinning lithium metal foils. Currently, state-of-the-art processes produce foils with a minimum thickness of 20 µm and require the use of processing lubricants 131 , 132 .

Top) Top-down method, i.e., extrusion of lithium metal ingots to produce lithium metal foils with a minimum thickness of 100 µm. Thickness can be reduced to a minimum of ca. 20 µm by roll pressing. The foil can then be laminated on current collectors, such as copper. Bottom) Bottom-up approaches. The upper part of the bottom panel depicts a simplified scheme of a physical vapour deposition method for producing lithium foil. A lithium source, such as an ingot or chips, is placed in a vacuum chamber. Mechanical, electromagnetic, or thermal energy is then applied to the lithium source to vaporize the metal, which is deposited on a current collector, such as copper, to act as an electrode. The lower part of the bottom panel depicts a method for lithium ink deposition, where stabilized lithium particles are dispersed in a liquid (slurry mixing), and the slurry is coated on a foil and dried. The lithium metal electrode can then be thinned and laminated to homogenize and flatten the surface.

Moreover, freestanding lithium foil can be complex to handle due to lithium’s mechanical properties, particularly ductility and adhesion 130 , 131 . Lithium metal can be laminated on current collectors such as copper or stainless steel foils to increase the negative electrode mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties. Current collectors are generally metallic foils that are mechanical support to deposit thin films on and act as electric current carriers 132 . With lithium metal being a soft, highly reactive material, all of these steps are non-trivial. To the best of our knowledge, there are currently no manufacturing plants capable of scaling-up lithium metal foil production for large-scale (e.g., EV-grade) cell manufacturing.

Bottom-up approaches (Fig.  5 bottom) include techniques such as physical vapour 133 , 134 or ink depositions 135 . Vapour deposition borrows technologies either from the semiconductor or thin-film battery industries. For this bottom-up approach, achieving high-quality, homogeneous lithium layers with high throughput can be challenging. However, vapour deposition is well-versed to minimize lithium excess where thin layers (<10 µm) can be deposited 133 , 134 , 135 . Ink deposition is proposed by some suppliers, such as Livent 136 , but so far, the scalability and cyclability, particularly in large cell formats, still needs to be fully proven. Bottom-up approaches require a controlled atmosphere (e.g., low pressure and/or inert), and the resulting deposited lithium foil is expected to be highly reactive until the surface is passivated. These techniques can also be used for pre-lithiation (prior to cell assembly) of negative electrodes that do not contain lithium metal 118 .

Regardless of the production approach, the handling and particularly shipping of lithium metal represents an additional major barrier to the widespread adoption of the material 129 . Transport requires additional measures in accordance with regulations regarding the transport of dangerous goods, such as the Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR) 137 and the International Air Transport Association (IATA) Dangerous Goods Regulations (DGR) 138 . Currently, shipping lithium metal requires large containers kept under a controlled inert atmosphere 129 . Higher logistical costs or co-location of lithium foil manufacturing plants (e.g., adjacent to cell manufacturing plants) should therefore be considered when envisioning manufacturing lithium metal battery cells.

General considerations for negative electrodes

To summarize, there is no single solution to every technical concern related to lithium-based battery negative electrodes. Indeed, different cells present challenges that cannot be fully resolved at once; instead, a compromise between safety, energy content, cost and cycle life needs to be reached. So far, negative electrode improvements in large-scale batteries have been marginal: graphite is still the material of choice, although the inclusion of silicon as a composite with graphite is already happening at the commercial cell level.

Arguably the push for higher-energy batteries has led to rapid incremental developments of positive electrode active materials 139 , while research on negative electrodes tends to lag behind. This is partly due to companies that have developed positive electrode active materials successfully managing the industrial risk of bringing a new product to market 140 . Indeed, replacing graphite-based negative electrode material requires a “step-change”, meaning that the application for specific negative electrode chemistry needs to be considered by rethinking the whole system, i.e., with a holistic view of the cell, system integration, and practical manufacturability. This also implies an opportunity for a technology leapfrog. Companies developing these solutions are generally start-ups, many of which have now attracted large investments from automotive OEMs. This is possibly because start-ups are better placed to pursue high-risk projects and manage fast-paced development cycles, compared to large manufacturing and engineering firms.

Positive electrodes

Insertion-based positive electrodes.

LiCoO 2 , with a practical electrode-level specific capacity of ca. 135 mAh g −1   141 , was the first commercial positive electrode active material used in lithium-ion batteries 12 and the first lithium-ion based electric vehicles (Nissan Prairie Joy EV, 1997) 142 . Despite the introduction of lower-cost materials into consumer electronics, like LiFePO 4 and lithium manganese oxide (LMO), in 2008, Tesla used LiCoO 2 -based (LCO) positive electrodes in the cells used in its first EV, the Roadster 143 . These cells were available in a 18650 format and offered higher energy densities than other cells on the market at the time that used LFP or LMO as positive electrode active materials. 18650 LCO cells were also easier to procure due to their widespread use in laptop battery packs. However, as the electric vehicle market began to take shape, the automakers outside of China (which has the largest lithium-based battery manufacturing industry globally today) 11 started to investigate the use of alternative cobalt-poor battery chemistries that better-suited EV requirements. At the time, this meant looking for positive electrode active materials that enable a higher energy content, with a lower raw materials cost, reasonable cycle life, and safety comparable to the standard LiCoO 2 -based electrodes.

This led to the emergence of nickel and manganese-based chemistries, such as NMC and NCA. These positive electrode active materials replace (partially or completely) expensive cobalt for cheaper nickel (prices true as of August 27, 2021) 144 . The raw materials used to produce Panasonic/Tesla’s Ni-rich (>90% nickel on a molar basis as a fraction of the transition metal in the positive electrode) NCA92 positive electrode chemistry are more than 50% cheaper than those in LCO on a kg basis 145 . By substituting cobalt with nickel, it is possible to increase the practical capacity of these positive electrode materials, as the equivalents of lithium extracted from the positive electrode active material increase from 0.6 up to 0.75–0.80 61 . However, this can also lead to accelerated structural deterioration 146 .

The current increase in raw material prices 147 (true as of November 2022) creates problems for cell manufacturers and automotive OEMs at a time when they are trying to decrease the price of batteries and electric vehicles. Based on current forecasts, 2022 may be the first year since the widescale adoption of EVs started over a decade ago, that average lithium-ion battery prices increase (Fig.  6 ). This may influence OEM decisions when it comes to introducing new chemistries. For example, in 2018, when cobalt prices reached almost 100,000 $ t −1 , companies quickly switched from high-Co-content to high-Ni-content (with the minimum possible Co content) NMC positive electrode active materials 148 . This was particularly evident within the Chinese battery industry, where NMC811 was introduced around two years earlier than anticipated before cobalt prices saw their rapid rise 149 .

The figure shows the real average decline in the battery pack and cell prices for lithium-ion batteries from 2013–2021. Prices are split between the cell and pack components. The 2022 and 2023 prices are forecasted prices based on expected changes to critical battery raw materials. The forecasted projections are based on the state of the market in November 2021 197 .

Despite the higher energy of cells using high-Ni-content positive electrodes, for much of the last decade, Chinese companies favoured LFP. The drivers behind China’s initial focus on LFP are complex and outside the scope of this article, but it is heavily related to the legal battle for LFP licensing that concluded at the beginning of the last decade. After a couple of years of testing batteries with Ni-rich positive electrodes, encouraged by generous government subsidies that favoured the development of high energy density batteries and long-range EVs, Chinese cell manufacturers and automakers are again favouring LFP 150 . Chinese cell manufacturer BYD recently switched all its passenger EVs over to LFP using its Blade Battery technology 151 .

Concerns over battery costs and raw material supply have been drivers in this switch back to LFP. It has also been enabled by innovative cell and pack designs that improve the specific energy of LFP systems at the pack level while still benefitting from LFP’s low cost.

In the longer term, automakers and manufacturers still expect to deploy new positive electrode chemistries tailored to specific applications.

Some automakers are focusing their attention on high-Mn-content chemistries 152 , such as LNMO, manganese-rich NMC, and LMFP, e.g., for the volume vehicle segments 152 as they balance raw material costs with vehicle range/performance, or for hybrid vehicles which will benefit from the high voltage, high power capability. To date, however, there is no clear evidence of battery cells with TRL > 5 containing these materials. For high-performance vehicle segments, automakers are still targeting Ni-based chemistries with an increasing nickel content and lower cobalt content. Finally, there is a concrete opportunity for cells based on NMC active materials with an intermediate Co content to be cost- and performance-competitive with those based on Ni-rich NMCs 153 by increasing the upper voltage cut-off. This cell development trend has been observed for LCO-based consumer electronic batteries 141 . EV adoption, however, could be further in the future, as additional electrolyte and active materials’ developments and demonstration at scale are still required.

Conversion-based positive electrodes

In parallel, a range of positive electrode active materials are at an early stage of development (TRL 4). For example, Solid Power, a US start-up developing solid-state batteries, claims to have developed prototype cells using conversion-type positive electrode active materials such as FeF 3 or FeS 2 154 . These materials are being developed due to a theoretical capacity in the range of 700–900 mAh g −1 , with a lithiation potential in the range of 1–2.5 V vs. Li/Li + 155 , 156 . If this class of materials (including also elemental sulfur or oxygen, or other non-lithiated positive electrode materials 157 ) are eventually commercialized, they could result in a reduction in the mass of positive active material required per kWh of cells from 1–2 kg kWh −1 (with the current generation of insertion layered oxide) to less than 1 kg kWh −1 158 . While these materials could be considered attractive on this basis alone, it is worth mentioning that conversion-type materials have drawbacks, which could greatly hinder their practical exploitation. Drawbacks include: (i) capacity loss and large voltage hysteresis during cell cycling, (ii) poor power densities due to sluggish kinetics and multi-electron reactions, (iii) relatively high strain upon lithiation and delithiation, and (iv) need for a large amount of lithium metal in the negative electrode (i.e., potentially double the amount or more compared to cells using Li-based layered oxides positive electrodes). The lower average voltage of the positive electrode will require a higher capacity loading (in terms of mAh cm −2 ) that will lead to higher local current densities at the negative electrode and higher costs, particularly considering complexities with handling and shipping lithium metal foils. Moreover, cells would be assembled charged rather than discharged 157 . It is unclear if this could add to the complexity of cell manufacturing at a large scale.

Challenges in scaling up Li-ion batteries

Lab-scale material development and engineering improvements can be the primary hurdles in bringing new technology to market. While challenges such as scaling material production from grams to tons are well understood, additional problems are often overlooked, such as the complex value chains, with dozens of suppliers required to source all the materials and components (see Fig.  7 , top). Building a manufacturing plant can take several years to commission from capital expenditure (CapEx) to SOP (Fig.  7 , bottom), and the time it requires depends on the product being produced. A chemical plant producing layered oxide positive electrode active materials will be very different from a plant that produces battery cells, which requires precision manufacturing and high automation to be cost-competitive. Here we use a series of examples to illustrate how supply chain considerations and poor cost assumptions can de-rail technology development.

The time in years from CapEx to SOP is estimated from capital expenditure to start a project/plant to when production starts. We estimate both the typical minimum time (black bar), and maximum time (light grey). We assume technical maturity and further delays can be expected if the technology is not developed or there is a lack of know-how. Most steps require high-precision manufacturing and can have different degrees of complexity for market entry. The values are indicative, sourced from public announcements, and in-line with those disclosed by public organizations such as EIT InnoEnnergy 199 . For scrap, we assume that the largest volume will initially come from giga-factory ramp-up.

The supply chain

Moving to positive electrode chemistries with high manganese content potentially offers a route to balancing manufactured cell costs with performance metrics such as specific energy 159 . A variety of established manufacturers and start-ups are pursuing these materials, e.g., Haldor Topsøe 160 and Nano One Materials 161 in the case of LNMO, BASF in the case of NMC 370, SVOLT 162 in the case of NMx, and HCM 163 , SAFT 164 and CATL 165 in the case of LMFP or LxFP (with x an undisclosed number of different substituents, such as CATLʼs “M3P” 166 ). These companies are advancing the large-scale production of, and claim to achieve, high-performing positive electrode materials 160 , 161 . However, the current battery-grade manganese supply chain is insufficient to support these technologies’ widespread adoption today. Indeed, current projections for manganese sulfate supply show that demand will outstrip supply as early as 2025 if chemical companies do not invest in additional capacity (see Supplementary Fig.  3 ). To prevent manganese sulfate availability from being a bottleneck, companies that plan to use these positive electrode materials will need to work closely with chemical suppliers to ensure that production capacity is ramped up in line with their requirements. These issues are not only a problem for the producers of the material but also potentially disruptive for the plans of end-users, such as Norwegian battery manufacturer Morrow 167 (who have partnered with Haldor Topsøe to produce LNMO cells) and companies like Volkswagen who have indicated manganese-rich chemistries as a key part of their future plans 152 , 168 .

Batteries using inorganic solid-state electrolytes face similar supply chain constraints. There is no existing supply chain for cells using sulfide electrolytes (e.g., Li 3 PS 4 ) to provide the required lithium sulfide materials. This means that companies have to develop their supply chains while also commercializing the batteries themselves. The supply chains of oxide-based solid-state electrolytes (e.g., Li 7 La 3 Zr 2 O 12 , LLZO) face similar difficulties. Lanthanum, as used in LLZO, was estimated to have an annual production of around 50,000 tons in 2019 169 . We estimate that 1 GWh of batteries using a 20 µm thick LLZO electrolyte with an 80 µm thick NMC811 positive electrode will require around 255 tons of lanthanum. Current lanthanum production could therefore support around 200 GWh of all-solid-state battery production.

The growing use of inorganic solid-state electrolytes and the application of pre-lithiation technologies and lithium metal negative electrodes promise to increase lithium demand significantly. If the rate of demand increase is not properly understood with cooperation amongst companies from across the value chain, this could lead to further material bottlenecks. It is already difficult to forecast future demand for lithium, and other battery raw materials, as forecasts for passenger EV sales and their associated lithium-ion battery demand vary wildly. In its 2021 electric vehicle outlook, BloombergNEF forecasted around 32 million passenger battery EV and plug-in hybrid EV sales annually by 2030 170 . In contrast, the International Energy Agency (IEA) 11 , for the same year, draws a few scenarios for EV sales. Their most conservative forecast is at >30 million EV sales by 2030 but expects that over 65 million EV sales would be needed in 2030 to meet the requirements of the 2050 Net Zero Emissions scenario 11 . This uncertainty alone creates difficulty in scaling up. However, material suppliers can de-risk this to some extent by working closely with their customers.

Cost forecasting

When developing new technologies, academic researchers or start-ups need to forecast the cost of the new system compared to the incumbent technology to justify commercialization, win funding and pursue development. This aspect requires multiple assumptions about existing manufacturing processes and supply chains and how they will change in the future. For academic researchers and start-ups, it can be difficult to get an accurate representation of what these costs are and how they will change. However, there are publicly available tools, such as BatPac 6 , which can be helpful. If the assumptions used are not reflective of the industry, then the cost forecasts could result in unrealistic expectations of the competitiveness of the final product. This, in turn, will damage the business case of start-ups or lead to funding being allocated to academic lines of research that are unlikely to result in technology improvements that will benefit the industry or result in technological advancements.

Difficulties in accurately forecasting production timescales can also damage the scale-up opportunities of new technologies. Overly aggressive timelines for introducing new technologies can make an investment attractive to naive investors, but in the end, may lead to a final product that is more expensive than the incumbent technology. For example, a new cell design may be commercialized on the basis that when produced, it will be cheaper than the incumbent. However, a delay in production could mean that gradual improvements to the incumbent cell design leads to the manufactured cost of the incumbent design passing below the forecasted manufactured cost of the new design. While seasoned investors may be more cautious than companies looking to raise capital, technology developers should be realistic about what is achievable. Overpromising and underachieving will cause more harm to the industry as a whole.

Manufacturing processes and system design

We have mainly discussed the advantages and drawbacks of introducing new materials into the battery industry. However, it can be equally difficult to introduce new manufacturing processes and techniques as well as electrode and cell designs 23 . In the manufacturing space, companies are exploring new processes such as pre-lithiation, dry electrode coating, and improved quality control processes. However, it is challenging to persuade cell manufacturers to adopt these technologies, which, when initially introduced, are likely to lower yields and increase CapEx. This generally leads to higher manufactured cell costs. Despite these challenges, some companies are trying to commercialize these technologies

Prominent examples include 24M’s “SemiSolid” cell design, which Norwegian cell manufacturer Freyr is adopting 171 among others 172 . While 24M’s technology is being commercially adopted, it is notable that a major cell manufacturer has not licensed the technology but is instead being commercialized by a battery cell manufacturing start-up company, presenting venture on venture risk and reducing the likelihood of commercial deployments to some extent. In some respects, this should be expected for large-step changes in manufacturing, as established companies are typically more risk-averse than small start-ups. The promise of leapfrogging incumbents and gaining market share is often reason enough for a start-up to take on this technology risk.

Start-up companies such as EnPower and Addionics are also in the process of scaling and commercializing their proprietary electrode designs. These companies claim their products would enable the development of simultaneous high-power and energy devices. However, Addionics is yet to start large-scale pilot production (>100 MWh) 173 , and EnPower is having to scale pilot production internally to provide the volume of batteries required for customer qualification, requiring significant CapEx investment from the company 174 .

Finally, series, or bipolar, stacking 175 is being actively researched and scaled-up by companies such as ProLogium 176 and Toyota 177 . Advantages can include better thermal and electrical properties, and reduced packaging but at the expense of a more complex manufacturing process and system design.

The biggest system design adopted commercially over recent years is the so-called “cell-to-pack” design, such as BYD’s Blade Battery. These systems have been quickly adopted as they improve performance but do not fundamentally alter the chemistry of cells or require radically new manufacturing processes.

Qualification of parts in the automotive industry

Even with a mature value chain, supplying parts to the automotive industry is non-trivial, and the process can be time-consuming. Suppliers who wish to engage with the automotive industry must undergo a standardized, rigid qualification process, which is regulated at the international level (see, e.g., International Automotive Task Force, IATF 16949 178 ). The most common automotive standards for part qualification are the German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) production process and product approval (PPA) 179 and the Automotive Industry Action Group (AIAG) Production Part Approval Process (PPAP) 180 .

Some considerations for serving the auto industry are discussed in the literature 181 , with guidelines available from governmental and automotive standard bodies 182 . For example, let us consider the supply of Li-ion battery cells to an automotive OEM for integration into a battery pack. In this case, battery cell suppliers, such as Samsung SDI, CATL, and LG Energy Solution, are expected to reliably supply safe, high-quality parts with minimum rejects, i.e., in a batch of cells supplied to an automotive customer, where less than 10 cells in a million (10 ppm) could be defective. Parts need to be rigorously tested using robust processes.

Following VDA guidelines 182 , qualification for new cells would start at the A-sample, a prototype cell at TRL 5. The A-sample cell does not need to be series produced, but it must be safe, functional, and close to the final design both in terms of performance and geometry: cell footprint and size are fixed. This prototype can compromise on lifetime and performance but should satisfy most of the requirements to lead to the qualification of B-samples, where the cell design is unalterable. Past the B-sample stage, the focus is on manufacturing. A larger number of trial modules/packs are assembled, and cells are series produced, which constitutes the C-sample stage (TRL 6). Finally, in the D-sample stage, the battery cells are produced at scale, ready to be implemented commercially, and ready to pass automotive part approval, e.g., undergo Production Part Approval (PPA) and reach TRL 7.

Testing requirements can increase ten-fold, from hundreds of cells for A-samples to tens of thousands for C-samples. The type of tests required includes performance and safety, with the latter being a strict requirement at any stage. Tests are also rigorously defined in standards, guidelines and regulations (such as by the International Electrotechnical Commission, IEC 62660, by the United Nations, UN38.3, UN ECE R100 181 , 183 ) or routine testing (e.g., United States Advanced Battery Consortium LLC, USABC, guidelines) 184 . It is essential to understand that most actors, academic or industrial, particularly during the initial stage (where start-up companies are usually involved), lack the resources to accurately carry out these tests or enter the supplier qualification step for the automotive segment. A lack of appropriate process control can also result in manufacturing defects, potentially leading to costly product recalls 2 , 185 .

Summary and recommendations

Taking into account all the various aspects of battery research discussed in this perspective article, we summarize below the main take-home messages that we hope could be useful for expert, non-expert, academic and industrial researchers when evaluating claims in the field of lithium-based secondary batteries and, energy storage research in general.

Remarkable improvements to cost and performance in lithium-based batteries owe just as much to innovation at the cell, system and supply chain level as to materials development. Battery development is an interdisciplinary technical area with a complex value chain. For academic research to provide the largest benefit to these sectors, there needs to be collaboration across disciplines, with the industry actively advising academia on specific end-customer requirements. This could be fostered, for example, by supporting industrial researchers taking shared positions with academia, encouraging industrial researchers to publish more peer-reviewed papers, and increasing academic representation at industry conferences (and vice versa).

Metrics are important, but which metrics matter and how they translate from theory to system is case-dependent. A clear consideration of the bigger picture is vital for effective applied research. We have evidenced how the high theoretical energy density/specific energy of a positive electrode active material, like NCA, does not necessarily translate to higher performance at the pack level. Many KPIs need to be considered when scaling a material, as a battery with high energy and low cycle life could have limited applications. All KPIs need to be evaluated for devices at high TRL, and manufacturing itself can be the biggest challenge, particularly when innovative technologies are not “drop-in”. In cell developer QuantumScape’s recent earnings call, when asked if the company needed to make perfectly uniform and totally defect-free solid-electrolyte-based separators for its cells to work, CEO Jagdeep Singh hinted at these challenges when he replied, “the key is knowing which defects matter and which ones don’t and to focus on the former” 186 .

Moving up in the TRL scale is an increasingly expensive and complex task. The ability to reach TRL 9 requires an understanding of many requirements and a quick transition across lower TRLs. It is easy to over-simplify the factors involved in commercialising a technology, subject to a vast and continuously changing global industry that naturally introduces uncertainty into economic viability. It is perhaps too easy for academic researchers to be overly optimistic about the ability of a certain technology to scale based on, for example, preliminary performance data or raw materials costs, unaware of the exponentially increasing requirements on resources required to bring a new technology to market. This is perhaps best exemplified by Tesla’s chief executive officer Elon Musk’s comments regarding “the machine that builds the machine”, which references the difficulties companies face in manufacturing at scale 187 .

Hype, over-extrapolation and perverse incentives only risk harm to the sector in the long run, and all participants should take responsibility for fostering good communication and best practices. Within academia and industry alike, the battery field has unfortunately cultivated a reputation for hype, false promises and unrealistic goals. Many other scientific areas have had to grapple with reproducibility or scientific integrity crises in recent years, brought on by shortcomings which can just as easily be found in the battery scientific literature. In this regard, the whole battery research community must support initiatives such as the adoption of standardised testing protocols, standardisation of data collection, and requirement of publishing raw data. Such developments promote transparency and transferability of knowledge, especially considering the increasing importance of research approaches based on machine learning or, more broadly, artificial intelligence.

In particular, we strongly recommend that battery researchers keep in mind the following aspects to improve material development without neglecting the practical application aspect:

The electrolyte effectively sets the electrochemical energy storage system boundaries, including safety and cycle life, and electrolyte development is an exercise in compromise. For example, cost has to be balanced with electrochemical stability and ionic conductivity. Improvements in cycle life are key for most applications, and research on new electrolyte systems should be incentivised.

In recent years, the focus of the industry, and particularly automakers, has been on achieving a step change in energy density, which has sharpened the focus on introducing or switching to silicon and lithium metal negative electrodes, thus, necessitating a re-thinking of cell design. These new concepts must, of course, meet minimum performance requirements. However, the continued improvement to what could be considered ‘legacy’ battery concepts, as well as increasing raw material costs, have seen some companies achieving competitive performance from such ‘legacy’ systems as graphite | |LFP batteries. Further improvements in these battery systems could open up the possibility of business model innovations, such as vehicle-to-grid (V2G) integration.

Targets in terms of cost reduction and increased energy and lifetime can also be achieved with incremental improvements, e.g., by refining pack design and manufacturing processes such as BYD’s Blade battery and pack, but also active and inactive materials, e.g., electrolyte and additive optimisation as highlighted by Professor Jeff Dahn (Dalhousie University) 188 .

Positive electrode active materials generally differentiate lithium-based batteries, and choice is driven as much by cost as by performance; this is likely to continue in the short to medium term. In the future, negative electrode material choice could similarly differentiate these batteries.

We would also remark on the strategic role of the supply chain. This area is crucial in reducing cost and improving lithium-based batteries’ performance while strongly influencing the manufacturing and material production processes. Another equally important area is the need for data-driven environmental sustainability analysis, such as life cycle assessments, to understand the environmental impact of batteries from raw-material mining to recycling.

As an increasing number of researchers with various scientific and technical backgrounds turn their focus to the battery industry, it is important that they acquire a broader view of the research and development landscape across the sector, not narrowing their vision to only focus on their field of expertise. In doing so, it is possible to avoid reaching misleading or ineffective conclusions that fail to advance the scientific understanding and progress of lithium-based batteries.

In this regard, we consider the growth of the online battery community during COVID−19 as an encouraging development. Hybrid conferences can be effective forums for experts and non-experts to engage with each other and acquire a broader view. Open, inclusive, and cost-effective initiatives should be incentivized, starting from free access to scientific research and including accessible communication platforms with academic and non-academic participation, such as the Battery Modelling Webinar Series 189 , Battery Brunch 190 , and Battery Pub 191 . However, these initiatives come with some challenges and limitations, such as (i) a risk that misinformation may spread (moderators are needed); (ii) open data can be misused by entities with a conflict of interest or misinterpreted by non-experts; (iii) risk of communities becoming self-referential; 192 (iv) confidentiality issues, where researchers working closely with industry can be restricted by non-disclosure agreements. In addition, many scientists have found social media platforms, such as Twitter or LinkedIn, valuable venues for networking and outreach 193 .

A more rigorous approach to science is ultimately needed. The end goal should be accelerating innovations that directly improve battery systems and increasing the number of relevant, reproducible, and openly accessible peer-reviewed scientific articles. This is particularly important considering that the amount of time and non-time resources needed to drive the energy transition are finite 194 .

Nowadays, there is too much research that confuses, rather than adds to, progress, and we need joint action from stakeholders, industry, academia, and publishers to solve this issue. Resources should not be squandered on the basis of (often unknowingly, potentially in good faith) biased and/or unreliable studies or well-sounding press releases. Indeed, a more critical, engineering-led, numerical, and transparent approach to scientific research is certainly required.

As a closing message, the reader should bear in mind that transparency is a key requirement, and the lack of adequate, impartial, and exhaustive communication is usually the main reason for the divide between academia and industry or, more broadly, for the failure of collaborative research activities.

Data availability

Data is fully available on request from the authors

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Acknowledgements

U.U. would like to acknowledge Nissan Motor Co., Ltd. Japanese team, i.e., Tabuchi Yuichiro, Takaichi Satoshi, Hosaka Kenji, Aotani Koichiro, Kotaka Toshikazu, Nakayama Ken, for the enriching discussions during the writing process. U.U. would also like to acknowledge Prof. Dan Steingart from Columbia Engineering for the valuable discussions, particularly on the lithium and silicon energy contents, and the Rho Motion research analyst team for the valuable discussions during the manuscript revision. M.J.L. would like to acknowledge David Raymand, Matilda Klett, and Pontus Svens at Scania CV AB for valuable discussions. J.T.F. would like to acknowledge BloombergNEF, Logan Goldie-Scot, Albert Cheung, and Daixin Li for their general guidance and for allowing the reproduction of data from BloombergNEF. J.T.F. would also like to acknowledge the Volta team for continued relevant discussions on the battery industry and technology commercialisation.

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Volta Energy Technologies, 28365 Davis Pkwy, Warrenville, IL, 60555, USA

James T. Frith

Scania CV AB, 151 87, Södertälje, Sweden

Matthew J. Lacey

Sphere Energy SAS, 250 Bis Boulevard Saint Germain, 75007, Paris, France

Ulderico Ulissi

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Contributions

J.T.F., M.J.L., and U.U. contributed equally to conceiving and drafting the article. Initially, J.T.F. pulled together a portion of the introduction, cost discussion on supply chains and positive electrode sections. M.J.L. curated the discussion on cell and cell-to-pack, including the analysis reported in the supplementary information sections. U.U. composed part of the introduction, technology readiness, negative electrode, and electrolyte sections. All authors reviewed and enriched the discussion in each section, with the final manuscript reflecting the view of all the authors on each topic. Conclusions were conceived and put down on paper jointly during meetings.

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Correspondence to James T. Frith , Matthew J. Lacey or Ulderico Ulissi .

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Competing interests.

J.T.F. works for Volta Energy Technologies, an investor in Solid Power and OneD Battery Sciences, which is cited in this article. M.J.L. works for Scania, which is part of the VW Group. VW Group is an investor in several companies, including for example QuantumScape, 24M and Group14, cited in this article. Scania is an investor in Northvolt, which is an investor in Cuberg, cited in this article. U.U. declares no conflict of interest. The views expressed in this perspective article are the authors’ views and do not necessarily represent the views of the affiliated institutions.

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Frith, J.T., Lacey, M.J. & Ulissi, U. A non-academic perspective on the future of lithium-based batteries. Nat Commun 14 , 420 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-35933-2

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25 Questions (and Answers!) About the Great North American Eclipse

The McDonald Observatory’s guide to one of nature’s most beautiful and astounding events: What you might see, how to view it safely, how astronomers will study it, how animals might react, and some of the mythology and superstitions about the Sun’s great disappearing act.

1. What’s happening?

The Moon will cross directly between Earth and the Sun, temporarily blocking the Sun from view along a narrow path across Mexico, the United States, and Canada. Viewers across the rest of the United States will see a partial eclipse, with the Moon covering only part of the Sun’s disk.

2. When will it happen?

The eclipse takes place on April 8. It will get underway at 10:42 a.m. CDT, when the Moon’s shadow first touches Earth’s surface, creating a partial eclipse. The Big Show—totality—begins at about 11:39 a.m., over the south-central Pacific Ocean. The shadow will first touch North America an hour and a half later, on the Pacific coast of Mexico. Moving at more than 1,600 miles (2,575 km) per hour, the path of totality will enter the United States at Eagle Pass, Texas, at 1:27 p.m. CDT. The lunar shadow will exit the United States and enter the Canadian province of New Brunswick near Houlton, Maine, at 2:35 p.m. (3:35 p.m. EDT).

3. How long will totality last?

The exact timing depends on your location. The maximum length is 4 minutes, 27 seconds near Torreon, Mexico. In the United States, several towns in southwestern Texas will see 4 minutes, 24 seconds of totality. The closer a location is to the centerline of the path of totality, the longer the eclipse will last.

4. What will it look like?

Eclipse veterans say there’s nothing quite like a total solar eclipse. In the last moments before the Sun disappears behind the Moon, bits of sunlight filter through the lunar mountains and canyons, forming bright points of light known as Baily’s beads. The last of the beads provides a brief blaze known as a diamond ring effect. When it fades away, the sky turns dark and the corona comes into view— million-degree plasma expelled from the Sun’s surface. It forms silvery filaments that radiate away from the Sun. Solar prominences, which are fountains of gas from the surface, form smaller, redder streamers on the rim of the Sun’s disk.

5. What safety precautions do I need to take?

It’s perfectly safe to look at the total phase of the eclipse with your eyes alone. In fact, experts say it’s the best way to enjoy the spectacle. The corona, which surrounds the intervening Moon with silvery tendrils of light, is only about as bright as a full Moon.

During the partial phases of the eclipse, however, including the final moments before and first moments after totality, your eyes need protection from the Sun’s blinding light. Even a 99-percent-eclipsed Sun is thousands of times brighter than a full Moon, so even a tiny sliver of direct sunlight can be dangerous!

To stay safe, use commercially available eclipse viewers, which can look like eyeglasses or can be embedded in a flat sheet that you hold in front of your face. Make sure your viewer meets the proper safety standards, and inspect it before you use it to make sure there are no scratches to let in unfiltered sunlight.

You also can view the eclipse through a piece of welder’s glass (No. 14 or darker), or stand under a leafy tree and look at the ground; the gaps between leaves act as lenses, projecting a view of the eclipse on the ground. With an especially leafy tree you can see hundreds of images of the eclipse at once. (You can also use a colander or similar piece of gear to create the same effect.)

One final mode of eclipse watching is with a pinhole camera. You can make one by poking a small hole in an index card, file folder, or piece of stiff cardboard. Let the Sun shine through the hole onto the ground or a piece of paper, but don’t look at the Sun through the hole! The hole projects an image of the eclipsed Sun, allowing you to follow the entire sequence, from the moment of first contact through the Moon’s disappearance hours later.

6. Where can I see the eclipse?

In the United States, the path of totality will extend from Eagle Pass, Texas, to Houlton, Maine. It will cross 15 states: Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, Tennessee, and Michigan (although it barely nicks the last two).

In Texas, the eclipse will darken the sky over Austin, Waco, and Dallas—the most populous city in the path, where totality (the period when the Sun is totally eclipsed) will last 3 minutes, 51 seconds.

Other large cities along the path include Little Rock; Indianapolis; Dayton, Toledo, and Cleveland, Ohio; Erie, Pennsylvania; Buffalo and Rochester, New York; and Burlington, Vermont.

Outside the path of totality, American skywatchers will see a partial eclipse, in which the Sun covers only part of the Sun’s disk. The sky will grow dusky and the air will get cooler, but the partially eclipsed Sun is still too bright to look at without proper eye protection. The closer to the path of totality, the greater the extent of the eclipse. From Memphis and Nashville, for example, the Moon will cover more than 95 percent of the Sun’s disk. From Denver and Phoenix, it’s about 65 percent. And for the unlucky skywatchers in Seattle, far to the northwest of the eclipse centerline, it’s a meager 20 percent.

The total eclipse path also crosses Mexico, from the Pacific coast, at Mazatlán, to the Texas border. It also crosses a small portion of Canada, barely including Hamilton, Ontario. Eclipse Details for Locations Around the United States • aa.usno.navy.mil/data/Eclipse2024 • eclipse.aas.org • GreatAmericanEclipse.com

7. What causes solar eclipses?

These awe-inspiring spectacles are the result of a pleasant celestial coincidence: The Sun and Moon appear almost exactly the same size in Earth’s sky. The Sun is actually about 400 times wider than the Moon but it’s also about 400 times farther, so when the new Moon passes directly between Earth and the Sun—an alignment known as syzygy—it can cover the Sun’s disk, blocking it from view.

8. Why don’t we see an eclipse at every new Moon?

The Moon’s orbit around Earth is tilted a bit with respect to the Sun’s path across the sky, known as the ecliptic. Because of that angle, the Moon passes north or south of the Sun most months, so there’s no eclipse. When the geometry is just right, however, the Moon casts its shadow on Earth’s surface, creating a solar eclipse. Not all eclipses are total. The Moon’s distance from Earth varies a bit, as does Earth’s distance from the Sun. If the Moon passes directly between Earth and the Sun when the Moon is at its farthest, we see an annular eclipse, in which a ring of sunlight encircles the Moon. Regardless of the distance, if the SunMoon-Earth alignment is off by a small amount, the Moon can cover only a portion of the Sun’s disk, creating a partial eclipse.

9. How often do solar eclipses happen?

Earth sees as least two solar eclipses per year, and, rarely, as many as five. Only three eclipses per two years are total. In addition, total eclipses are visible only along narrow paths. According to Belgian astronomer Jean Meuss, who specializes in calculating such things, any given place on Earth will see a total solar eclipse, on average, once every 375 years. That number is averaged over many centuries, so the exact gap varies. It might be centuries between succeeding eclipses, or it might be only a few years. A small region of Illinois, Missouri, and Kentucky, close to the southeast of St. Louis, for example, saw the total eclipse of 2017 and will experience this year’s eclipse as well. Overall, though, you don’t want to wait for a total eclipse to come to you. If you have a chance to travel to an eclipse path, take it!

10. What is the limit for the length of totality?

Astronomers have calculated the length of totality for eclipses thousands of years into the future. Their calculations show that the greatest extent of totality will come during the eclipse of July 16, 2186, at 7 minutes, 29 seconds, in the Atlantic Ocean, near the coast of South America. The eclipse will occur when the Moon is near its closest point to Earth, so it appears largest in the sky, and Earth is near its farthest point from the Sun, so the Sun appears smaller than average. That eclipse, by the way, belongs to the same Saros cycle as this year’s.

11. When will the next total eclipse be seen from the United States?

The next total eclipse visible from anywhere in the United States will take place on March 30, 2033, across Alaska. On August 22, 2044, a total eclipse will be visible across parts of Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota. The next eclipse to cross the entire country will take place on August 12, 2045, streaking from northern California to southern Florida. Here are the other total solar eclipses visible from the contiguous U.S. this century:

March 30, 2052 Florida, Georgia, tip of South Carolina May 11, 2078 From Louisiana to North Carolina May 1, 2079 From Philadelphia up the Atlantic coast to Maine September 14, 2099 From North Dakota to the Virginia-North Carolina border

12. What is the origin of the word ‘eclipse?’

The word first appeared in English writings in the late 13th century. It traces its roots, however, to the Greek words “ecleipsis” or “ekleipein.” According to various sources, the meaning was “to leave out, fail to appear,” “a failing, forsaking,” or “abandon, cease, die.”

13. Do solar eclipses follow any kind of pattern?

The Moon goes through several cycles. The best known is its 29.5-day cycle of phases, from new through full and back again. Other cycles include its distance from Earth (which varies by about 30,000 miles (50,000 km) over 27.5 days) and its relationship to the Sun’s path across the sky, known as the ecliptic (27.2 days), among others. These three cycles overlap every 6,585.3 days, which is 18 years, 11 days, and 8 hours.

This cycle of cycles is known as a Saros (a word created by Babylonians). The circumstances for each succeeding eclipse in a Saros are similar—the Moon is about the same distance from Earth, for example, and they occur at the same time of year. Each eclipse occurs one-third of the way around Earth from the previous one, however; the next eclipse in this Saros, for example, will be visible from parts of the Pacific Ocean.

Each Saros begins with a partial eclipse. A portion of the Moon just nips the northern edge of the Sun, for example, blocking only a fraction of the Sun’s light. With each succeeding eclipse in the cycle, the Moon covers a larger fraction of the solar disk, eventually creating dozens of total eclipses. The Moon then slides out of alignment again, this time in the opposite direction, creating more partial eclipses. The series ends with a grazing partial eclipse on the opposite hemisphere (the southern tip, for example).

Several Saros cycles churn along simultaneously (40 are active now), so Earth doesn’t have to wait 18 years between eclipses. They can occur at intervals of one, five, six, or seven months.

The April 8 eclipse is the 30th of Saros 139, a series of 71 events that began with a partial eclipse, in the far north, and will end with another partial eclipse, this time in the far southern hemisphere. The next eclipse in this Saros, also total, will take place on April 20, 2042.

First eclipse May 17, 1501

First total eclipse December 21, 1843

Final total eclipse March 26, 2601

Longest total eclipse July 16, 2186,  7 minutes, 29 seconds

Final partial eclipse July 3, 2763

All eclipses 71 (43 total, 16 partial, 12 hybrid)

Source: NASA Catalog of Solar Eclipses: eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEsaros/SEsaros139.html

14. What about eclipse seasons?

Eclipses occur in “seasons,” with two or three eclipses (lunar and solar) in a period of about five weeks. Individual eclipses are separated by two weeks: a lunar eclipse at full Moon, a solar eclipse at new Moon (the sequence can occur in either order). If the first eclipse in a season occurs during the first few days of the window, then the season will have three eclipses. When one eclipse in the season is poor, the other usually is much better.

That’s certainly the case with the season that includes the April 8 eclipse. It begins with a penumbral lunar eclipse on the night of March 24, in which the Moon will pass through Earth’s outer shadow. The eclipse will cover the Americas, although the shadow is so faint that most skywatchers won’t notice it.

This article was previously published in the March/April 2024 issue of StarDate  magazine, a publication of The University of Texas at Austin’s McDonald Observatory. Catch StarDate’s daily radio program on more than 300 stations nationwide or subscribe online at  stardate.org .

15. How can astronomers forecast eclipses so accurately?

They’ve been recording eclipses and the motions of the Moon for millennia. And over the past half century they’ve been bouncing laser beams off of special reflectors carried to the Moon by Apollo astronauts and Soviet rovers. Those observations reveal the Moon’s position to within a fraction of an inch. Using a combination of the Earth-Moon distance, the Moon’s precise shape, Earth’s rotation and its distance from the Sun, and other factors, astronomers can predict the timing of an eclipse to within a fraction of a second many centuries into the future.

Edmond Halley made the first confirmed solar eclipse prediction, using the laws of gravity devised only a few decades earlier by Isaac Newton. Halley forecast that an eclipse would cross England on May 3, 1715. He missed the timing by just four minutes and the path by 20 miles, so the eclipse is known as Halley’s Eclipse.

16. What are the types of solar eclipses?

Total : the Moon completely covers the Sun.

Annular : the Moon is too far away to completely cover the Sun, leaving a bright ring of sunlight around it.

Partial : the Moon covers only part of the Sun’s disk.

Hybrid : an eclipse that is annular at its beginning and end, but total at its peak.

17. What are Baily’s beads?

During the minute or two before or after totality, bits of the Sun shine through canyons and other features on the limb of the Moon, producing “beads” of sunlight. They were first recorded and explained by Edmond Halley, in 1715. During a presentation to the Royal Academy of Sciences more than a century later, however, astronomer Frances Baily first described them as “a string of beads,” so they’ve been known as Baily’s beads ever since. Please note that Baily’s beads are too bright to look at without eye protection!

18. Will Earth always see total solar eclipses?

No, it will not. The Moon is moving away from Earth at about 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) per year. Based on that rate of recession, in about 600 million years the Moon would have moved so far from Earth that it would no longer appear large enough to cover the Sun. The speed at which the Moon separates from Earth changes over the eons, however, so scientists aren’t sure just when Earth will see its final total solar eclipse.

19. How will the eclipse affect solar power?

If your solar-powered house is in or near the path of totality, the lights truly will go out, as they do at night. For large power grids, the eclipse will temporarily reduce the total amount of electricity contributed by solar generation. During the October 14, 2023, annular eclipse, available solar power plummeted in California and Texas. At the same time, demand increased as individual Sun-powered homes and other buildings began drawing electricity from the power grid. Both networks were able to compensate with stations powered by natural gas and other sources.

The power drop during this year’s eclipse could be more dramatic because there will be less sunlight at the peak of the eclipse.

20. What are some of the myths and superstitions associated with solar eclipses?

Most ancient cultures created stories to explain the Sun’s mysterious and terrifying disappearances.

In China and elsewhere, it was thought the Sun was being devoured by a dragon. Other cultures blamed a hungry frog (Vietnam), a giant wolf loosed by the god Loki (Scandinavia), or the severed head of a monster (India). Still others saw an eclipse as a quarrel (or a reunion) between Sun and Moon. Some peoples shot flaming arrows into the sky to scare away the monster or to rekindle the solar fire. One especially intriguing story, from Transylvania, said that an eclipse occurred when the Sun covered her face in disgust at bad human behavior.

Eclipses have been seen as omens of evil deeds to come. In August 1133, King Henry I left England for Normandy one day before a lengthy solar eclipse, bringing prophesies of doom. The country later was plunged into civil war, and Henry died before he could return home, strengthening the impression that solar eclipses were bad mojo.

Ancient superstitions claimed that eclipses could cause plague and other maladies. Modern superstitions say that food prepared during an eclipse is poison and that an eclipse will damage the babies of pregnant women who look at it. None of that is true, of course. There’s nothing at all to fear from this beautiful natural event.

21. How do animals react to solar eclipses?

Scientists haven’t studied the topic very thoroughly, but they do have some general conclusions. Many daytime animals start their evening rituals, while many nighttime animals wake up when the eclipse is over, perhaps cursing their alarm clocks for letting them sleep so late!

During the 2017 total eclipse, scientists observed 17 species at Riverbanks Zoo in Columbia, South Carolina. About three-quarters of the species showed some response as the sky darkened. Some animals acted nervous, while others simply headed for bed. A species of gibbon had the most unusual reaction, moving excitedly and chattering in ways the zookeepers hadn’t seen before.

Other studies have reported that bats and owls sometimes come out during totality, hippos move toward their nighttime feeding grounds, and spiders tear down their webs, only to rebuild them when the Sun returns. Bees have been seen to return to their hives during totality and not budge until the next day, crickets begin their evening chorus, and, unfortunately, mosquitoes emerge, ready to dine on unsuspecting eclipse watchers.

A NASA project, Eclipse Soundscapes, is using volunteers around the country to learn more about how animals react to the changes. The project collected audio recordings and observations by participants during the annular eclipse last year, and will repeat the observations this year. Volunteers can sign up at eclipsesoundscapes.org

22. How will scientists study this year’s eclipse?

Astronomers don’t pay quite as much professional attention to solar eclipses as they did in decades and centuries past. However, they still schedule special observations to add to their knowledge of the Sun and especially the inner edge of the corona.

Sun-watching satellites create artificial eclipses by placing a small disk across the face of the Sun, blocking the Sun’s disk and revealing the corona, solar prominences, and big explosions of charged particles known as coronal mass ejections.

Because of the way light travels around the edges of an eclipsing disk, however, it’s difficult to observe the region just above the Sun’s visible surface, which is where much of the action takes place. The corona is heated to millions of degrees there, and the constant flow of particles known as the solar wind is accelerated to a million miles per hour or faster, so solar astronomers really want to see that region in detail. The eclipsing Moon doesn’t create the same effects around the limb of the Sun, so a solar eclipse still provides the best way to look close to the Sun’s surface.

For this year’s eclipse, some scientists will repeat a series of experiments they conducted in 2017 using a pair of highaltitude WB-57 aircraft to “tag team” through the lunar shadow, providing several extra minutes of observations.

Other scientists will use the eclipse to study Earth’s ionosphere, an electrically charged layer of the atmosphere that “bends” radio waves, allowing them to travel thousands of miles around the planet. Sunlight rips apart atoms and molecules during the day, intensifying the charge. At night, the atoms and molecules recombine, reducing the charge.

Physicists want to understand how the ionosphere reacts to the temporary loss of sunlight during an eclipse. They will do so with the help of thousands of volunteer ham radio operators, who will exchange messages with others around the planet. During last October’s annular eclipse, when the Moon covered most but not all of the Sun, the experiment showed a large and immediate change in the ionosphere as the sunlight dimmed.

NASA also will launch three small “sounding” rockets, which loft instruments into space for a few minutes, to probe the ionosphere shortly before, during, and shortly after the eclipse.

Another project will use radar to study changes in the interactions between the solar wind and Earth’s atmosphere, while yet another will use a radio telescope to map sunspots and surrounding regions as the Moon passes across them.

One project will piece together images of the eclipse snapped through more than 40 identical telescopes spaced along the path of totality to create a one-hour movie of the eclipse. The telescopes will be equipped with instruments that see the three-dimensional structure of the corona, allowing solar scientists to plot how the corona changes.

23. What have astronomers learned from eclipses?

Solar eclipses have been powerful tools for studying the Sun, the layout of the solar system, and the physics of the universe.

Until the Space Age, astronomers could see the Sun’s corona only during eclipses, so they traveled around the world to catch these brief glimpses of it.

Eclipses also offered a chance to refine the scale of the solar system. Watching an eclipse from different spots on Earth and comparing the angles of the Moon and Sun helped reveal the relative sizes and distances of both bodies, which were important steps in understanding their true distances.

During an eclipse in 1868, two astronomers discovered a new element in the corona. It was named helium, after Helios, a Greek name for the Sun. The element wasn’t discovered on Earth until a quarter of a century later.

An eclipse in 1919 helped confirm General Relativity, which was Albert Einstein’s theory of gravity. The theory predicted that the gravity of a massive body should deflect the path of light rays flying near its surface. During the eclipse, astronomers found that the positions of background stars that appeared near the Sun were shifted by a tiny amount, which was in perfect agreement with Einstein’s equations.

Today, astronomers are using records of eclipses dating back thousands of years to measure changes in Earth’s rotation rate and the distance to the Moon.

24. How did astronomers study eclipses in the past?

With great effort! From the time they could accurately predict when and where solar eclipses would be visible, they organized expeditions that took them to every continent except Antarctica, on trips that lasted months and that sometimes were spoiled by clouds or problems both technical and human.

During the American Revolution, for example, a group of Harvard scientists led by Samuel Williams received safe passage from the British army to view an eclipse from Penobscot Bay, Maine, on October 21, 1780. Williams slightly miscalculated the eclipse path, though, so the group missed totality by a few miles. (The expedition did make some useful observations, however.)

In 1860, an expedition headed by Simon Newcomb, one of America’s top astronomers, journeyed up the Saskatchewan River, hundreds of miles from the nearest city, braving rapids, mosquitoes, and bad weather. After five grueling weeks, they had to stop short of their planned viewing site, although at a location still inside the eclipse path. Clouds covered the Sun until almost the end of totality, however, so the expedition came up empty.

King Mongkut of Siam invited a French expedition and hundreds of other dignitaries to view an eclipse from present-day Thailand in 1868. He built an observatory and a large compound to house his guests at a site Mongkut himself had selected as the best viewing spot. The eclipse came off perfectly, but many visitors contracted malaria. So did Mongkut, who died a few weeks later.

An expedition in 1914, to Russia, was plagued by both clouds and the start of World War I. The team abandoned its instruments at a Russian observatory and escaped through Scandinavia.

The eclipse of July 29, 1878, offered fewer impediments. In fact, it was a scientific and social extravaganza. The eclipse path stretched from Montana Territory to Texas. Teams of astronomers from the United States and Europe spread out along the path. Thomas Edison stationed his group in Wyoming, where he used a tasimeter, a device of his own creation, to try to measure the temperature of the corona. Samuel Pierpoint Langley, a future secretary of the Smithsonian, was atop Pikes Peak in Colorado. Maria Mitchell, perhaps America’s leading female scientist, decamped to Denver. And Asaph Hall, who had discovered the moons of Mars just the year before, journeyed to the flatlands of eastern Colorado.

Thousands of average Americans joined the festivities, paying outrageous prices for some of the best viewing spots. Some things, it seems, never change.

25. What about lunar eclipses?

While solar eclipses happen during new Moon, lunar eclipses occur when the Moon is full, so it aligns opposite the Sun in our sky. The Moon passes through Earth’s shadow. In a total eclipse, the entire lunar disk turns orange or red. In a partial eclipse, Earth’s inner shadow covers only a portion of the Moon. And during a penumbral eclipse, the Moon passes through the outer portion of Earth’s shadow, darkening the Moon so little that most people don’t even notice it.

Lunar eclipses happen as often as solar eclipses—at least twice per year. This is a poor year for lunar eclipses, however. There is a penumbral eclipse on the night of March 24, with the Moon slipping through Earth’s faint outer shadow, and a partial eclipse on the night of September 17, in which the Moon barely dips into the darker inner shadow. Both eclipses will be visible from most of the United States.

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The 5 stages of the 2024 total solar eclipse explained for April 8

On Monday (April 8), a total solar eclipse will sweep across the Americas. Here's how it will play out.

Stage 1: First contact

Stage 2: second contact, stage 3: totality, stage 4: third contact, stage 5: fourth contact.

On Monday, April 8, the 2024 total solar eclipse will sweep through the sky over North America. 

While all of North America and Central America will experience at least a partial  solar eclipse , those within a path with a width of approximately 115 miles (185 kilometers) passing over 15 U.S. States. Mexico, and Canada will also witness a totality as the moon entirely covers the disk of the sun.

You can  watch the total solar eclipse live on Space.com . You can also keep up with all the eclipse-related action with our   total solar eclipse 2024 live updates   blog.

Don't be in the dark about the 2024 total eclipse

There are three major types of solar eclipse. A total solar eclipse like that on April 8 occurs when the moon is relatively close to Earth and blocks the entire disk of the sun. 

Because the moon's orbit around our planet is an ellipse, sometimes it is further away and thus appears smaller. An eclipse at these times sees the moon only an obscure part of the solar disk, with the sun appearing as a glowing ring of fire. These events are called annular solar eclipses , and the last one seen over the U.S. occurred on Oct. 14, 2023.

Finally, a partial solar eclipse is an event that happens when the Earth, moon, and sun are not perfectly aligned, resulting in the lunar disk only covering part of our star, making the sun appear as if a bite has been taken out of it. Partial eclipses also happen at the beginning and ending stages of total and annular eclipses.

On April 8, 2024, the moon will be in its new moon phase , and it will look relatively large, meaning it is capable of covering 100% of the sun's disk as viewed from the narrow path of totality. The fraction of the diameter of the sun covered by the moon is known as the magnitude of a solar eclipse . On April 8, 2024, this value will be 1.0566,  according to EclipseWise.com , slightly more than total coverage. 

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NASA has released an interactive map of the total eclipse, which space enthusiasts can use to track the totality as it drifts across the globe. However, location won't be the only factor affecting the appearance of the total solar eclipse on Monday. The eclipse will pass through 5 distinct stages, with each of these phases occurring at different times across different locations.

What are the stages of the annular solar eclipse? 

In the initial stage of the eclipse, the moon will begin to pass in front of the sun, kick-starting a partial solar eclipse. During this phase, the darkened lunar disk of the moon will make the sun appear as if a bite has been taken out of its illuminated face. This "bite" will get bigger and bigger as the totality approaches.

During the first stage of the total solar eclipse, some onlookers will be able to see rapidly moving, long, dark bands called " shadow bands " on the sides of buildings or the ground. Bailey's beads , caused by light streaming through the valleys on the horizon of the moon, may also be visible at the moon's edges during this initial stage. These phenomena repeat during the second partial eclipse that occurs after totality.

On April 8, this stage of the partial eclipse will first be seen near Pu‘uali‘i, Hawaii, at  6:27 a.m. local time (12:27 p.m. EDT, 1627 GMT).

First contact will last for between 70 and 80 minutes, and its conclusion will be marked by a single bright spot, or " diamond ring ," appearing at the edge of the moon. This marks the second contact stage and heralds the oncoming totality. 

On April 8, the total solar eclipse will make landfall at Mazatlán, Sinaloa, Mexico, at 9:51 a.m. local time (12:51 p.m. EDT, 16:51 GMT).

Stage 3 and the mid-point of the total solar eclipse is the totality.  At this point, the moon completely covers the solar disk. During the totality of the outer atmosphere of the sun, the corona may become visible as white streamers at the edge of the moon. This region is usually washed out by bright light from the solar surface, the photosphere. The inner atmosphere of the sun, the chromosphere , may be visible as a wispy aura around the edge of the moon.

The totality may also make stars and planets visible in the darkened sky that are usually not visible from America during daylight hours. 

On April 8, the first location to experience totality will be Mazatlán, Sinaloa, Mexico at  11:07 a.m. local time  (2:07 p.m. EDT, 1807 GMT). The first location to experience totality in the U.S. will be Near Florentino Ramos Colonia, Texas, at 1:27 p.m. local time (2:27 p.m. EDT, 1827 GMT).

The duration of the totality depends on the path from which the eclipse is viewed. In Mexico, totality will last for 40 minutes and 43 seconds. Skywatchers in the U.S. will collectively experience totality for 67 minutes and 58 seconds. Onlookers in Canada will experience the totality of the solar eclipse for 34 minutes and 4 seconds.

The fourth stage of the total solar eclipse, third contact, will see the moon start to move away from the disk of the sun, thus ending the totality and starting the second partial eclipse period. Brightening appears on the opposite side of the moon as it did during the second contact period. At this time, skywatchers will get another chance to spot Baily's Beads along the edge of the moon and shadow bands on the buildings and ground around them, with this stage mirroring the second contact stage. 

The total solar eclipse ends on the Atlantic coast at 5:16 p.m. local time (3:46 p.m. EDT, 1946 GMT). 

The fifth and final stage of the total solar eclipse. The moon moves away from the disk of the sun, meaning that at fourth contact, the moon is no longer even partially eclipsing the sun. At this point, 2024's total solar eclipse will be over.

On April 8, on the Atlantic coast of  Newfoundland and Labrador, the partial eclipse phase ends at 6:18 p.m. local time (4:48 p.m. EDT, 2048 GMT).

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— How photos of the April 8 solar eclipse will help us understand of the sun's atmosphere

— How fast will April's total solar eclipse travel?

If you intend to view any of these stages, the most important thing to consider is how to safely view it. Looking at the sun without adequate protection at any time is harmful to the eyes, so eclipse watchers should take precautions on Monday. 

Sunglasses, regardless of how dark they are, can't protect the eyes from the effect of the sun, so specialized eclipse glasses made from safe solar filter materials will be needed. If skywatchers intend to watch the event with a telescope, special filters will be needed to make this a safe viewing experience.

Our how to observe the sun safely guide tells you everything you need to know about safe solar observations.

Following the 2024 total solar eclipse, skywatchers in the U.S. will next get the opportunity to see a total solar eclipse on March 30, 2033 . The totality of this eclipse, which will last 2 minutes 37 seconds, will be visible in Alaska. Following this, on Aug. 23, 2044 , a total solar eclipse will be visible from the U.S. states of Montana, South Dakota, and North Dakota, as well as from much of Canada.

Under a year later, on Aug.12, 2045 , another total solar eclipse will sweep over the U.S., visible from California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas, Texas, Arkansas, Missouri, Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida, as well as from the Caribbean, and South America.  

Submit your photos! If you capture a photo of the April 8 total solar eclipse and would like to share it with Space.com's readers, send photos, videos, comments, and your name, location and content usage permission release to [email protected] .

Join our Space Forums to keep talking space on the latest missions, night sky and more! And if you have a news tip, correction or comment, let us know at: [email protected].

Robert Lea is a science journalist in the U.K. whose articles have been published in Physics World, New Scientist, Astronomy Magazine, All About Space, Newsweek and ZME Science. He also writes about science communication for Elsevier and the European Journal of Physics. Rob holds a bachelor of science degree in physics and astronomy from the U.K.’s Open University. Follow him on Twitter @sciencef1rst.

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More From Forbes

The future of farming: ai innovations that are transforming agriculture.

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AI-assisted Agriculture

Agriculture is a cornerstone of human civilization, a testament to our ability to harness nature for sustenance. Yet, this age-old industry faces many challenges that hamper productivity, impact livelihoods, and threaten global food security.

By 2050, we must produce 60 percent more food to feed a world population of 9.3 billion, reports the Food and Agriculture Organization. Given the current industry challenges, doing that with a farming-as-usual approach could be tricky. Moreover, this would extend the heavy toll we already place on our natural resources.

This is where Artificial Intelligence can come to our rescue. The AI in Agriculture Market is projected to grow from $1.7 billion in 2023 to $4.7 billion by 2028, highlighting the pivotal role of advanced technologies in this sector. This article explores three significant issues agriculture faces today and shows how AI is helping tackle them using real-world examples.

Three key challenges farmers face

Amongst the many issues hurting farmers, three stand out due to their global presence and financial impact:

1. Pests : Pests devour approximately 40% of global agricultural productivity annually, costing at least $70 billion. From locust swarms decimating fields in Africa to fruit flies affecting orchards, the impact is global, and financial repercussions are colossal.

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2. Soil Quality and Irrigation : Soil degradation affects nearly 33% of the Earth's soil, diminishing its ability to grow crops, leading to a loss of about $400 billion. Water scarcity and inefficient irrigation further dent agricultural output. Agriculture uses 70% of the world's accessible freshwater, but 60% of it is wasted due to leaky irrigation systems.

3. Weeds : Despite advancements in agricultural practices, weeds cause significant declines in crop yield and quality. Around 1800 weed species reduce plant production by about 31.5%, leading to economic losses of about $32 billion annually.

How AI is transforming Agriculture

Smart Farming

Artificial Intelligence is often used as a catchall phrase. Here, it refers to the systematic collection of data, pertinent use of analytics ranging from simple descriptive summaries to deep learning algorithms, and advanced technologies such as computer vision, the internet of things, and geospatial analytics. Let’s look at how AI helps address each of the above challenges:

1. Pest identification and control : Accurate, early identification and control of pests is essential to minimize crop damage and reduce the reliance on chemical pesticides. Data such as weather reports, historical pest activity, and high-resolution images captured by drones or satellites are readily available today. Machine learning models and computer vision can help predict pest invasions and identify pests in the field.

For example, Trapview has built a device that traps pests and identifies them. It uses pheromones to attract pests, which are photographed by a camera in the device. By leveraging Trapview’s database, AI identifies over 60 pest species, such as the codling moth, which afflicts apples, and the cotton bollworm, which can damage lettuce and tomatoes.

Once identified, the system uses location and weather data to map out the likely impact of the insects and pushes the findings as an app notification to farmers. These AI-driven insights enable timely and targeted interventions, significantly reducing crop losses and chemical usage. Trapview reports that its customers have seen a 5% increase in yield and quality, and overall savings of 118 million euro in growers’ costs.

2. Soil health monitoring : Continuous monitoring and analysis of soil health are essential to ensuring optimal growing conditions and sustainable farming practices. Optimizing water use is crucial to ensuring crops receive precisely what they need, reducing waste and enhancing productivity.

Data from in-ground sensors, farm machinery, drones, and satellites are used to analyze soil conditions, including moisture content, nutrient levels, and the presence of pathogens. Such soil health analysis helps predict water needs and automate irrigation systems.

For example, CropX has built a platform specializing in soil health monitoring by leveraging real-time data to help users review and compare vital parameters alongside crop performance. Farmers gain insights into soil type and vegetation indices like NDVI - normalized difference vegetation index, SAVI - soil adjusted vegetation index, and soil moisture index to optimize crop management strategies. CropX reports that its solutions have led to a 57% reduction in water usage, a 15% reduction in fertilizer usage, and up to 70% yield increase.

3. Weed Detection and Management : Precise identification and elimination of weeds is critical to preventing them from competing for precious resources with crops and minimizing herbicide use. Thanks to computer vision, drones and robots can now identify weeds amongst crops with high precision. This allows for targeted weed control, either mechanically or through precise herbicide application.

For instance, the startup Carbon Robotics leverages deep learning algorithms in its computer vision solution. It identifies weeds by analyzing data from over 42 high-resolution cameras that scan the fields in real-time. Then, it employs robotics and lasers to deliver high-precision weed control.

The LaserWeeder claims to weed up to two acres per hour and eliminate up to 5,000 weeds per minute at 99% accuracy. Its growers report reducing weed control costs by up to 80% with a potential return on investment in one to three years.

Tackling the risks of automation

Opportunities and risks of AI in agriculture

AI has numerous benefits for agriculture but isn’t without inherent risks , such as job displacement, ownership concentration, and ethical concerns. When AI automates tasks traditionally done by humans in large numbers, it could lead to job losses across both manual and cognitive roles. Moreover, it could exacerbate ownership concentration, benefiting large enterprises or wealthy individuals at the expense of smaller farms.

When farmland turns into a hotbed for data collection – underground, at the crop level, and from the sky, this could lead to data privacy issues. These challenges underscore the need for careful consideration and governance to balance AI's advantages against its potential downsides. This is unique not just to the agricultural sector but to all industries where AI is being applied.

Ushering in a transformative future

Integrating AI in agriculture is not just reshaping current practices but also paving the way for a sustainable and resilient future. AI could become a master gardener, perpetually monitoring and fine-tuning every growth stage in the farm, from seed selection to harvest and beyond. It can help adjust farming practices in real time to climatic shifts, ensuring optimal crop health and yield.

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Save Nature Essay

Introduction

We are always happy to get gifts from others, as they make us feel special and valued. Nature is such a gift given to us that it must be treated equally like any other gift. We might think that since nature and its resources are available for free, we can utilise them in whichever way we want. This approach towards nature is not good, and this is what is discussed in this save our nature essay.

The minute we step out of our homes, we are entering the space of nature, and everything we see around us forms a part of it. The plants, trees, flowers, sky, soil, water, sun, insects, and wind all fall under nature. Therefore, we must keep our nature as beautiful as it is.

Importance of Saving Nature

Even though nature has a significant role in supporting our lives, each component has a specific role in maintaining the balance of nature. While we get food to eat, air to breathe and water to drink from nature, we also enjoy the natural beauty and sounds as they lift our moods. Nature provides us with many resources, and we return its kindness by overexploiting and harming nature. Thus, as people living on Earth, we need to be conscious of our actions on surroundings that disrupt its natural flow.

Human activities are the main villain that harms nature. Earlier, it was not evident the dangerous effects of human exploitation on nature. When we think that we have only cut down a single tree, which might not damage nature, remember that there would be hundreds of others who think like you. So, one tree becomes hundreds, thousands and millions. At this pace, nature will soon exhaust its resources, and we will be suffering from various natural disasters and diseases. To put it simply, our mere existence would be threatened. This is why we need to preserve nature. In this how to save nature essay, we explore a few ways to coexist with nature.

Ways to Save Nature

We must be mindful of the fact that though nature has infinite resources, they will soon get depleted if we use them carelessly. As people started moving to cities, this led to the clearance of land and deforestation. The impact is environmental threats, such as green gas emissions, global warming, extinction of natural flora and fauna, etc. And the price we will have to pay will be huge.

To save ourselves from natural calamities and protect nature, let us move towards sustainable practices. By using eco-friendly products and discarding plastic and other non-degradable materials, we are doing a huge favour to our nature. We can also join our hands to reduce pollution by segregating wastes, using public transport and avoiding the use of pesticides. This save our nature essay from BYJU’S will be helpful for children to understand that if we take care of these trivial things, we can ensure the long life of nature.

You can explore more essays similar to the save nature essay on BYJU’S website to enhance kids’ learning experience. Also, access a wide range of kid-friendly learning resources on the website.

What is meant by nature?

The things that we see around us, which are not made by humans, constitute nature. It includes all living and nonliving things like air, water, sun, wind, animals, trees, mountains, oceans, etc.

What are some of the ways to save nature?

We can save nature if we stop over utilising the resources given to us by nature. We must preserve our environment as it is and not loot its materials. Moreover, we must take an environment-friendly approach, which must be reflected in our actions.

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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

This article is part of the research topic.

Beyond audiovisual: novel multisensory stimulation techniques and their applications

Audio-Visual-Olfactory Immersive Digital Nature Exposure for Stress and Anxiety Reduction: A Systematic Review on Systems, Outcomes, and Challenges Provisionally Accepted

• 1 Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université du Québec, Canada

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

Evidence supporting the benefits of immersive virtual reality (VR) and exposure to nature for the well-being of individuals is steadily growing. So-called digital forest bathing experiences take advantage of the immersiveness of VR to make individuals feel like they are immersed in nature, which has led to documented improvements in mental health. The majority of existing studies have relied on conventional VR experiences, which stimulate only two senses: auditory and visual. However, the principle behind forest bathing is to have one stimulate all of their senses to be completely immersed in nature. As recent advances in olfactory technologies have emerged, multisensory immersive experiences which stimulate more than two senses may provide additional benefits. In this systematic literature review, we investigate the multisensory digital nature setups used and their psychological and psychophysiological outcomes; particular focus is placed on the inclusion of smells as the third sensory modality. We searched papers published between 2016 and April 2023 on PubMed, Science Direct, Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, and IEEE Xplore. Results from our quality assessment revealed that the majority of studies (twelve) were of medium or high quality, while two were classified as low quality. Overall, the findings from the reviewed studies indicate a positive effect of including smells to digital nature experiences, with outcomes often comparable to conventional exposure to natural environments.The review concludes with a discussion of limitations observed in the examined studies and proposes recommendations for future research in this domain.

Keywords: virtual reality, natural environment, Olfactory stimuli, Multisensory virtual reality, Psychological outcome, Psychophysiological outcome, stress/anxiety, Relaxation

Received: 03 Jul 2023; Accepted: 08 Apr 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Lopes and Falk. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Mx. Marilia Lopes, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université du Québec, Quebec City, Canada Dr. Tiago H. Falk, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université du Québec, Quebec City, Canada

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Seeking Answers on Israel and Palestine

More from our inbox:, the u.s. and israel, united (briefly) by the eclipse, end-of-life planning, the church of trump, the peace sign, progressive as ever.

To the Editor:

Re “ The Two-State Solution Is a Fantasy ,” by Tareq Baconi (Opinion guest essay, April 7):

Coursing through Mr. Baconi’s essay about the impossibility of a two-state solution is the notion that Jews have no legitimate presence in the Middle East to begin with, and that their presence there represents only the last gasp of the dying British colonial empire.

This argument turns history on its head. Jews and Judaism are of course indigenous to the region (when we end the Passover Seder in a few weeks, we will recite, as Jews have for millenniums, “next year in Jerusalem”) and the partition approved in 1947 was an attempt to provide for the legitimate claims of two peoples to a land to which they had each been long attached. The Zionist leaders of 1947 accepted this partition. Tragically, the Arabs of the region rejected it.

The war that Hamas began on Oct. 7 was not in pursuit of a future state in which Jews and Arabs would coexist. It was a violent expression of the idea that Mr. Baconi expresses in more polite but nonetheless clear terms, that the presence of Jews in their ancestral and historical homeland is fundamentally illegitimate.

Neil Schluger Bronx

Tareq Baconi argues against a two-state solution, considering it a ploy for continued Israeli domination. Yet he fails to articulate an alternative amenable to both Israelis and Palestinians.

Rather, he alludes to a situation in which one merely replaces Israeli domination with Arab domination. How will that end the bloodshed? How would the Israelis ever agree without being killed or expelled?

Each side must compromise; each side will be disappointed. But the only way to avoid another Oct. 7 or another nakba (Palestinian catastrophe), isn’t a forced marriage in which one side dominates the other, but a structured divorce in which each side has its property and rights recognized by the other.

Two states for two peoples isn’t the best option; it’s the only option.

Benjy Braun Washington

“The Two-State Solution Is a Fantasy” is a gift to the Jewish right-wing argument that Palestinians will accept nothing less than the annihilation of the Jewish state and that therefore Israel must do whatever it takes to ensure its security.

The author does the exact thing that he criticizes: a simplistic one-sided view with no acknowledgment that there are two populations who each believe deeply that they are entitled to live in the region without mortal threat.

Neither of them will simply disappear. To think otherwise is the real fantasy.

Sharon Silverman Chabrow Portland, Maine

Re “ White House Says Gazans’ Welfare Is Key to U.S. Aid ” (front page, April 5):

The escalation in President Biden’s language in dealing with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu of Israel does not match the immorality of the conditions in Gaza.

As a longtime ally, the United States, from the beginning, gave Israel a broad license, in the form of arms, aid and support at the United Nations, to respond to the horrific Hamas attack on innocent Israeli civilians on Oct. 7.

Over time, Israel has abused and betrayed that trust by causing unnecessary civilian deaths and widespread destruction and deprivation in Gaza. Israel’s actions and inaction reflect a conscious indifference to civilian death and suffering.

That license must be revoked until a cease-fire is declared. Then, Israel must re-earn our support through scaled-back military operations that protect civilians and civilian infrastructure and concrete actions that relieve Gazans’ suffering.

Michael Curry Austin, Texas

The solar eclipse on Monday ( live updates , nytimes.com, April 8) served to unite humanity in the witnessing of a celestial spectacle in which racial, economic and partisan differences were set aside, however briefly, in a peaceful, awe-inspiring and communal experience of sublime wonderment.

As the sun was slowly yet inexorably obscured by the moon, all of our earthly human rancor seemed petty and ephemeral by contrast.

Compared with the magnitude and magnificence of our planet and its sun and moon and their heavenly dance, humankind’s quotidian travails and grievances are cosmically inconsequential, even if we foolishly and hubristically imbue them with incommensurate vehemence and import during our relatively fleeting lives on terra firma.

Mark Godes Chelsea, Mass.

Re “ How to Make End-of-Life Planning Less Stressful ” (Here to Help, March 27):

This helpful article is important, as so many people do not plan or have essential family discussions. As a result, the wishes of many patients are not respected, as no one knows what they are.

Some will receive unwanted treatment, and others might not receive treatment they would have wanted. Terrible conflicts between family members regularly occur, many unresolved.

Copies of the health care proxy should be readily accessible and should be given to relevant physicians. And people who are on Medicare should have advance care planning discussions with their physicians. These discussions are also very important and are reimbursable .

David C. Leven Pelham, N.Y. The writer is executive director emeritus and senior consultant, End of Life Choices New York.

Re “ Trump Rallies Are Evolving Into a Church ” (front page, April 2):

There’s a lot of alarming information in your article, but you stop way short of clearly naming it for what it is. Donald Trump and his “church” are the latest, clearest embodiment of white Christian nationalism, a perversion that stands the message of Jesus completely on its head.

When Mr. Trump “preaches” hate, division and resentment along the lines of race, gender and sexual orientation and openly advocates violence over peace, his role is more akin to the often invoked “Antichrist” his followers seem to fear so much.

There is little reason to beat around the bush. This is a marginal, extremist cult of personality that would lead the U.S. into a dark and apocalyptic place animated by white supremacy. The New York Times of all publications should be willing to call it what it is without fear of alienating his cult members.

Jerry Threet Victoria, British Columbia

Re “ A Sign Battered by Time ” (Sunday Styles, March 31):

As I put on my jacket on a recent morning — with a peace sign button affixed to it, one of many I have worn since the Vietnam War — I thought of the college student who commented in your article that he wouldn’t consider the peace sign “progressive or anything,” and that it merely signifies “a kind of neutral blanket statement against war and violence.”

If being against war and violence in a world convulsed by conflict and wanting all people to live their lives in peace, with justice, isn’t “progressive,” I would like to know what is.

Ellen D. Murphy Portland, Maine