how to write a bibliography for a journal article

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APA Style (7th Edition) Citation Guide: Journal Articles

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Table of Contents

Journal article from library database with doi - one author, journal article from library database with doi - multiple authors, journal article from a website - one author.

Journal Article- No DOI

Note: All citations should be double spaced and have a hanging indent in a Reference List.

A "hanging indent" means that each subsequent line after the first line of your citation should be indented by 0.5 inches.

This Microsoft support page contains instructions about how to format a hanging indent in a paper.

• APA 7th. ed. Journal Article Reference Checklist

If an item has no author, start the citation with the article title.

When an article has one to twenty authors, all authors' names are cited in the References List entry. When an article has twenty-one or more authors list the first nineteen authors followed by three spaced ellipse points (. . .) , and then the last author's name. Rules are different for in-text citations; please see the examples provided.

Cite author names in the order in which they appear on the source, not in alphabetical order (the first author is usually the person who contributed the most work to the publication).

Italicize titles of journals, magazines and newspapers. Do not italicize or use quotation marks for the titles of articles.

Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of the article title. If there is a colon in the article title, also capitalize the first letter of the first word after the colon.

If an item has no date, use the short form n.d. where you would normally put the date.

Volume and Issue Numbers

Italicize volume numbers but not issue numbers.

Retrieval Dates

Most articles will not need these in the citation. Only use them for online articles from places where content may change often, like a free website or a wiki.

Page Numbers

If an article doesn't appear on continuous pages, list all the page numbers the article is on, separated by commas. For example (4, 6, 12-14)

Library Database

Do not include the name of a database for works obtained from most academic research databases (e.g. APA PsycInfo, CINAHL) because works in these resources are widely available. Exceptions are Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, ERIC, ProQuest Dissertations, and UpToDate.

Include the DOI (formatted as a URL: https://doi.org/...) if it is available. If you do not have a DOI, include a URL if the full text of the article is available online (not as part of a library database). If the full text is from a library database, do not include a DOI, URL, or database name.

In the Body of a Paper

Books, Journals, Reports, Webpages, etc.: When you refer to titles of a “stand-alone work,” as the APA calls them on their APA Style website, such as books, journals, reports, and webpages, you should italicize them. Capitalize words as you would for an article title in a reference, e.g., In the book Crying in H Mart: A memoir , author Michelle Zauner (2021) describes her biracial origin and its impact on her identity.

Article or Chapter: When you refer to the title of a part of a work, such as an article or a chapter, put quotation marks around the title and capitalize it as you would for a journal title in a reference, e.g., In the chapter “Where’s the Wine,” Zauner (2021) describes how she decided to become a musician.

The APA Sample Paper below has more information about formatting your paper.

• APA 7th ed. Sample Paper

Author's Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial if Given. (Year of Publication). Title of article: Subtitle if any. Name of Journal, Volume Number (Issue Number), first page number-last page number. https://doi.org/doi number

Smith, K. F. (2022). The public and private dialogue about the American family on television: A second look. Journal of Media Communication, 50 (4), 79-110. https://doi.org/10.1152/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02864.x

Note: The DOI number is formatted as a URL: https://doi.org/10.1152/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02864.xIf. 

In-Text Paraphrase:

(Author's Last Name, Year)

Example: (Smith, 2000)

In-Text Quote:

(Author's Last Name, Year, p. Page Number)

Example: (Smith, 2000, p. 80)

Author's Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial if Given., & Last Name of Second Author, First Initial. Second Initial if Given. (Year of Publication). Title of article: Subtitle if any. Name of Journal, Volume Number (Issue Number), first page number-last page number. https://doi.org/doi number

Note: Separate the authors' names by putting a comma between them. For the final author listed add an ampersand (&) after the comma and before the final author's last name.

Note: In the reference list invert all authors' names; give last names and initials for only up to and including 20 authors. When a source has 21 or more authors, include the first 19 authors’ names, then three ellipses (…), and add the last author’s name. Don't include an ampersand (&) between the ellipsis and final author.

Note : For works with three or more authors, the first in-text citation is shortened to include the first author's surname followed by "et al."

Reference List Examples

Two to 20 Authors

Case, T. A., Daristotle, Y. A., Hayek, S. L., Smith, R. R., & Raash, L. I. (2011). College students' social networking experiences on Facebook. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 3 (2), 227-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2008.12.010

21 or more authors

Kalnay, E., Kanamitsu, M., Kistler, R., Collins, W., Deaven, D., Gandin, L., Iredell, M., Saha, J., Mo, K. C., Ropelewski, C., Wang, J., Leetma, A., . . . Joseph, D. (1996). The NCEP/NCAR 40-year reanalysis project. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society , 77 (3), 437-471. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1996)077<0437:TNYRP>2.0.CO;2

In-Text Citations

Two Authors/Editors

(Case & Daristotle, 2011)

Direct Quote: (Case & Daristotle, 2011, p. 57)

Three or more Authors/Editors

(Case et al., 2011)

Direct Quote: (Case et al., 2011, p. 57)

Author's Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial if Given. (Year of Publication). Title of article: Subtitle if any.  Name of Journal, Volume Number (Issue Number if given). URL

Flachs, A. (2010). Food for thought: The social impact of community gardens in the Greater Cleveland Area.  Electronic Green Journal, 1 (30). http://escholarship.org/uc/item/6bh7j4z4

Example: (Flachs, 2010)

Example: (Flachs, 2010, Conclusion section, para. 3)

Note: In this example there were no visible page numbers or paragraph numbers, in this case you can cite the section heading and the number of the paragraph in that section to identify where your quote came from. If there are no page or paragraph numbers and no marked section, leave this information out.

Journal Article - No DOI

Author's Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial if Given. (Year of Publication). Title of article: Subtitle if any.  Name of Journal, Volume Number (Issue Number), first page number-last page number. URL [if article is available online, not as part of a library database]

Full-Text Available Online (Not as Part of a Library Database):

Steinberg, M. P., & Lacoe, J. (2017). What do we know about school discipline reform? Assessing the alternatives to suspensions and expulsions.  Education Next, 17 (1), 44–52.  https://www.educationnext.org/what-do-we-know-about-school-discipline-reform-suspensions-expulsions/

Example: (Steinberg & Lacoe, 2017)

(Author's Last Name, Year, p. Page number)

Example: (Steinberg & Lacoe, 2017, p. 47)

Full-Text Available in Library Database:

Jungers, W. L. (2010). Biomechanics: Barefoot running strikes back.  Nature, 463 (2), 433-434.

Example: (Jungers, 2010)

Example: (Jungers, 2010, p. 433)

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APA Formatting and Style Guide (7th Edition)

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Citation Styles: A Brief Guide to APA, MLA and Turabian

• Journal Articles

Citing Journal Articles

• Magazine Articles
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• Sample Bibliography: APA
• Sample Bibliography: MLA
• Sample Bibliography: Turabian
• Creating an Annotated Bibliography This link opens in a new window

The basic format for an article from a journal requires the author’s name, the article title, the name of the journal, the date of the article, and the volume, issue number, and inclusive page numbers. Not all journals use issue numbers. APA recommends providing both volume and issue number if each issue of the journal paginates separately, that is, if each issue begins with page 1. Turabian suggests that more is better – if the journal provides both volume and issue numbers, include them both in the citation.

JOURNAL ARTICLE WITH VOLUME – ONE AUTHOR The example used is an article by author Truly Learned, entitled “The Web-Toed Bibliosaurus: Cranial Measurements Indicate a Smarter Than Average Lizard,” published in volume 85 of the Journal of the Paleocranial Society in 1995 on pages 566-592. The journal does not paginate each issue separately, but numbers continuously over the entire volume.

Learned, T. (1995). The Web-Toed Bibliosaurus: Cranial measurements indicate a smarter than average lizard. Journal of the Paleocranial Society , 85 , 566-592.

Learned, Truly. “The Web-Toed Bibliosaurus: Cranial Measurements Indicate a Smarter than Average Lizard.” Journal of the Paleocranial Society , vol. 85, 1995, pp. 566-592.

Learned, Truly. “The Web-Toed Bibliosaurus: Cranial Measurements Indicate a Smarter than Average Lizard.” Journal of the Paleocranial Society 85 (1995): 566-592.

JOURNAL ARTICLE WITH VOLUME & NUMBER – MULTIPLE AUTHORS The example used is an article by authors Adam Bisantz and Bea Biserk entitled “Adaptivity and Genetic Predisposition to Temper Tantrums.” The article was published in 2000 in volume 35, issue number 3, of the journal Misbehavior and Medication on pages 34-48. Each issue of the journal has its own pagination beginning with page 1.

Bisantz, A. & Biserk, B. (2000). Adaptivity and genetic predisposition to temper tantrums. Misbehavior and Medication , 35 (3), 34-48.

Bisantz, Adam and Bea Biserk. “Adaptivity and Genetic Predisposition to Temper Tantrums.” Misbehavior and Medication, vol. 35, no. 3, 2000, pp. 34-48.

Bisantz, Adam and Bea Biserk. “Adaptivity and Genetic Predisposition to Temper Tantrums.” Misbehavior and Medication 35, no. 3 (2000): 34-48.

JOURNAL ARTICLE WITH VOLUME & NUMBER – FOUR OR MORE AUTHORS

The example used is an article authored by Otto Nomick, Rhea Flecks, Kaye Tschin, Nye Dzherk, and Nobbie Knease, entitled “Reaction Times in White Mice Which have Been Administered Large Doses of MSG.” The article was published in 1998 in volume 33, issue number 1, of the Journal of Reflexology & Reactivity, on pages 22-43. Each issue of the journal has its own pagination. APA requires listing all authors up to seven. For references with more than seven authors, give the first six authors, followed by an ellipsis, and followed by the last author. (Example: Adams, B., Brown, C., Cook, D., Davis, E., Edge, F., Francis, G., Green, H., ... Zabriskie, A. ) Turabian bibliography style calls for listing all the authors, regardless of how many.

Nomick, O., Flecks, R., Tschin, K., Dzherk, N., & Knease, N. (1998). Reaction times in white mice which have been administered large doses of MSG. Journal of Reflexology & Reactivity , 33 (1), 22-43.

Nomick, Otto, et al. “Reaction Times in White Mice Which Have Been Administered Large Doses of MSG.” Journal of Reflexology & Reactivity , vol. 33, no. 1, 1998, pp. 22-43.

Nomick, Otto, Rhea Flecks, Kaye Tschin, Nye Dzherk, and Nobbie Knease. “Reaction Times in White Mice Which Have Been Administered Large Doses of MSG.” Journal of Reflexology & Reactivity 33, no. 1 (1998): 22-43.

JOURNAL ARTICLE – ELECTRONICALLY PUBLISHED JOURNAL (No DOI listed) This example is based on an article published in an online journal. The article, written by author C.B. Cybernaught, is entitled “Hyper Over Hypertext” and was published online in volume 39, issue number 4, April 1995, in the electronic journal World Wide Wanderer. The article is not paginated and was retrieved on 25 May 2008.

Cybernaught, C.B. (1995, April). Hyper over hypertext. World Wide Wanderer , 39 (4). http://www.ccu.edu/wwwander/

Cybernaught, C.B. “Hyper Over Hypertext.” World Wide Wanderer , vol. 39, no. 4, April 1995, www.ccu.edu/wwwander/april95.html. Accessed 25 May 2008.

Cybernaught, C.B. “Hyper Over Hypertext.” World Wide Wanderer 39, no. 4 (April 1995). http://www.ccu.edu/wwwander/april95.html (accessed May 25, 2008).

JOURNAL ARTICLE – ELECTRONICALLY PUBLISHED JOURNAL (DOI listed) This example is based on an article published in an online journal that assigns DOIs (Digital Object Identifiers) to each of its articles. Most publishers are now assigning DOIs to make it easier to link back to electronically published articles. The article, written by author Cosette Cremedelacreme, is entitled “An Examination of Gastronomic Imagery in the Later Poetry of Fifi LaRue. The article was published in 2008 in volume 13, issue number 2, on pages 23-43 of the journal Poetry Parisienne. The URL for the article is http://www.parisienne.com/13_2/cremedelacreme.html. The DOI for the article is 29.1027/00013- 2893.13.2.23. The article was retrieved June 13, 2008. Note: APA recommends using both volume and issue numbers for all electronic journal articles when both are available, regardless of pagination.

Cremedelacreme, C. (2008). An examination of gastronomic imagery in the later poetry of Fifi LaRue. Poetry Parisienne , 13 (2), 23-43. https://doi.org/29.1027/00013-2893.13.2.23

Cremedelacreme, Cosette. “An Examination of Gastronomic Imagery in the Later Poetry of Fifi LaRue.” Poetry Parisienne , vol. 13, no. 2, 2008, pp. 23-43. doi: 29.1027/00013- 2893.13.2.23. Accessed 13 June 2008.

Cremedelacreme, Cosette. “An Examination of Gastronomic Imagery in the Later Poetry of Fifi LaRue.” Poetry Parisienne 13, no. 2 (2008): 23-43. doi:29.1027/00013- 2893.13.2.23 (accessed June 13, 2008).

JOURNAL ARTICLE FROM AN ONLINE FULL-TEXT DATABASE (No DOI or Journal URL listed) The example is based on the 2007 article “Entanglements in Wonderland: Children’s Stories and Their Underlying Adult Themes,” by author Silvester Stiltskin. The article was published in the journal Studies in Children’s Fiction in the March 2007 issue, volume 37, number 3, on pages 123-145. The journal has no online equivalent but it has been reproduced electronically in Literature Online. The database is available at the Thomas G. Carpenter Library at UNF and was retrieved on August 28, 2008. Note: APA advises that it is generally not necessary to provide retrieval information for journal articles pulled from databases, since coverage in the database might change. When no DOI or website is available, the citation will take the format of the print journal article.

Stiltskin, S. (2007). Entanglements in Wonderland: Children’s stories and their underlying adult themes. Studies in Children’s Fiction , 37 (3), 123-145.

Stiltskin, Sylvester. “Entanglements in Wonderland: Children’s Stories and Their Underlying Adult Themes.” Studies in Children’s Fiction , vol. 37, no. 3, 2007, pp. 123-145. Literature Online, gateway.lion.com/scf/2007_37_03_stiltskin.html. Accessed 28 Aug. 2008.

Stiltskin, Sylvester. “Entanglements in Wonderland: Children’s Stories and Their Underlying Adult Themes.” Studies in Children’s Fiction 37, no. 3 (2007): 123-145. http://gateway.lion.com/scf/2007_37_03_stiltskin.html (Accessed August 28, 2008).

JOURNAL ARTICLE FROM AN ONLINE FULL-TEXT DATABASE (Journal URL listed) The example is based on the 2006 article authored by Rubio Buttons entitled “Send in the Clowns: Political Misadventures of 21st Century America.”  The article was published in volume 3, issue number 2, of the journal Political Profundity on pages 47-62. The journal also maintains electronic copies of the articles and provides the URL on the article title page (http://www.polprof.com/2006/buttons.html). The article is available in the database PoliSci Online and was retrieved from the database on September 3, 2008.

Buttons, R. (2006). Send in the clowns: Political misadventures of 21st century America. Political Profundity , 3( 2), 47-62. http://www.polprof.com/

Buttons, Rubio. “Send in the Clowns: Political Misadventures of 21st Century America.” Political Profundity , vol. 3, no. 2, 2006, pp. 47-62. PoliSci Online, http://text.poliscionline.com/2006_3_2_47.html. Accessed 3 Sep. 2008.

Buttons, Rubio. “Send in the Clowns: Political Misadventures of 21st Century America.” Political Profundity 3, no. 2 (2006): 47-62. http://text.poliscionline.com/2006_3_2_47.html (accessed September 3, 2008).

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Harvard Referencing for Journal Articles | Templates & Examples

Published on 20 May 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 7 November 2022.

In Harvard style, to reference a journal article, you need the author name(s), the year, the article title, the journal name, the volume and issue numbers, and the page range on which the article appears.

If you accessed the article online, add a DOI (digital object identifier) if available.

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Table of contents

Online-only journal articles, articles with multiple authors, referencing a whole issue of a journal, referencing a preprint journal article, frequently asked questions about referencing journal articles in harvard style.

To reference an online journal article with no print version, always include the DOI if available. No access date is necessary with a DOI. Note that a page range may not be available for online-only articles; in this case, simply leave it out, as in this example.

Online-only article with no DOI

When you need to reference an online-only article which doesn’t have a DOI, use a URL instead – preferably the stable URL often listed with the article. In this case, you do need to include an access date.

Note that if an online article has no DOI but does have a print equivalent, you don’t need to include a URL. The details of the print journal should be enough for the reader to locate the article.

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Journal articles often have multiple authors. In both your in-text citations and reference list, list up to three authors in full. Use the first author’s name followed by ‘ et al. ’ when there are four or more.

When you want to reference an entire issue of a journal instead of an individual article, you list the issue editor(s) in the author position and give the title of the issue (if available) rather than of an individual article.

When you reference an article that’s been accepted for publication but not yet published, the format changes to acknowledge this.

If it’s unknown where or whether the article will be published, omit this information:

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In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

In Harvard style , when you quote directly from a source that includes page numbers, your in-text citation must include a page number. For example: (Smith, 2014, p. 33).

You can also include page numbers to point the reader towards a passage that you paraphrased . If you refer to the general ideas or findings of the source as a whole, you don’t need to include a page number.

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Caulfield, J. (2022, November 07). Harvard Referencing for Journal Articles | Templates & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 8 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-journal-article-reference/

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How to cite a journal in a bibliography using MLA

The most basic entry for a journal article consists of the author’s name(s), the article title, the journal name, volume number, publication date, page number(s), and location.

Last Name, First Name. “Article Title.” Journal Name , vol. #, Date Published, pp.#-#. Location.

Smith, John. “Studies in Pop Rocks and Coke.” Weird Science , vol. 12, 2009, pp. 78-93. ProQuest , www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/studies-in-pop-rocks-and-coke/docview/745668798.

Reverse the first author’s name, placing a comma after the last name and a period after the first name (or any middle name). The name should not be abbreviated and should be written exactly as it appears in the journal. Titles and affiliations associated with the author should generally be omitted. A suffix, such as a roman numeral or Jr./Sr. should appear after the author’s given name, preceded by a comma.

For an article written by two authors, list them in the order they appear in the journal. Reverse only the first author’s name and write the other names in normal order. Separate author names with a comma and place the word “and” before the last author’s name.

Smith, John, and Jane Doe. “Studies in Pop Rocks and Coke.” Weird Science , vol. 12, 2009, pp. 78-93. ProQuest , www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/studies-in-pop-rocks-and-coke/docview/745668798.

For articles with three or more authors, only include the first author, followed by a comma and the abbreviation “et al.”

Smith, John, et al. “Studies in Pop Rocks and Coke.” Weird Science , vol. 12, 2009, pp. 78-93. ProQuest , www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/studies-in-pop-rocks-and-coke/docview/745668798.

Place the article title in double quotation marks. Unless the article title ends with a punctuation mark, place a period after the article title within the quotation marks. Follow the article title with the name of the journal, which is italicized. Omit any introductory articles (e.g., A, An, The) from the journal name, and separate the journal name from any volume or issue number details with a comma.

Include the volume number of the journal, not with the word “volume” but with the abbreviation “vol.” You may also need to include the issue number, depending on the journal. Issues published within a single year normally compose one volume. Volumes are normally numbered in sequential order, with each new volume having its number increment by 1, while issue numbering restarts from 1 for each new volume. Some journals do not continuously number pages throughout an annual volume, instead, starting on page 1 for each new issue. In this case, include the issue number, placing a comma after the volume number (vol. 12,) and then citing the issue number (vol. 12, no. 3).

Smith, John. “Studies in Pop Rocks and Coke.” Weird Science , vol. 12, no.3, 2009, pp. 78-93. ProQuest , www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/studies-in-pop-rocks-and-coke/docview/745668798.

Follow the volume and issue number information with the publication date details, separating the elements with commas after the volume number and the issue number. Then, include the page (p. 78) or page range (pp. 78-93) the article appears on, followed by a period. Cite all inclusive page numbers—if the article spans pages that are not consecutive, cite only the first page, followed by a plus sign.

Smith, John. “Studies in Pop Rocks and Coke.” Weird Science , vol. 12, no.3, 2009, 78+.

If no page numbers are available, omit the page number element.

Smith, John. “Studies in Pop Rocks and Coke.” Weird Science , vol. 12, no.3, 2009. ProQuest , www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/studies-in-pop-rocks-and-coke/docview/745668798.

Next, cite the location details for the source container of the journal article (e.g., database name and URL, website name and DOI, etc.). Italicize the container name if it is a database or website title containing the smaller work, the journal article. For information found online, include a DOI or URL.

According to MLA’s 9th edition updated in 2021, you may usually leave out http:// or https:// from URLs unless you want to hyperlink them or unless instructed otherwise. When in doubt, ask your instructor. If a DOI is available, use that instead of the URL. For DOIs, use http:// or https:// before the DOI: https://doi.org/xx.xxxx/xxx.xxxx.xxxx. Use a period after the DOI.

If a publication or posting date isn’t available, include the accessed date after the location. Format the date using the international format of day-month-year. Follow the access date with a period. For an article found in a database, cite it the same way you would an article published online: cite the location with the database name in italics, followed by a comma, a DOI or URL, and ending with a period.

Smith, John. “Studies in Pop Rocks and Coke.” Weird Science , vol. 12, no.3, 2009, pp. 78-93. ProQuest , www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/studies-in-pop-rocks-and-coke/docview/745668798. Accessed 25 Oct. 2020.

Smith, John. “Studies in Pop Rocks and Coke.” Weird Science , vol. 12, no.3, 2009, pp. 78-93. ProQuest , https://doi.org/12.3456/789.1011.1213.

If the article was published online, you may choose to include the web address of the page, but MLA prefers you include that online location, in order of preference, by using the DOI, permalink, or URL. MLA recommends using the DOI when it’s available because they are more reliable locators than URLs. DOIs are also more concise. When wondering whether to include a URL in your works-cited list or bibliography, follow the guidelines of your instructor, school, or publisher.

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A date of access is required only when the publication appears possibly not to be accessible at a later point in time. Examples might be a publication with a limited viewing time or a website that might be removed. In such cases, the date of access would appear only on the Works Cited page and not within the text.

As per the MLA handbook, when a source has more than two authors, the first author’s name is used followed by a comma and the Latin words et al., meaning “and others.” A journal article may be obtained from the actual journal or from a source such as an online database. The usual styles for an in-hand journal article and an article accessed online are shown below.

[Journal] Last Name, First Name, et al. “Article Name.” Journal Name , vol., no., date, pp. xx-xx.

[Online] Last Name, First Name, et al. “Article Name.” Journal Name , vol. no., date, pp. xx-xx. Container Name , URL.

[Journal] Robbins, Thomas, et al. “Theory and Research on Today’s ‘New Religions.’” Sociological Analysis , vol. 39, no. 2, summer 1978, pp. 95-122.

[Online] Robbins, Thomas, et al. “Theory and Research on Today’s ‘New Religions.’” Sociological Analysis , vol. 39, no. 2, summer 1978, pp. 95-122. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3710211 .

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How to Cite a Journal Article in MLA

This page is a how-to guide for using scholarly journals as sources and citing them correctly in your papers. Academic journals publish scholarly, peer-reviewed articles written by experts in a specific field. This guide will help you understand what journals are and why they are valuable for your research.

Quickly cite a journal article by using our online form here .

Citing a journal article in mla:, the importance of peer-reviewed academic journals, how journals are organized, where to find journal articles.

• In-text citations
• Works cited references
• Citation with one author
• Citation with two authors
• Citation with three or more authors
• Citation with no known author
• Citation Structures and Examples: Web
• Citation Structures and Examples: Print

Our guide will show you how to cite the journal article both in the text and in the Works Cited page following the guidelines of the Modern Language Association Handbook, 9th Edition.

What is an Academic Journal?

Academic or scholarly journals are periodicals published by universities and other research organizations to present the findings of original research conducted in a particular field. These journals contain highly specific knowledge and are written by experts in that field.

Journals are different from other periodicals such as newspapers or magazines, which cover a broad range of topics and are written in easy to read prose.

Because  journals are written by experts for other experts, they can be difficult to read. The writers often use jargon and other complex language that students may not understand. But that doesn’t mean you should not use journals in your research. Journals are where the most recent research is published and provide in-depth information on a topic.

Tip : Reading the abstract and the conclusion first may help you to understand the article as you read.

Journals are good sources for academic research not only because they are written by experts, but because most (but not all) are also reviewed by other experts before the article is published.

Journals that are peer-reviewed have a board of experts in the field that review articles submitted to the journal. The peer reviewers scrutinize every article closely to validate its findings and ensure that the research was done properly. The process of peer review gives credibility to the journal because it means that every article published has been approved by other experts in the field.

Academic journals are organized in volumes and issues.

• Volume: The volume is all of the editions of the journal published in a calendar year.
• Issue(s):   The issues are all the specific editions of the journal published in that year.

Tip : Journals frequently publish issues around a certain theme, so all of the articles in that issue will relate to a certain topic. This means that there may be other articles in a particular issue that you can use for your research. It pays to check the table of contents for the issue when you find an article that fits your needs.

You will need to include the volume and the issue numbers, and the page numbers in your citations so make sure to write those down when you take notes from a journal.

When you are doing scholarly research, you can’t use popular search engines like Google, Bing, or Yahoo. These will lead you to popular sources that may not work for a school paper. You need to search for information using an academic database which will lead you to scholarly articles.

Databases are organized computer-based collections of data that allow researchers to find a large number of articles quickly and easily.

Examples of popular general academic databases include:

• Academic Search Premier
• Google Scholar

Examples of popular academic databases focused on specific subjects:

• MEDLINE, PubMed Central — focus on biomedical and life sciences
• Lexis Web — focus on legal information
• Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) — focus on education

Many of these databases charge fees for use. The good news? Many can be accessed through a school or university library. Check your library’s website to see what databases it subscribes to and how you can access them.

Using a Journal Article in a Paper

You can use information from your research in three ways:

• Paraphrase: Take the information from a specific paragraph or section of the article and rewrite it in your own words.
• Summarize: Write a broad overview of the section or the article in your own words.
• Quote: Repeat the exact words used by the author using quotation marks.

Whenever you quote, paraphrase, or summarize information in your paper, you need to follow that information with an in-text citation and create a corresponding reference for the source (in the Works Cited).

Journal Article In-text Citations

Citations within your text are important. Each in-text citation:

• Alerts your reader that you are using information from an outside source.
• Usually appears in parentheses at the end of a sentence.
• Is short and only has enough information to help the reader find the complete reference listed in the Works Cited page at the end of the paper.

A MLA style in-text citation has two parts (MLA Handbook 227-228):

• If there is no author listed, include a shortened version of the title
• While many online sources do not have a page number, academic journals almost always do, even when they are available online.

In most cases, the in-text citation is at the end of the sentence in parentheses. If you use the author’s name in the text, you don’t have to repeat it in the parenthesis at the end. Do not separate the author’s name and the page number with a comma. See below for examples.

Works Cited References for Journal Articles

A Works Cited page is included at the end of your paper. It lists full references/citations for all of the sources mentioned in your paper via your in-text citations.

MLA Containers

In the 9th edition of the official Handbook, MLA includes a new term for citing references, which was first introduced in the 8th edition — containers (134). Periodicals like journals are considered “containers” because they contain the articles that are part of a larger whole.

The container holds the source article and is crucial in identifying the source. The title of the first container, the journal name, is printed in italics and follows the article name. When accessing journals through a database, the database is considered the second container. This title is also printed in italics.

Digital Object Identifier (DOI)

Another feature in citing sources is the DOI (Handbook 188) . DOI stands for Digital Object Identifier, which is used to permanently identify an article or document and link to it on the web.

Although a website or database may change names, the DOI will not change and will help your readers locate the document from your citation. Whenever possible, list the DOI in place of the URL. When you have a DOI, you do not need to give the URL of the website. Indicate that a reference is a DOI by adding “https://doi.org/” before the DOI number of your source.

Another way to identify an online location is with a permalink. Permalinks are URLs that are identified as a stable link that the publisher promises not to change.

For journal references, the following elements need to be included in your Work(s) Cited entries: 

• The name of the author or authors. Since journal articles often have more than one author, it is helpful to know when to use et al. in MLA .
• Title of article
• Title of journal (the container)
• Volume and issue number
• Date of publication
• Page numbers
• Database (the 2nd container)
• DOI, permalink, or URL
• Date of access (supplemental, but should be included if the information has no publication date listed)

Citing a Journal Article in MLA (found in databases)

The following are examples of how to cite a journal in MLA 9, both in text and as a full reference in the Works Cited. These were all found via a database.

Note that “Date Accessed” is the day that the journal article was found and read. This information is supplemental and does not always need to be included.

Journal Article Citation With One Author

Cite your source

Journal Article Citation With Two Authors

*Note:  When a source has multiple authors, you should always list them in your citation in the same order they are listed in the source.

Journal Article Citation With Three or More Authors

Journal article citation with no known author, citing a journal article in mla (print).

Citing a journal from a print source requires less information than an online source. For a print source, you need the following information:

• The name of the author or authors for articles with one or two authors. For articles with three or more authors, only the first author’s name is used followed by et al.
• The name of the article in quotation marks
• The name of the journal in italics
• The volume and issue numbers of the journal
• The year of publication
• The page number(s)

View Screenshot | Cite your source

Citing an Online Journal Article (not found using a database)

Some journal articles are accessible online without the use of a database. Citing an online journal article not found in a database requires that you cite the website that you used to access the article as the second container. Do not include the https:// in the web address.

*Note : Since journals are usually stable and credible sources, including an access date is supplemental and not required (“When Should I Include an Access Date for an Online Work”).

• Works Cited

MLA Handbook . 9th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2021.  

“When should I include an access date for an online work?” MLA Style Center , Modern Language Association, 29 Dec. 2016, style.mla.org/access-dates/.

Published October 31, 2011. Updated June 6, 2021.

Written by Catherine Sigler. Catherine has a Ph.D. in English Education and has taught college-level writing for 15 years.

MLA Formatting Guide

MLA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Sample Paper
• MLA 8 Updates
• MLA 9 Updates
• View MLA Guide

Citation Examples

• Book Chapter
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Website (no author)
• View all MLA Examples

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It’s 100% free to create MLA citations. The EasyBib Citation Generator also supports 7,000+ other citation styles. These other styles—including APA, Chicago, and Harvard—are accessible for anyone with an EasyBib Plus subscription.

No matter what citation style you’re using (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) the EasyBib Citation Generator can help you create the right bibliography quickly.

Yes, there’s an option to download source citations as a Word Doc or a Google Doc. You may also copy citations from the EasyBib Citation Generator and paste them into your paper.

Creating an account is not a requirement for generating MLA citations. However, registering for an EasyBib account is free and an account is how you can save all the citation you create. This can help make it easier to manage your citations and bibliographies.

Yes! Whether you’d like to learn how to construct citations on your own, our Autocite tool isn’t able to gather the metadata you need, or anything in between, manual citations are always an option. Click here for directions on using creating manual citations.

If any important information is missing (e.g., author’s name, title, publishing date, URL, etc.), first see if you can find it in the source yourself. If you cannot, leave the information blank and continue creating your citation.

It supports MLA, APA, Chicago, Harvard, and over 7,000 total citation styles.

To cite a magazine with multiple authors and no page numbers in MLA style, you need to have basic information including the authors, the article’s title, the magazine’s title, the publication date, and the DOI, permalink, or URL. The templates and examples for in-text citations and a works-cited-list entry of a book written by multiple authors are given below:

In-text citation template and example:

For citations in prose, use the first name and surname of the first author followed by “and others” or “and colleagues” for sources with three or more authors. In subsequent citations, use only the surname of the first author followed by “and others” or “and colleagues.” In parenthetical citations, always use only the surname of the first author followed by “et al.”

Citation in prose:

First mention: Han Ong and colleagues…. or Han Ong and others ….

Subsequent occurrences: Ong and colleagues…. or Ong and others ….

Parenthetical:

….( Ong et al.).

Works-cited-list entry template and example:

The title of the article is in plain text and title case; it is placed inside double quotation marks. The title of the magazine is set in italics and title case. Follow the format given in the template and example for setting the day, month, and year.

Surname, First., et al. “Title of the Article.” Title of the Magazine , Publication Date, DOI/permalink/URL.

Ong, Han, et al. “The Monkey Who Speaks.” The New Yorker , 13 Sept. 2021, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/09/13/the-monkey-who-speaks.

Use only the first author’s name in surname–first name order in the entry followed by “et al.”

To cite an online journal or magazine article in MLA style, you need to have basic information including the author, the article’s title, the journal or magazine’s title, the publication date, and the DOI, permalink, or URL. If available, also include a volume and an issue number of the journal or magazine. The templates for in-text citations and a works-cited-list entry of an online journal article and examples are given below for a source with one author:

For citations in prose, use the first name and surname of the author on the first occurrence. In subsequent citations, use only the surname. In parenthetical citations, always use only the surname of the author.

First mention: Elizabeth Garber ….

Subsequent occurrences: Garber ….

….(Garber).

The title of the journal or magazine article is set in plain roman text and title case; it is placed inside double quotation marks. The title of the journal or magazine is set in italics and title case. Follow the format given in the template and example for writing the publication month or season and year.

Surname, First. “Title of the Article.” Journal or Magazine Title , Volume, Issue, Publication Date, DOI/permalink/URL.

Garber, Elizabeth. “Craft as Activism.” The Journal of Social Theory in Art Education , vol. 33, no.1, spring 2013, www.scholarscompass.vcu.edu/jstae/vol33/iss1/6/ .

MLA Citation Examples

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How to Write a Bibliography (MLA, APA Examples)

Learn how to easily write a bibliography by following the format outlined in this article.

This resource will help your students properly cite different resources in the bibliography of a research paper, and how to format those citations, for books, encyclopedias, films, websites, and people.

What is a bibliography?

According to Infoplease.com, A bibliography is a list of the types of sources you used to get information for your report. It is included at the end of your report, on the last page (or last few pages).

What are the types of bibliography styles (MLA, APA, etc.)?

The 3 most common bibliography/citation styles are:

• MLA Style: The Modern Language Association works cited page style
• APA Style: The American Psychological Association style
• Chicago Style: The bibliography style defined by the Chicago Manual of Style

We’ll give examples of how to create bibliography entries in various styles further down in this article. 

What sources do you put in a bibliography?

An annotated bibliography should include a reference list of any sources you use in writing a research paper. Any printed sources from which you use a text citation, including books, websites, newspaper articles, journal articles, academic writing, online sources (such as PDFs), and magazines should be included in a reference list. In some cases, you may need or want to cite conversations or interviews, works of art, visual works such as movies, television shows, or documentaries - these (and many others) can also be included in a reference list.

How to get started writing your bibliography

You will find it easier to prepare your MLA, APA, or Chicago annotated bibliography if you keep track of each book, encyclopedia, journal article, webpage or online source you use as you are reading and taking notes. Start a preliminary, or draft, bibliography by listing on a separate sheet of paper all your sources. Note down the full title, author’s last name, place of publication, web address, publisher, and date of publication for each source.

Haven't started your paper yet and need an outline? These sample essay outlines include a research paper outline from an actual student paper.

How to write a bibliography step-by-step (with examples)

General Format: Author (last name first). Title of the book. Publisher, Date of publication.

MLA Style: Sibley, David Allen. What It’s Like to Be a Bird. From Flying to Nesting, Eating to Singing, What Birds Are Doing, and Why. Alfred A. Knopf, 2020.

APA Style: Sibley, D.A. (2020). What It’s Like to Be a Bird. From Flying to Nesting, Eating to Singing, What Birds Are Doing, and Why . Alfred A. Knopf.

Notes: Use periods, not commas, to separate the data in the entry. Use a hanging indent if the entry is longer than one line. For APA style, do not use the full author’s first name.

Websites or webpages:

  MLA Style: The SB Nation Family of Sites. Pension Plan Puppets: A Toronto Maple Leafs Blog, 2022, www.pensionplanpuppets.com. Accessed 15 Feb. 2022.

APA Style: American Heart Association. (2022, April 11). How to keep your dog’s heart healthy. https://www.heart.org/en/news/2022/04/11/how-to-keep-your-dogs-heart-healthy

Online news article from a newspaper site:

APA Style: Duehren, A. (2022, April 9). Janet Yellen faces challenge to keep pressure on Russia. Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/janet-yellen-faces-challenge-to-keep-pressure-on-russia-while-addressing-global-consequences-11650366000

Print journal articles:

MLA Style: Booch, Grady. "Patterns in Object-Oriented Design." IEEE Software Engineering, vol. 6, no. 6, 2006, pp. 31-50.

APA Style: Booch, G. (2006). Patterns in object-oriented design. IEEE Software Engineering, 6(6), 31–50.

Note: It is suggested that you include a DOI and a webpage address when referencing either a printed journal article, and electronic journal article, or an journal article that appears in both formats. 

MLA Style: Gamma, Eric, and Peter A. Coad. “Exceptions to the Unified Modeling Language in Python Patterns.” IEEE Software Engineering, vol. 2, no. 6, 8 Mar. 2006, pp. 190-194. O’Reilly Software Engineering Library, https://doi.org/10.1006/se.20061. Accessed 26 May 2009.

APA Style: Masters, H., Barron, J., & Chanda, L. (2017). Motivational interviewing techniques for adolescent populations in substance abuse counseling. NAADAC Notes, 7(8), 7–13. https://www.naadac.com/notes/adolescent-techniques

ML:A Style: @Grady_Booch. “That’s a bold leap over plain old battery power cars.” Twitter, 13 Mar. 2013, 12:06 p.m., https://twitter.com/Grady_Booch/status/1516379006727188483.

APA Style: Westborough Library [@WestboroughLib]. (2022, April 12). Calling all 3rd through 5th grade kids! Join us for the Epic Writing Showdown! Winner receives a prize! Space is limited so register, today. loom.ly/ypaTG9Q [Tweet; thumbnail link to article]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/WestboroughLib/status/1516373550415896588.

Print magazine articles:

General format: Author (last name first), "Article Title." Name of magazine. Volume number, (Date): page numbers.

MLA Style: Stiteler, Sharon. "Tracking Red-Breasted Grosbeak Migration." Minnesota Bird Journal, 7 Sept. 2019, pp. 7-11.

APA Style: Jordan, Jennifer, "Filming at the Top of the World." Museum of Science Magazine. Volume 47, No. 1, (Winter 1998): p. 11.

Print newspaper articles:

General format: Author (last name first), "Article Title." Name of newspaper, city, state of publication. (date): edition if available, section, page number(s).

MLA Style: Adelman, Martin. "Augustus Announces Departure from City Manager Post." New York Times, late ed., 15 February 2020, p. A1

APA Style: Adelman, M. (2020, February 15). Augustus announced departure from city manager post. New York Times, A1.

Encyclopedias:

General Format: Encyclopedia Title, Edition Date. Volume Number, "Article Title," page numbers.

MLA Style: “Gorillas.” The Encyclopedia Brittanica. 15th ed. 2010.

APA Style: Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc. (1997.) Gorillas. In The Encyclopedia Brittanica (15th ed., pp. 50-51). Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc.

Personal interviews:

General format: Full name (last name first). Personal Interview. (Occupation.) Date of interview.

MLA Style: Smithfield, Joseph. Personal interview. 19 May 2014.

APA Style: APA does not require a formal citation for a personal interview. Published interviews from other sources should be cited accordingly.

Films and movies:

General format: Title, Director, Distributor, Year.

MLA Style: Fury. Directed by David Ayer, performances by Brad Pitt, Shia LaBeouf, Jon Bernthal, Sony Pictures, 2014.

APA Style: Ayer, D. (Director). (2014). Fury [Film]. Sony Pictures.

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How To Write a Bibliography (Three Styles, Plus Examples)

Give credit where credit is due.

Writing a research paper involves a lot of work. Students need to consult a variety of sources to gather reliable information and ensure their points are well supported. Research papers include a bibliography, which can be a little tricky for students. Learn how to write a bibliography in multiple styles and find basic examples below.

IMPORTANT: Each style guide has its own very specific rules, and they often conflict with one another. Additionally, each type of reference material has many possible formats, depending on a variety of factors. The overviews shown here are meant to guide students in writing basic bibliographies, but this information is by no means complete. Students should always refer directly to the preferred style guide to ensure they’re using the most up-to-date formats and styles.

What is a bibliography?

When you’re researching a paper, you’ll likely consult a wide variety of sources. You may quote some of these directly in your work, summarize some of the points they make, or simply use them to further the knowledge you need to write your paper. Since these ideas are not your own, it’s vital to give credit to the authors who originally wrote them. This list of sources, organized alphabetically, is called a bibliography.

A bibliography should include all the materials you consulted in your research, even if you don’t quote directly from them in your paper. These resources could include (but aren’t limited to):

• Books and e-books
• Periodicals like magazines or newspapers
• Online articles or websites
• Primary source documents like letters or official records

Bibliography vs. References

These two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but they actually have different meanings. As noted above, a bibliography includes all the materials you used while researching your paper, whether or not you quote from them or refer to them directly in your writing.

A list of references only includes the materials you cite throughout your work. You might use direct quotes or summarize the information for the reader. Either way, you must ensure you give credit to the original author or document. This section can be titled “List of Works Cited” or simply “References.”

Your teacher may specify whether you should include a bibliography or a reference list. If they don’t, consider choosing a bibliography, to show all the works you used in researching your paper. This can help the reader see that your points are well supported, and allow them to do further reading on their own if they’re interested.

Bibliography vs. Citations

Citations refer to direct quotations from a text, woven into your own writing. There are a variety of ways to write citations, including footnotes and endnotes. These are generally shorter than the entries in a reference list or bibliography. Learn more about writing citations here.

What does a bibliography entry include?

Depending on the reference material, bibliography entries include a variety of information intended to help a reader locate the material if they want to refer to it themselves. These entries are listed in alphabetical order, and may include:

• Author/s or creator/s
• Publication date
• Volume and issue numbers
• Publisher and publication city
• Website URL

These entries don’t generally need to include specific page numbers or locations within the work (except for print magazine or journal articles). That type of information is usually only needed in a footnote or endnote citation.

What are the different bibliography styles?

In most cases, writers use one of three major style guides: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or The Chicago Manual of Style . There are many others as well, but these three are the most common choices for K–12 students.

Many teachers will state their preference for one style guide over another. If they don’t, you can choose your own preferred style. However, you should also use that guide for your entire paper, following their recommendations for punctuation, grammar, and more. This will ensure you are consistent throughout.

Below, you’ll learn how to write a simple bibliography using each of the three major style guides. We’ve included details for books and e-books, periodicals, and electronic sources like websites and videos. If the reference material type you need to include isn’t shown here, refer directly to the style guide you’re using.

APA Style Bibliography and Examples

Source: Verywell Mind

Technically, APA style calls for a list of references instead of a bibliography. If your teacher requires you to use the APA style guide , you can limit your reference list only to items you cite throughout your work.

How To Write a Bibliography (References) Using APA Style

Here are some general notes on writing an APA reference list:

• Title your bibliography section “References” and center the title on the top line of the page.
• Do not center your references; they should be left-aligned. For longer items, subsequent lines should use a hanging indent of 1/2 inch.
• Include all types of resources in the same list.
• Alphabetize your list by author or creator, last name first.
• Do not spell out the author/creator’s first or middle name; only use their initials.
• If there are multiple authors/creators, use an ampersand (&) before the final author/creator.
• Place the date in parentheses.
• Capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle, unless the word would otherwise be capitalized (proper names, etc.).
• Italicize the titles of books, periodicals, or videos.
• For websites, include the full site information, including the http:// or https:// at the beginning.

Books and E-Books APA Bibliography Examples

For books, APA reference list entries use this format (only include the publisher’s website for e-books).

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Publication date). Title with only first word capitalized . Publisher. Publisher’s website

• Wynn, S. (2020). City of London at war 1939–45 . Pen & Sword Military. https://www.pen-and-sword.co.uk/City-of-London-at-War-193945-Paperback/p/17299

Periodical APA Bibliography Examples

For journal or magazine articles, use this format. If you viewed the article online, include the URL at the end of the citation.

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Publication date). Title of article. Magazine or Journal Title (Volume number) Issue number, page numbers. URL

• Bell, A. (2009). Landscapes of fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945. Journal of British Studies (48) 1, 153–175. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25482966

Here’s the format for newspapers. For print editions, include the page number/s. For online articles, include the full URL.

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Year, Month Date) Title of article. Newspaper title. Page number/s. URL

• Blakemore, E. (2022, November 12) Researchers track down two copies of fossil destroyed by the Nazis.  The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/11/12/ichthyosaur-fossil-images-discovered/

Electronic APA Bibliography Examples

For articles with a specific author on a website, use this format.

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Year, Month Date). Title . Site name. URL

• Wukovits, J. (2023, January 30). A World War II survivor recalls the London Blitz . British Heritage . https://britishheritage.com/history/world-war-ii-survivor-london-blitz

When an online article doesn’t include a specific author or date, list it like this:

Title . (Year, Month Date). Site name. Retrieved Month Date, Year, from URL

• Growing up in the Second World War . (n.d.). Imperial War Museums. Retrieved May 12, 2023, from https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/growing-up-in-the-second-world-war

When you need to list a YouTube video, use the name of the account that uploaded the video, and format it like this:

Name of Account. (Upload year, month day). Title [Video]. YouTube. URL

• War Stories. (2023, January 15). How did London survive the Blitz during WW2? | Cities at war: London | War stories [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/uwY6JlCvbxc

For more information on writing APA bibliographies, see the APA Style Guide website.

APA Bibliography (Reference List) Example Pages

Source: Simply Psychology

More APA example pages:

• Western Australia Library Services APA References Example Page
• Ancilla College APA References Page Example
• Scribbr APA References Page Example

MLA Style Bibliography Examples

Source: PressBooks

MLA style calls for a Works Cited section, which includes all materials quoted or referred to in your paper. You may also include a Works Consulted section, including other reference sources you reviewed but didn’t directly cite. Together, these constitute a bibliography. If your teacher requests an MLA Style Guide bibliography, ask if you should include Works Consulted as well as Works Cited.

How To Write a Bibliography (Works Cited and Works Consulted) in MLA Style

For both MLA Works Cited and Works Consulted sections, use these general guidelines:

• Start your Works Cited list on a new page. If you include a Works Consulted list, start that on its own new page after the Works Cited section.
• Center the title (Works Cited or Works Consulted) in the middle of the line at the top of the page.
• Align the start of each source to the left margin, and use a hanging indent (1/2 inch) for the following lines of each source.
• Alphabetize your sources using the first word of the citation, usually the author’s last name.
• Include the author’s full name as listed, last name first.
• Capitalize titles using the standard MLA format.
• Leave off the http:// or https:// at the beginning of a URL.

Books and E-Books MLA Bibliography Examples

For books, MLA reference list entries use this format. Add the URL at the end for e-books.

Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Title . Publisher, Date. URL

• Wynn, Stephen. City of London at War 1939–45 . Pen & Sword Military, 2020. www.pen-and-sword.co.uk/City-of-London-at-War-193945-Paperback/p/17299

Periodical MLA Bibliography Examples

Here’s the style format for magazines, journals, and newspapers. For online articles, add the URL at the end of the listing.

For magazines and journals:

Last Name, First Name. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Journal , volume number, issue number, Date of Publication, First Page Number–Last Page Number.

• Bell, Amy. “Landscapes of Fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945.” Journal of British Studies , vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 153–175. www.jstor.org/stable/25482966

When citing newspapers, include the page number/s for print editions or the URL for online articles.

Last Name, First Name. “Title of article.” Newspaper title. Page number/s. Year, month day. Page number or URL

• Blakemore, Erin. “Researchers Track Down Two Copies of Fossil Destroyed by the Nazis.” The Washington Post. 2022, Nov. 12. www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/11/12/ichthyosaur-fossil-images-discovered/

Electronic MLA Bibliography Examples

Last Name, First Name. Year. “Title.” Month Day, Year published. URL

• Wukovits, John. 2023. “A World War II Survivor Recalls the London Blitz.” January 30,   2023. https://britishheritage.com/history/world-war-ii-survivor-london-blitz

Website. n.d. “Title.” Accessed Day Month Year. URL.

• Imperial War Museum. n.d. “Growing Up in the Second World War.” Accessed May 9, 2023. https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/growing-up-in-the-second-world-war.

Here’s how to list YouTube and other online videos.

Creator, if available. “Title of Video.” Website. Uploaded by Username, Day Month Year. URL.

• “How did London survive the Blitz during WW2? | Cities at war: London | War stories.” YouTube . Uploaded by War Stories, 15 Jan. 2023. youtu.be/uwY6JlCvbxc.

For more information on writing MLA style bibliographies, see the MLA Style website.

MLA Bibliography (Works Cited) Example Pages

Source: The Visual Communication Guy

More MLA example pages:

• Writing Commons Sample Works Cited Page
• Scribbr MLA Works Cited Sample Page
• Montana State University MLA Works Cited Page

Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

The Chicago Manual of Style (sometimes called “Turabian”) actually has two options for citing reference material : Notes and Bibliography and Author-Date. Regardless of which you use, you’ll need a complete detailed list of reference items at the end of your paper. The examples below demonstrate how to write that list.

How To Write a Bibliography Using The Chicago Manual of Style

Source: South Texas College

Here are some general notes on writing a Chicago -style bibliography:

• You may title it “Bibliography” or “References.” Center this title at the top of the page and add two blank lines before the first entry.
• Left-align each entry, with a hanging half-inch indent for subsequent lines of each entry.
• Single-space each entry, with a blank line between entries.
• Include the “http://” or “https://” at the beginning of URLs.

Books and E-Books Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

For books, Chicago -style reference list entries use this format. (For print books, leave off the information about how the book was accessed.)

Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Title . City of Publication: Publisher, Date. How e-book was accessed.

• Wynn, Stephen. City of London at War 1939–45 . Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Military, 2020. Kindle edition.

Periodical Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

For journal and magazine articles, use this format.

Last Name, First Name. Year of Publication. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Journal , Volume Number, issue number, First Page Number–Last Page Number. URL.

• Bell, Amy. 2009. “Landscapes of Fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945.” Journal of British Studies, 48 no. 1, 153–175. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25482966.

When citing newspapers, include the URL for online articles.

Last Name, First Name. Year of Publication. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Newspaper , Month day, year. URL.

• Blakemore, Erin. 2022. “Researchers Track Down Two Copies of Fossil Destroyed by the Nazis.” The Washington Post , November 12, 2022. https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/11/12/ichthyosaur-fossil-images-discovered/.

Electronic Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

Last Name, First Name Middle Name. “Title.” Site Name . Year, Month Day. URL.

• Wukovits, John. “A World War II Survivor Recalls the London Blitz.” British Heritage. 2023, Jan. 30. britishheritage.com/history/world-war-ii-survivor-london-blitz.

“Title.” Site Name . URL. Accessed Day Month Year.

• “Growing Up in the Second World War.” Imperial War Museums . www.iwm.org.uk/history/growing-up-in-the-second-world-war. Accessed May 9, 2023.

Creator or Username. “Title of Video.” Website video, length. Month Day, Year. URL.

• War Stories. “How Did London Survive the Blitz During WW2? | Cities at War: London | War Stories.” YouTube video, 51:25. January 15, 2023. https://youtu.be/uwY6JlCvbxc.

For more information on writing Chicago -style bibliographies, see the Chicago Manual of Style website.

Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Example Pages

Source: Chicago Manual of Style

More Chicago example pages:

• Scribbr Chicago Style Bibliography Example
• Purdue Online Writing Lab CMOS Bibliography Page
• Bibcitation Sample Chicago Bibliography

Now that you know how to write a bibliography, take a look at the Best Websites for Teaching & Learning Writing .

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• Citing a Journal Article in Chicago Style | Format & Examples

Citing a Journal Article in Chicago Style | Format & Examples

Published on May 3, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on December 5, 2022.

Chicago Reference Generator

To cite an online journal article in Chicago notes and bibliography style, list the author’s name, the title of the article, the journal name, volume, issue, and publication date, the page range on which the article appears, and a DOI or URL.

For an article accessed in print, follow the same format and simply omit the DOI or URL. Pay attention to the punctuation (e.g., commas , quotation marks , parentheses ) in your citations and notes.

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Table of contents

Citing an article from a database, journal articles with multiple authors, citing journal articles in chicago author-date style, finding source information for a journal article, frequently asked questions about chicago style citations.

Online articles, including those accessed through databases (e.g., Project MUSE or JSTOR), should generally be cited with a DOI , a link designed to permanently and reliably link to the article. In this case, there’s no need to include the database name.

If no DOI is available, you may include a stable URL or permalink. However, don’t use the URL from your browser’s address bar, as this is usually specific to your login session.

If no DOI or stable URL is available, list the name of the database at the end of your citation instead.

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Journal articles often have multiple authors. Author names should be listed in the order they appear at the head of the article (not in alphabetical order).

In your notes, list up to three authors in full. When there are four or more authors, list only the first, followed by “ et al. ” (Latin for “and others”).

In your Chicago style bibliography , list up to 10 authors in full.

If there are 11 or more authors, list the first seven in the bibliography, followed by “et al.”

In Chicago author-date style , an in-text citation consists of the author’s last name, the year of publication, and a page number.

Each Chicago in-text citation must correspond to an entry in your reference list . This is almost identical to a bibliography entry, except the year comes after the author’s name, and only the month appears in brackets.

Author-date journal citation examples

• Online article
• Article from database
• Print article

The information you need for your citations is usually listed above the article in the database where you found it. The image below shows where to find the relevant information on Project MUSE, for example.

With this information, we can construct our bibliography entry.

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The DOI is usually clearly visible when you open a journal article on an academic database. It is often listed near the publication date, and includes “doi.org” or “DOI:”. If the database has a “cite this article” button, this should also produce a citation with the DOI included.

If you can’t find the DOI, you can search on Crossref using information like the author, the article title, and the journal name.

In Chicago notes and bibliography style , the usual standard is to use a full note for the first citation of each source, and short notes for any subsequent citations of the same source.

However, your institution’s guidelines may differ from the standard rule. In some fields, you’re required to use a full note every time, whereas in some other fields you can use short notes every time, as long as all sources are listed in your bibliography . If you’re not sure, check with your instructor.

Page numbers should be included in your Chicago in-text citations when:

• You’re quoting from the text.
• You’re paraphrasing a particular passage.
• You’re referring to information from a specific section.

When you’re referring to the overall argument or general content of a source, it’s unnecessary to include page numbers.

When a source has four or more authors , your in-text citation or Chicago footnote should give only the first author’s name followed by “ et al. ” (Latin for “and others”). This makes your citations more concise.

In your bibliography or reference list , when a source has more than 10 authors, list the first seven followed by “et al.” Otherwise, list every author.

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If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2022, December 05). Citing a Journal Article in Chicago Style | Format & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 8, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/chicago-style/journal-articles/

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APA Style 7th Edition Tutorials for Students in Psychology and Social Work

What is apa style.

• The Importance of Citing

Why is APA Style needed?

How do i get started with apa style, let us practice what we have learned, attribution and acknowledgement.

• Basics of APA Style Tutorial
• Reference Entry Elements
• Reference Examples
• Reference List
• In-Text Citations
• Student Paper Format
• Managing References - Zotero

Origination of APA Style

• Where did APA Style come from?

Turabian Citation Style Guide 9th Edition: A. Basic Journal Article

• General Guidelines
• A. One Author
• B. Two or Three Authors
• C. More than Three Authors
• D. Chapter in an Edited Book with Multiple Authors
• E. Volume with a Specific Title in a Multi-Volume Work
• F. Organization Author
• G. No Author
• I. Reference Book
• J. Edition other than the First
• A. Basic Journal Article
• B. Journal Article from Online Periodical
• C. Journal Article from Article Database
• D. Magazine Article
• E. Magazine Article from Online Magazine
• F. Newspaper Article
• G. Newspaper Article from an Online Newspaper
• A. Basic Web Page
• B. Web Page No Author
• C. Blog Entries and Comments
• A. Motion Picture
• B. Television and Radio Programs
• A. Image from Electronic Source
• B. Published Photograph
• A. Interviews & Personal Communications
• B. Lectures
• C. Pamphlets, Brochures, & Reports
• D. Scriptural References
• E. Secondary Sources
• F. Government Publications

About Citing Articles

For each type of source in this guide, the general form and specific examples will be provided for both the Notes-Bibliography and the Author-Date style options of Turabian.

This information and several of the examples were drawn from A manual for writers of research papers, theses, and dissertations (9th edition). Numbers in parentheses refer to specific pages in the manual.

For further information, please ask your instructor or refer to the Turabian manual.

DOIs (pp. 141; 148; 220)

A Digital Object Identifier (DOI) is a unique alphanumeric string that is used to identify a certain source (typically journal articles).

Example: doi:10.1080/14622200410001676305

If a DOI is listed on an electronic source it is included in the reference.  When there is a choice between using a DOI or a URL, it is recommended that a DOI be used because they are more stable than most URLs. 

Append the DOI to http://dx.doi.org/ in your citation. In addition, be sure to include that date you accessed the online source according to which style you are using: Bibliography style or Reference List style (p. 141).

For more information on DOIs and how they pertain to journal articles, check out pages 141, 148, and 220 of the Turabian Manual (9th ed.) .

Basic Journal Article

      Bibliographic Entry: ​

       (Bogren 2011, 156)

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• Purdue Owl Chicago Style Information and examples from Purdues Online Writing Lab.
• University of Wisconsin's Writing Center Chicago/Turabian information and examples.
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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Mind to move: Differences in running biomechanics between sensing and intuition shod runners

Contributed equally to this work with: Cyrille Gindre, Aurélien Patoz, Bastiaan Breine, Thibault Lussiana

Roles Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Research and Development Department, Volodalen, Chavéria, France, Research and Development Department, Volodalen SwissSportLab, Aigle, Switzerland, MPFRPV, Université de Franche-Comté, Besançon, France, Exercise Performance Health Innovation (EPHI) Platform, Besançon, France

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations Research and Development Department, Volodalen SwissSportLab, Aigle, Switzerland, Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Research and Development Department, Volodalen SwissSportLab, Aigle, Switzerland, Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

• Cyrille Gindre, 
• Aurélien Patoz, 
• Bastiaan Breine, 
• Thibault Lussiana

• Published: April 3, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300108
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

Delving into the complexities of embodied cognition unveils the intertwined influence of mind, body, and environment. The connection of physical activity with cognition sparks a hypothesis linking motion and personality traits. Hence, this study explored whether personality traits could be linked to biomechanical variables characterizing running forms. To do so, 80 runners completed three randomized 50-m running-trials at 3.3, 4.2, and 5m/s during which their running biomechanics [ground contact time ( t c ), flight time ( t f ), duty factor (DF), step frequency (SF), leg stiffness ( k leg ), maximal vertical ground reaction force ( F max ), and maximal leg compression of the spring during stance (Δ L )] was evaluated. In addition, participants’ personality traits were assessed through the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) test. The MBTI classifies personality traits into one of two possible categories along four axes: extraversion-introversion; sensing-intuition; thinking-feeling; and judging-perceiving. This exploratory study offers compelling evidence that personality traits, specifically sensing and intuition, are associated with distinct running biomechanics. Individuals classified as sensing demonstrated a more grounded running style characterized by prolonged t c , shorter t f , higher DF, and greater Δ L compared to intuition individuals ( p ≤0.02). Conversely, intuition runners exhibited a more dynamic and elastic running style with a shorter t c and higher k leg than their sensing counterparts ( p ≤0.02). Post-hoc tests revealed a significant difference in t c between intuition and sensing runners at all speeds ( p ≤0.02). According to the definition of each category provided by the MBTI, sensing individuals tend to focus on concrete facts and physical realities while intuition individuals emphasize abstract concepts and patterns of information. These results suggest that runners with sensing and intuition personality traits differ in their ability to use their lower limb structures as springs. Intuition runners appeared to rely more in the stretch-shortening cycle to energetically optimize their running style while sensing runners seemed to optimize running economy by promoting more forward progression than vertical oscillations. This study underscores the intriguing interplay between personality traits of individuals and their preferred movement patterns.

Citation: Gindre C, Patoz A, Breine B, Lussiana T (2024) Mind to move: Differences in running biomechanics between sensing and intuition shod runners. PLoS ONE 19(4): e0300108. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300108

Editor: Yaodong Gu, Ningbo University, CHINA

Received: November 7, 2023; Accepted: February 21, 2024; Published: April 3, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Gindre et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: The datasets for this study are freely available using the access link https://github.com/aurelienPatoz/we-run-the-way-we-are .

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: No authors have competing interests.

Introduction

Embodied cognition, a compelling theoretical framework in cognitive science, challenges conventional notions that divorce the mind from the body [ 1 ]. This paradigm asserts a symbiotic relationship between cognitive processes and the physical body, underscoring the significance of sensory and motor experiences in shaping mental functions [ 2 ]. Unlike traditional views that confine cognition to the brain, embodied cognition recognizes the profound impact of the body’s interactions with the environment on cognitive phenomena [ 3 ]. This approach emphasizes both bottom-up processes, where sensory information informs cognitive processes, and top-down influences, where higher-order cognitive functions shape our perception and interaction with the world.

Exploring the intricate dynamics of embodied cognition sheds light on the reciprocal influence between the mind, body, and the vibrant world they jointly navigate. For example, an investigation revealed that the extraverted-introverted continuum influences upright posture, with 96% of extraverted individuals maintaining an “ideally aligned” posture, while 83% of introverted individuals exhibit a kyphosis-lordosis posture [ 4 ]. Furthermore, higher levels of extraversion and conscientiousness have been linked to increased physical activity levels [ 5 ] and to faster walking speeds [ 6 , 7 ], suggesting that the way individuals move may reflect their underlying personality traits. Conscientiousness, notably, has shown the capacity to mitigate the age-related decline in walking speed [ 6 , 8 ]. Research has also uncovered that personality traits manifest in an individual’s walking gait [ 9 ]. For instance, it was observed that greater pelvis motion in the horizontal plane during walking is associated with greater agreeableness in females, while, for males, greater thorax motion in the horizontal plane is linked with extraversion [ 9 ]. Since there were no significant distinctions in the horizontal motion of the thorax and pelvis between females and males, these correlations might be influenced by individual personalities, thus removing the influence of gender [ 9 ]. In a recent development, machine learning techniques were employed with notable accuracy to assess personality traits through the analysis of gait recorded using videos [ 10 ] or smartphone sensors [ 11 ].

Extending this line of inquiry into the realm of running, research on middle-aged male runners has identified common personality profiles and associated positive self-perception with long-term involvement in running and training [ 12 ]. Runners demonstrated heightened intelligence, creativity, self-sufficiency, sobriety, and forthrightness compared to the general population, embodying traits of introversion, shyness, and a propensity for imaginative pursuits in their personality composition [ 13 ]. Besides, a prospective study found that runners with high scores on the type A behaviour (characterized by agitation, hostility, rapid speech, and an extremely competitive nature) screening questionnaire experienced significantly more injuries, especially multiple injuries [ 14 ]. Nonetheless, limited information on the personality of recreational runners is available, primarily derived from older studies, and to the best of the author’s knowledge, with no recent research on this topic. This underscores the imperative for contemporary, original research specifically addressing the personality traits of recreational runners [ 15 ].

Personality traits could be effectively classified into one of two possible categories along various axes using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) test, a tool rooted in Jungʼs psychology [ 16 ]. Notably, there is no superior category in each MBTI axis. Additionally, recent research suggested that the duty factor (DF) plays a pivotal role in illustrating two distinct spontaneous running forms in recreational runners, i.e., runners with either low or high DF [ 17 , 18 ]. DF represents the proportion of time spent in contact with the ground during a running stride and could be considered as a global variable to describe the running pattern. Both running forms (low or high DF runners) could be efficiently employed at endurance running speeds, leading to similar running economy measures [ 17 ]. Low DF runners were shown to exhibit a shorter contact time ( t c ), larger vertical oscillation of the center of mass during flight time ( t f ), and more anterior (midfoot and forefoot) strike pattern, favoring elastic energy reuse. Conversely, high DF runners demonstrated a longer t c , more rearfoot strike pattern, and reduced work against gravity to promote forward progression. Similarly, decreasing and increasing t c could represent two opposing yet efficient strategies for enhancing running economy [ 19 , 20 ]. The first strategy involves an increase in vertical stiffness to improve running economic [ 19 ] while the second strategy posits that generating force over a longer period might be more economical [ 20 ]. Consequently, one may contemplate whether each of these running strategies could be associated with a specific personality trait category.

In the present study, we delve into the intriguing realm of embodied cognition by exploring whether an intricate connection could exist between personality traits and the spontaneous running patterns of shod runners. Indeed, the aim of this study was to explore whether the two categories of personality traits within the various MBTI axes could be linked to biomechanical variables that characterize two distinct running forms naturally embraced by individuals. This exploration should shed light on the complex relationship between the mind and motion. We hypothesized that personality traits would demonstrate association with spontaneous running patterns.

Materials and methods

Participants.

Eighty recreational endurance runners with regular running training, 67 males (age: 29.3 ± 11.1 years, height: 178.2 ± 6.4 cm, body mass: 72.0 ± 8.5 kg, and weekly running hours: 6.4 ± 3.8 h/week) and 13 females (age: 29.8 ± 11.6 years, height: 167.2 ± 6.9 cm, body mass: 60.8 ± 9.1 kg, and weekly running hours: 8.5 ± 7.8 h/week), participated in this study. All runners identified as Caucasians. To ensure diverse participation in the study, we sought a heterogeneous panel of runners with varying training backgrounds. Consequently, participants were only mandated to run a minimum of one hour per week and maintain good self-reported general health, without any current or recent (<6 months) musculoskeletal injuries. However, nothing specific about their spontaneous running pattern such as their foot-strike pattern was required because the running pattern is assumed to be a global system with several interconnected variables [ 17 , 18 , 21 , 22 ]. All participants completed the study on a voluntary basis. The university’s institutional review board (Comité de Protection des Personnes Est 1 (CPP EST 1) approved the protocol prior to participant recruitment (ID RCB 2014-A00336-41), and the study was conducted in accordance with the latest amendments of the Declaration of Helsinki. Participants were recruited between the September 1 st and November 30 th of 2014. Each participant underwent two experimental sessions within one week: a running biomechanical analysis during the first session, and a personality traits assessment during the second one. All participants wore their habitual running shoes during the biomechanical analysis.

Assessment of biomechanical variables

After providing written informed consent, participants performed a 10-min warm-up run at a self-selected speed (range: 2.5–3.5 m/s) on an indoor athletic track. Subsequently, participants completed three randomized 50-m running-trials at speeds of 3.3, 4.2, and 5 m/s starting from a standing-still position (2-min rest period between trials). These running speeds were chosen because they represent the 10-km race pace of most of endurance runners [ 23 ]. Speed was monitored using photoelectric cells (Racetime2, MicroGate, Timing and Sport, Bolzano, Italy) placed at the 20 and 40-m marks. No participants showed difficulty in running at the requested paces. A running trial was accepted if the monitored speed was within ± 5% of the requested speed and repeated otherwise after a 2-min rest period. Less than 15% of the trials were discarded. The Optojump ® photoelectric cells (MicroGate Timing and Sport, Bolzano, Italy) were used to measure t c (in ms) and t f (in ms) between the 20 and 40-m marks. The cells consist of two parallel bars which were set 1 m apart and were connected to a personal computer. One bar acts as a transmitter unit containing light emitting diodes positioned 3 mm above the ground, whereas the other bar acts as the receiver unit. When the light is interrupted by an individual’s foot during running, a timer within the Optojump system records time with a precision of 1 ms (sampling frequency of 1000 Hz). This allows measuring t c as the time that the light is interrupted and t f as the time between interruptions. As for each participant, the average value over the 20-m distance was computed for t c and t f and used in what follows. The test-retest reliability of the Optojump system was demonstrated to be excellent, with low coefficients of variation (2.7%) and high intraclass correlation coefficients (range: 0.982 to 0.989) [ 24 ].

Assessment of personality traits

Based on the answers to 93 questions, the MBTI classifies personality traits into one of two possible categories along four axes: extraversion-introversion (favorite world); sensing-intuition (information processing preference); thinking-feeling (decision making); and judging-perceiving (structure). Together, these axes influence how an individual perceives a situation and decides on a course of action. The MBTI has demonstrated excellent stability with test-retest correlations between 0.83 and 0.97 over a 4-week interval, exceeding the stability of many established trait measures, and between 0.77 and 0.84 over a 9-month interval [ 29 ]. Moreover, each dichotomy showed an agreement of 84 to 96% over 4 weeks, with a median agreement of 90% [ 16 ]. Given potential context-dependent results of the MBTI [ 29 ], the personality traits of participants were reassessed through a face-to-face meeting lasting approximately one hour, conducted by an MBTI-certified practitioner, to ensure data quality.

Sample size calculations determined that 80 participants were required for this study, assuming moderate effect sizes (~0.5) for biomechanical differences between MBTI axes, an α error of 0.05, and a power of 0.8 [ 30 ] and was obtained using G*Power (v3.1, available at https://www.psychologie.hhu.de/arbeitsgruppen/allgemeine-psychologie-und-arbeitspsychologie/gpower ) [ 31 ]. Descriptive statistics are presented as mean ± standard deviation. Data normality and homogeneity of variance were evaluated using Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Levene’s tests, respectively. Participant characteristics were compared along each MBTI axis using ANOVA and non-parametric ANOVA when data normality was not verified. Repeated-measures ANOVA (speed x MBTI axes) with Mauchly’s correction for sphericity and employing Holm corrections for pair-wise post-hoc comparisons were used to investigate the effect of each MBTI axis on the biomechanical variables ( t c , t f , DF, SF, k leg , F max , and Δ L ) while accounting for the effect of running speed. 95% confidence intervals [lower, upper] of mean differences (Δs) were calculated for each significant post-hoc comparison along the MBTI axes. Cohen’s d effect sizes were calculated for participant characteristics along the four MBTI axes and for each significant post-hoc comparison. Effect sizes were classified as small , moderate , or large based on the magnitude of d values (0.2, 0.5, and 0.8, respectively) [ 32 ]. Statistical analysis was conducted using Jamovi (v1.6.23, available at https://www.jamovi.org ), with significance set at α ≤ 0.05.

Classifications of participants along the four MBTI axes are reported in Table 1 . Normality and homogeneity of variance were verified for age, height, body mass, and weekly running hours ( p ≥ 0.07; Table 1 ) except for age and weekly running hours which were not normally distributed ( p ≤ 0.04; Table 1 ). ANOVA and non-parametric ANOVA results indicated no main effect of the MBTI axes on age, height, body mass, and weekly running hours ( p ≥ 0.07; Table 1 ), suggesting that these characteristics were similar across each MBTI axis. Effect sizes were small for age, height, body mass, and weekly running hours between the categories of each MBTI axis (| d | ≤ 0.27; Table 1 ), except for weekly running hours of the extraversion-introversion axis, and height and body mass of the thinking-feeling axis which were moderate (0.40 ≤ | d | ≤ 0.66; Table 1 ).

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Significant differences ( p ≤ 0.05) are indicated in bold. Participant characteristics along each MBTI axis were compared using ANOVA and non-parametric ANOVA when data normality was not verified. Data normality and homogeneity of variance were evaluated using Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Levene’s tests, respectively.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300108.t001

Data normality and homogeneity of variance of the biomechanical variables were all verified ( p ≥ 0.07; Table 2 ).

No significant difference was reported ( p > 0.05).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300108.t002

A speed x sensing-intuition axis interaction effect was observed for t c ( p = 0.02), with no other significant interaction effects reported (other interactions: p ≥ 0.06). Pair-wise post-hoc comparisons revealed significantly shorter t c for intuition runners compared to sensing runners at all running speeds examined ( p ≤ 0.02; Fig 1a ) with moderate to large effect sizes (0.73 ≤ d ≤ 1.02).

a , contact time ( t c ); b , flight time ( t f ); c , duty factor (DF). Intuition runners (blue symbols; left side) exhibited shorter t c ( p = 0.002), longer t f ( p < 0.001), and lower DF ( p < 0.001) than sensing runners (red symbols; right side). A significant speed x sensing-intuition axis interaction effect was observed for t c ( p = 0.02). * Significantly shorter t c for intuition than sensing runners, as reported by the pair-wise post-hoc comparisons ( p ≤ 0.02). Empty circles denote the data of each participant.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300108.g001

The sensing-intuition axis reported significant differences among the biomechanical variables, leading to sensing runners showing a longer t c (Δ = 13 ms [5 ms, 21 ms]; p = 0.002; small effect size; d = 0.44), shorter t f (Δ = -16 ms [-22 ms, -10 ms]; p < 0.001; moderate effect size; d = -0.73), higher DF (Δ = 2.1% [1.3%, 2.9%]; p < 0.001; moderate effect size; d = 0.66), smaller k leg (Δ = -1.1 kN [-1.5 kN, -0.7 kN]; p = 0.01; moderate effect size; d = -0.68), and larger Δ L (Δ = 1.4 cm [0.7 cm, 2.1 cm]; p = 0.02; moderate effect size; d = 0.55) than intuition runners ( Fig 1 and Table 3 ). The other three axes did not report any significant differences among the biomechanical variables ( p ≥ 0.09).

Significant sensing-intuition axis effects ( p ≤ 0.05) identified by the two-way repeated measures ANOVA are indicated in bold.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300108.t003

All the biomechanical variables investigated herein ( t c , t f , DF, SF, k leg , F max , and Δ L ) reported a significant running speed effect ( p ≤ 0.02), where t c and DF decreased with increasing speed while t f , SF, k leg , F max , and Δ L increased with increasing running speed.

In this exploratory study, we delved into the relationship between personality traits, as determined by the MBTI and the biomechanical characteristics of runners. On the one hand, our findings revealed distinct differences in running biomechanics between "sensing" and "intuition" runners, supporting our initial hypothesis. Sensing runners adopted a grounded running form characterized by several key biomechanical attributes. They exhibited longer t c , shorter t f , higher DF, and larger Δ L compared to intuition runners. In essence, sensing runners seemed to favor a more earthbound running style. Conversely, intuition runners demonstrated a more dynamic and elastic running form. They displayed shorter t c and larger k leg than their sensing counterparts, indicating a propensity to harness the stretch-shortening cycle and utilize their lower limb structures as efficient springs during each stride. On the other hand, no association was found between running biomechanics and the remaining three MBTI axes, contradicting our initial hypothesis.

Based on the biomechanical variables observed herein (main effect for t c , t f , DF, Δ L , and k leg : p ≤ 0.02, Fig 1 and Table 1 ), sensing runners preferentially adopt a running form that favors a larger forward displacement during t c and smaller vertical displacement of the center of mass during t f compared to intuition runners. In terms of energetics, sensing runners would optimize running economy by promoting forward progression rather than vertical oscillations of the center of mass [ 17 ]. This forward progression strategy characterizes terrestrial runners [ 33 ] as well as high DF runners [ 17 , 18 ]. The linearity of the force-length relationship was shown to significantly decrease with increasing DF, suggesting a lower utilization of the spring-mass model with increasing DF [ 34 ]. These terrestrial and high DF runners were also characterized by an accentuated lower limb flexion during t c and a rearfoot strike pattern [ 17 , 18 , 33 ]. Sensing runners might describe their running form as: “I run very close to the ground to save as much energy as possible”. These individuals, according to the definition provided by the MBTI, should pay attention to physical realities and prefer practical and specific facts, preferably something they could perceive with their physical senses [ 16 , 35 ]. Hence, individuals with a more grounded running form should focus on practical facts (sensing individuals). The "physical contact" down-to-earth aspect of this personality trait seems to be reflected in both the mind and running form of sensing runners.

In contrast, intuition runners preferentially run with a larger vertical displacement of their center of mass during t f than sensing runners. The more elastic running form of intuition than sensing runners, along with their larger k leg , suggested that the re-use of elastic energy was an inherent feature of intuition runners. These individuals were better able to use their lower limb structures as springs, representing one of the multiple functional roles of the musculoskeletal system [ 36 ]. In other words, intuition runners promote the re-use of elastic energy (spring-mass model) and rely on the stretch-shortening cycle to optimize their running economy [ 17 ]. The greater reliance on the spring-mass model was a characteristic of the aerial running form [ 33 ] as well as of low DF runners [ 17 , 18 ]. These aerial and low DF runners were also characterized by an extended lower limb during t c and a forefoot/midfoot strike pattern [ 17 , 18 , 33 ]. Intuition runners might describe their running form as: “I spend energy to fight against gravity because I can use my leg springs to recover energy from each step”. These individuals, according to the definition provided by the MBTI, should pay attention to the meaning and patterns of information, prefer abstract concepts and theories, and make unconscious connections across their disciplines of knowledge [ 16 , 35 ]. Hence, individuals with a more dynamic and elastic running form should focus on abstract things (intuition individuals). While this specific study did not permit drawing causal or predictive conclusions, it highlights the fascinating interaction between an individual’s personality traits and their preferred movement patterns.

Importantly, our study noted that age, height, mass, and weekly running hours did not significantly differ between sensing and intuition runners ( p ≥ 0.07), removing potential confounding variables in our analysis [ 37 , 38 ]. However, it is worth noting that further investigations could explore whether differences in lower limb anatomy, such as tendon length or heel structure, might contribute to these observed biomechanical distinctions. Indeed, tendons and smaller moment arms of the Achilles tendon better support the elastic strategy than muscles and longer moment arms [ 39 ]. In addition, larger thickness and cross-sectional area of both the Achilles tendon and plantar fascia resulted in lower DF in barefoot running [ 40 ]. Hence, such investigations might reveal thicker and slenderer lower limbs, as well as shorter heels in intuition than sensing runners. This preliminary study has raised further questions about potential interactions between body morphology, movement preferences, and personality traits. Besides, given that DF is associated with foot-strike pattern, the degree of lower limb flexion during stance, and external forces [ 17 , 18 , 34 , 41 ], it would be valuable for future studies to investigate the connection between personality traits and these additional biomechanical variables.

It was previously demonstrated that the biomechanical characteristics of aerial and terrestrial running forms relate to feelings of pleasure-displeasure [ 42 ]. Ratings of pleasure-displeasure in runners change according to external variables, e.g., running speed. Feelings of pleasure are positively impacted in runners in situations where they are more biomechanically efficient, i.e., individuals with shorter t c and longer t f prefer running at faster speeds. As locomotion performance reflects trade-offs between different aspects of an individual’s biomechanics and environmental conditions [ 43 ], and that these aspects are linked with feelings of pleasure-displeasure, we could expect that intuition and sensing runners would take more pleasure at faster and slower running speeds, respectively. This assumption aligns with the MBTI description of both personality traits, where intuitive individuals are described as people living in the fast world of future possibilities, and sensing individuals as people living in the slow world of concrete things [ 16 ]. With such an integrative perspective that considers an individual’s movement patterns and environmental conditions, we can speculate that sensing and intuition runners would prefer different environments, supporting the theoretical framework of embodied cognition [ 2 , 3 ]. For instance, intuition runners may lean towards shorter and faster running events, opt for harder running surfaces, and favor more minimalist running shoes, whereas sensing runners may gravitate towards longer and slower running events, softer surfaces, and opt for more cushioned running shoes, reflecting their potential connection to DF and, consequently, the intuition-sensing personality. The assumption about the choice of running shoes is in line with previous observations that runners who have attempted barefoot running tend to be more open and less conscientious than shod runners [ 44 ]. Future work may further explore the interaction between personality traits, running biomechanics, and several environmental variables, including ground surface, running speed, and running footwear.

Notwithstanding, understanding the connections between personality traits and movement holds potential public health implications. Indeed, tailoring physical interventions through suitable exercises and instructions could mitigate non-adherence [ 45 ] and variability in responses [ 46 ] to a running training program in the context of a modern sedentary lifestyle. The disparities in running biomechanics associated with sensing and intuition personality traits might result in distinct injury locations or different underlying causes for a given injury. This suggests the need for tailored rehabilitation treatments, as previously advocated [ 47 ]. These observations partially align with findings from a prospective study, indicating that runners characterized by agitation, hostility, rapid speech, and an extremely competitive nature (Type A behavior) encountered significantly more injuries, particularly multiple injuries [ 14 ].

A few limitations to the present study exist. First, no causal or predictive conclusions could be drawn using this specific study’s design, but this study provides valuable information about personality traits and running forms. Then, even though runners were shown to demonstrate their most valid biomechanical running characteristics at their preferred running speed [ 48 ], biomechanical variables were evaluated at fixed running speeds to allow us comparing these variables between individuals. Besides, the MBTI validity has been questioned [ 49 ] and is regarded as a controversial approach [ 50 ], with psychometric limitations [ 51 , 52 ]. Nevertheless, this tool is still the most widely used personality assessment in the world [ 29 , 35 ]. Moreover, MBTI correlates well with the Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness (NEO) Personality Inventory, another widely used personality assessment tool that examines the Big Five personality traits [ 53 , 54 ] and MBTI has been utilized, though several decades ago, to assess personality traits in middle-age male runners [ 12 ]. The MBTI was preferred over the Big Five in the present study due to its nuanced nature. The MBTI assigns a personality trait among two distinct categories for each axis, as opposed to the Big Five, which merely indicates the absence or presence of a given personality trait. As researchers, we assert that the Big Five tends to involve value judgments, whereas the MBTI assigns one of two possible personality traits to each axis without implying superiority for either. Next, several factors, such as emotion, mood, or facial expression, which were not measured herein, might have partly confounded the results of the present study. For instance, Williams, Exell [ 55 ] reported that sadness might increase running asymmetry while anger might facilitate symmetry and Brick, McElhinney [ 56 ] showed that oxygen consumption was lower when smiling than frowning during running and perceived effort was higher when frowning than smiling. However, to the best of authors knowledge, there was no direct scientific evidence that these factors could influence the biomechanical variables measured herein. Moreover, the present study did not account for sex distinctions. Despite utilizing a relatively large sample size ( n = 80), the decision was made not to differentiate between males ( n = 67) and females ( n = 13) to maintain simplicity and ensure an easily comprehensible manuscript, additionally given that separating the genders would have compromised statistical power. Nevertheless, future investigations should prioritize exploring the influence of sex when analyzing the connection between personality traits and running patterns, considering the demonstrated but subtle differences in personality types between males and females [ 57 ]. Furthermore, participants wore their own running shoes during testing, which could be confounding our results. Given that differences in footwear characteristics can underpin differences in running biomechanics [ 58 – 62 ], using a standardized shoe might have led to different study outcomes in terms of running biomechanics. Nonetheless, recreational runners are more comfortable wearing their own shoes [ 63 ], and show individual responses to novel footwear [ 63 , 64 ] and cushioning properties [ 65 ]. Finally, this study did not measure the foot-strike pattern of participants, despite existing biomechanical variations reported among different patterns [ 66 , 67 ]. Notably, forefoot and midfoot strikers exhibited significantly shorter contact times t c compared to heel strikers [ 68 ]. However, it’s crucial to recognize that the foot-strike pattern is just one element within the broader running pattern, encompassing various interconnected variables [ 17 , 18 , 21 , 22 ]. Considering this, runners with a more grounded running form, and associated with sensing personality trait, should exhibit a more rearfoot strike pattern because of the longer t c , while those with a more dynamic and elastic form, often associated with intuition personality trait, should demonstrate a more forefoot/midfoot strike pattern due to the shorter t c . Nevertheless, this statement requires validation through future research.

Conclusions

This exploratory study offers compelling evidence that personality traits, specifically sensing and intuition, are associated with distinct running biomechanics. Sensing runners, who pay attention to physical realities and prefer practical and specific facts, tend to adopt a more grounded running form associated with longer t c , shorter t f , higher DF, and larger Δ L than intuition runners. On the contrary, intuition runners, who prefer abstract concepts and theories, and make unconscious connections across their disciplines of knowledge, tend to opt for a more dynamic and elastic running form with shorter t c and larger k leg than sensing runners.

Supporting information

S1 file. personal protection committee est i..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300108.s001

Acknowledgments

We thank Dr. Jean-Denis Rouillon and Prof. Laurent Mourot (University of Franche-Comté) for initiating this study. We also thank Dr. Kim Hébert-Losier (University of Waikato, New Zealand) for useful discussions and comments on the manuscript. We thank Stephanie Giordano Assante (MBTI certified practitioner) for the assessment of the personality traits of participants. We are grateful to the many volunteer runners who participated in this experiment.

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