rock cycle short essay

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

The rock cycle.

The rock cycle is a series of processes that create and transform the types of rocks in Earth’s crust.

Chemistry, Earth Science, Geology

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There are three main types of rocks: sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic. Each of these rocks are formed by physical changes—such as melting , cooling , eroding, compacting , or deforming —that are part of the rock cycle . Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary rocks are formed from pieces of other existing rock or organic material. There are three different types of sedimentary rocks: clastic , organic (biological), and chemical . Clastic sedimentary rocks, like sandstone, form from clasts, or pieces of other rock. Organic sedimentary rocks, like coal, form from hard, biological materials like plants, shells, and bones that are compressed into rock. The formation of clastic and organic rocks begins with the weathering , or breaking down, of the exposed rock into small fragments. Through the process of erosion , these fragments are removed from their source and transported by wind, water, ice, or biological activity to a new location. Once the sediment settles somewhere, and enough of it collects, the lowest layers become compacted so tightly that they form solid rock. Chemical sedimentary rocks, like limestone, halite, and flint, form from chemical precipitation. A chemical precipitate is a chemical compound—for instance, calcium carbonate, salt, and silica—that forms when the solution it is dissolved in, usually water, evaporates and leaves the compound behind. This occurs as water travels through Earth’s crust, weathering the rock and dissolving some of its minerals, transporting it elsewhere. These dissolved minerals are precipitated when the water evaporates. Metamorphic Rocks Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed from their original form by immense heat or pressure. Metamorphic rocks have two classes: foliated and nonfoliated. When a rock with flat or elongated minerals is put under immense pressure, the minerals line up in layers, creating foliation . Foliation is the aligning of elongated or platy minerals, like hornblende or mica, perpendicular to the direction of pressure that is applied. An example of this transformation can be seen with granite, an igneous rock . Granite contains long and platy minerals that are not initially aligned, but when enough pressure is added, those minerals shift to all point in the same direction while getting squeezed into flat sheets. When granite undergoes this process, like at a tectonic plate boundary, it turns into gneiss (pronounced “nice”). Nonfoliated rocks are formed the same way, but they do not contain the minerals that tend to line up under pressure and thus do not have the layered appearance of foliated rocks. Sedimentary rocks like bituminous coal, limestone, and sandstone, given enough heat and pressure, can turn into nonfoliated metamorphic rocks like anthracite coal, marble, and quartzite. Nonfoliated rocks can also form by metamorphism, which happens when magma comes in contact with the surrounding rock. Igneous Rocks Igneous rocks (derived from the Latin word for fire) are formed when molten hot material cools and solidifies. Igneous rocks can also be made a couple of different ways. When they are formed inside of the earth, they are called intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rocks. If they are formed outside or on top of Earth’s crust, they are called extrusive, or volcanic, igneous rocks. Granite and diorite are examples of common intrusive rocks. They have a coarse texture with large mineral grains, indicating that they spent thousands or millions of years cooling down inside the earth, a time course that allowed large mineral crystals to grow. Alternatively, rocks like basalt and obsidian have very small grains and a relatively fine texture. This happens because when magma erupts into lava, it cools more quickly than it would if it stayed inside the earth, giving crystals less time to form. Obsidian cools into volcanic glass so quickly when ejected that the grains are impossible to see with the naked eye. Extrusive igneous rocks can also have a vesicular, or “holey” texture. This happens when the ejected magma still has gases inside of it so when it cools, the gas bubbles are trapped and end up giving the rock a bubbly texture. An example of this would be pumice.

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The Rock Cycle – Diagram and Explanation   Recently updated !

The rock cycle is the natural, continuous process that forms, breaks down, and reforms rock through geological, chemical, and physical processes. Through the cycle, rocks convert between igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary forms. It is a dynamic system that recycles Earth’s materials in different forms, from molten magma deep below the surface to solid rock formations and sediments. Understanding the rock cycle is not only crucial for geologists but also provides insight into Earth’s history, climate change, and the availability of natural resources.

Importance of the Rock Cycle

The rock cycle is an integral aspect of Earth sciences that sheds light on Earth’s age, history, and the forces that shape it. Understanding the rock cycle is key to discerning how rocks change forms, contributing to soil fertility, and providing resources like minerals and fossil fuels. It also has practical applications in industries like construction, where rock characteristics must be understood for structural integrity.

Types of Rocks

The three types of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks:

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of molten magma or lava. They have a crystalline structure.

• Intrusive Igneous Rocks : These rocks form when magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s crust , allowing for larger crystals to develop. Examples include granite, which is commonly used in countertops and is known for its coarse-grained structure.
• Extrusive Igneous Rocks : These rocks form when lava erupts from a volcano and cools quickly on Earth’s surface. This rapid cooling results in small or even microscopic crystals. Basalt is a common extrusive rock often found in oceanic crust.

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks form through the layering, compression, and cementation of mineral and organic matter. These rocks often have a layered appearance and are softer than most igneous and metamorphic rocks.

• Clastic Sedimentary Rocks : These rocks, such as sandstone and shale, form from the mechanical breakdown of other rocks and are classified by grain size and composition.
• Organic Sedimentary Rocks : Limestone and coal are examples of organic sedimentary rocks. Limestone typically comes from shells and skeletal fragments of marine organisms, while coal forms from the accumulation of plant debris.
• Chemical Sedimentary Rocks : Halite and gypsum are examples of rocks formed through evaporation or chemical reactions. Halite, or rock salt, forms when saltwater evaporates, while gypsum forms in various evaporative contexts including desert ponds and lake beds.

Metamorphic Rocks

Subjecting either igneous or sedimentary rocks to high heat and pressure alters their physical or chemical composition, forming metamorphic rocks .

• Foliated Metamorphic Rocks : These rocks, like slate and schist, have a layered or banded appearance from exposure to heat and directed pressure.
• Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks : These rocks lack layers. Examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks include marble and quartzite. Marble forms from the metamorphism of limestone, while quartzite forms from the metamorphism of quartz sandstone.

Steps of the Rock Cycle

Molten rock called magma is the source material for rocks. Igneous rocks form both under the surface and above it when magma becomes lava. Heat and pressure changes igneous and sedimentary rocks into metamorphic rocks. Erosion and weathering break igneous and sedimentary rocks up, which compact into sedimentary rocks. Sediments from organic sources also contribute to sedimentary rocks. Tectonic forces drive some rocks back below the surface, where they can change forms or melt and become magma once again.

Melting : Rocks beneath Earth’s crust melt due to high pressure and temperature, forming magma.

Cooling and Solidification : Magma cools and solidifies either beneath the Earth’s surface (intrusive) or upon reaching the surface as lava through volcanic activity (extrusive). Magma and lava form igneous rocks.

Mechanical and Chemical Weathering : Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks on Earth’s surface undergo mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition.

Erosion : Natural forces like wind, water, and ice erode rocks. Temperature changes also play a role, making rocks expand and contract and sometimes break.

Deposition : Eroded materials from all rock types as well as organic sources settle in basins.

Compaction and Cementation : Layers of sediment are compacted and cemented together, forming sedimentary rocks.

Heat and Pressure : Existing rocks undergo changes in physical or chemical composition due to high heat and pressure, leading to the formation of metamorphic rocks.

Remelting : Metamorphic rocks may melt again, forming magma, and the cycle continues.

Forces Driving the Rock Cycle

Several forces driving the rock cycle, including internal forces within the Earth, surface actions, and even gravity:

Earth’s Internal Heat

• Radioactive Decay : The decay of radioactive isotopes like uranium provides heat, facilitating the melting of rocks.
• The Earth’s surface cools magma and lava, forming rocks. Seasonal changes and variations due to latitude cause temperature stresses in rocks and impact the rate at which weathering occurs.

Tectonic Forces

• Subduction Zones : Subduction zones occur where tectonic plates meet and one gets pushed beneath another, leading to high heat and pressure.
• Rift Zones : Plates moving apart form spreading rift zones that allow magma to rise, creating new crust.

Surface Processes

• Weathering Agents : Water, ice, and wind play roles in mechanical weathering.
• Chemical Agents : Acid rain and oxidization cause chemical weathering. Water dissolves soluble compounds.

Gravitational Forces

• Gravity : Aids in the settling of sedimentary particles during the deposition phase.
• Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. (1996). Petrology; Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic (2nd ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-2438-3.
• Bucher, Kurt; Grapes, Rodney (2011). Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks . Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-74169-5.
• Plummer, Charles; McGeary, David; Carlson, Diane (2005). Physical Geology . Mc Graw Hill. ISBN 0-07-293353-4.
• Vigneresse, Jean Louis; Barbey, Pierre; Cuney, Michel (1996). “Rheological Transitions During Partial Melting and Crystallization with Application to Felsic Magma Segregation and Transfer”. Journal of Petrology . 37 (6): 1579–1600. doi: 10.1093/petrology/37.6.1579
• Wyllie, Peter J. (August 1988). “Magma Genesis, Plate Tectonics, and Chemical Differentiation of the Earth”. Reviews of Geophysics . 26 (3): 370–404. doi: 10.1029/RG026i003p00370

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Understanding Global Change

Discover why the climate and environment changes, your place in the Earth system, and paths to a resilient future.

The rock cycle describes the processes through which the three main rock types (igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary) transform from one type into another. The formation, movement and transformation of rocks results from Earth’s internal heat , pressure from tectonic processes , and the effects of water , wind , gravity, and biological (including human) activities.  The texture, structure, and composition of a rock indicate the conditions under which it formed and tell us about the history of the Earth.

On this page:

What is the rock cycle, earth system model of the rock cycle, explore the earth system, links to learn more.

For the classroom:

• Teaching Resources

Global Change Infographic

The rock cycle is an essential part of How the Earth System Works.  Click the image on the left to open the Understanding Global Change Infographic . Locate the rock cycle icon and identify other Earth system processes and phenomena that cause changes to, or are affected by, the rock cycle.

Rocks can be: (1) made of minerals, each of which has a specific crystal structure and chemical composition; (2) made of pieces of other rocks; (3) glassy (like obsidian); or, (4) contain material made by living organisms (for example coal, which contains carbon from plants). Different types of rocks form in Earth’s different environments at or below the Earth’s surface. For example, igneous rocks form when molten rock from the mantle or within the crust (see plate tectonics ) cools and either hardens slowly underground (e.g., granite), or hardens quickly if it erupts from a volcano (e.g., basalt). Rocks that experience sufficient heat and pressure within the Earth, without melting, transform into metamorphic rocks.  Rock exposed by mountain building or even modest uplift weathers and erodes and the resulting sediments can form sedimentary rocks. The formation and transformation of the various rock types can take many paths through the rock cycle depending on environmental conditions, as shown in the diagram below.

A simplified diagram of the rock cycle highlighting some of the UGC concepts related to this process

Molten lava cooling to form igneous rocks forming in Hawai’i National Park (left) metamorphic rocks in Death Valley National Park (right). Source: NPS Igneous Rocks and NPS Metamorphic Rocks

The rock cycle is affected by various human activities and environmental phenomena, including:

Sedimentary rocks along the California coast. Source: Explore Sediments Story Map

• The Earth’s internal heat and pressure, which can cause rock to melt completely or transform it into a metamorphic rock.
• The uplift of land caused by tectonic processes , which exposes rock that was underground to weathering and erosion .
• The rate of weathering, which is affected by climatic conditions such as precipitation and temperature . The rate at which the chemical reactions of weathering break down minerals often increases in the presence of water and under warmer temperatures. Plant growth , especially roots can physically break up rocks and also change the environmental chemistry (for example, increase acidity), increasing the rate of chemical weathering. In turn, the kind of rock that is weathered determines soil quality , nutrient levels (especially nitrogen and phosphorus levels), and local biodiversity .
• Rates of erosion caused by water , wind , ice , or gravity, which are driven by the water cycle, atmospheric and ocean circulation patterns, and regional topography (the structure of the landscape).
• The size and depth of the bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers, or the ocean, where sediment is deposited. Slower rates of water flow lead to the deposition of finer grained sediments and to slower rates of deposition.
• The extraction of rocks and fossil fuels , which in turn can destabilize soils , increase erosion , and decrease water quality by increasing sediment and pollutants in rivers and streams.
• Urbanization , which involves paving land with concrete, which can increase water runoff, increasing erosion and decreasing soil quality in the surrounding areas.
• Hydraulic fracking to remove oil and gas, which uses water, sand, and chemicals to create new or expand existing cracks in rocks that allow oil and gas to flow into drill holes for extraction .
• Human land and water use , including deforestation and agricultural activities .  Removing trees and other plants, plowing fields, and overgrazing by livestock destabilizes soils and can increase rates of erosion by 10 to 100 times.
• Damming rivers and extracting water from freshwater ecosystems for human use changes where and how much sedimentation occurs, which affects soil quality and causes changes in habitats .
• Plants and other organisms, such as those that build coral reefs, can trap sediment that otherwise might be deposited elsewhere.
• Extreme weather events , which can cause accelerated rates of erosion due to flooding or wave action.

The Earth system model below includes some of the processes and phenomena related to the rock cycle.  These processes operate at various rates and on different spatial and temporal scales. For example, urbanization and industrialization of many agricultural activities has occurred over the last 300 years, and especially over the last 70 years, while tectonic processes and mountain building occur over millions of years. Can you think of additional cause and effect relationships between the parts of the rock cycle and other processes in the Earth system?

Click the icons and bolded terms (e.g. plate tectonics , Earth’s internal heat, and erosion ) on this page to learn more about these process and phenomena. Alternatively, explore the Understanding Global Change Infographic and find new topics that are of interest and/or locally relevant to you.

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The Rock Cycle – A Story

Posted by Becca on Jan 31, 2014 in Fun Stuff | 32 comments

I mentioned on Twitter a few weeks ago that my son had written a story for his sixth grade science class.  The assignment was to write a narrative and do character sketches to illustrate the rock cycle.  You know, when an igneous rock becomes a sedimentary rock, etc.  Some readers expressed an interest in seeing his story, so here it is.

This tale is my son’s, but I might have helped with sentence structure and punctuation. 😉  Also, if you enjoyed the story, please leave a comment.  He’ll be thrilled.

(The picture of “Maggie” was done by my daughter.  Both kids really got into this assignment.  We had a blast!)

The Rock Cycle

“I’m bored,” Iggy complained to Grandpa Granite one day. Grandpa Grant was president of the Intrusive Igneous Rock Club. He’d been around so long that he now lived on the surface instead of where he was born inside the mountain.

“You need to go on a rock cycle,” Grandpa Grant said.

“What’s a rock cycle?” Iggy asked.

“It’s like a tour of the rock world. You see how the other rocks live.”

“Sound like fun!”

“Start at Cousin Bobby Sandstone’s. He runs the Country Brothers’ Sedimentary Rock Spa.”

“It’s all about spa treatment, little bro. Erosion, deposition, compaction and cementation.”

“Sounds complicated.”

“Not at all, little bro.”

So Iggy hung out at the spa for tens of thousands of years. His hard edges wore away and he relaxed in the riverbed, his minerals settling into layers. It was relaxing, but nothing ever happened.

“I’m bored,” Iggy complained.

“Have you tried the glacier rub?” Cousin Bobby asked. “It’s a great way to chill, little bro.”

“I’m tired of just laying around. I want change.”

“Change?” a new voice asked.

Iggy turned around and saw a dark gray rock in a military uniform standing at attention.

“Commander Slate,” the dark gray rock said. He ignored Cousin Bobby and looked at Iggy. “If you want change, come to the Metamorphic Rock Camp. We’ll change you.”

“How?” Iggy asked.

“It’s intense. The pressure, the heat. But so worth it.” Commander Slate saluted him. His minerals were packed tight.

That’s what I want, Iggy thought. He enrolled in Metamorphic Rock Boot Camp and for the next tens of thousands of years, he transformed his image. He went through a metamorphosis. Commander Slate led the non-foliated platoon, and Iggy worked his way into the foliated platoon.

“You could be more,” Commander Slate said to Iggy one day. “Push yourself, apply more pressure, and—”

“No. I’m tired of all the pressure. I’ve had all the heat I can take. It’s too intense,” Iggy said.

“What are you girls doing?” Iggy asked.

“Going with the flow,” Lav said.

“Want to join us?” Maggie called from below.

“It’ll melt all that tension,” Lav said.

“My minerals are pretty tight,” Iggy said.

So he jumped in the lava flow and for the next thousand years, he flowed everywhere. Over land with Lav and beneath the ground with Maggie. He travelled a lot, but it made him unhappy to have no place to call home.

“Iggy! Where have you been?” Grandpa Grant sat in his usual place on the side of the mountain, his course-grained surface glittering in the sun. “The Igneous Rock Club hasn’t been the same without you.”

“I do miss the mountain and my friends.”

“Then join us.”

So Iggy flowed back into his old place at Grandpa Grant’s side. He sat there until he cooled into the smooth-grained, black stone once more.

“I’ve missed this,” Iggy said. He settled in beside Grandpa Grant and watched the world change around them.

32 comments

Clever and cute! You have a budding author on your hands.

That’s a great little story! I loved the pictures, and how educational AND fun the story was! I loved the personalities that were given to the different rock/mineral types! Very charming!

This is a fun little story. I really like the picture your daughter drew.

Cool– the story really rocks! I’m glad that Iggy got to have his adventures, but that he then returned home. He wasn’t the sort of personality to hang around stoned at the Sedimentary Spa, and while he did well when he volunteered for the military, getting sent to A-rock was too much pressure. And admittedly, the girls he met when he got out, Lav and Maggie, were really hot, but he knew they weren’t very stable. And so he went back to the Extrusive Igneous Rock Club, where at least he knew no one would take him for granite!

Seriously, though… a remarkably good story for a a Middle Schooler. With some lengthening and editing (and more of his sister’s witty rock pictures) this could easily be published as a children’s picture book. Good work by both the author and the illustrator!

Awesome summary, lol! And thank you. I wish there were more homework assignments like this one. It was a lot more fun than solving for X. 😉

Awesome story! I really enjoyed it. It is a shame it ended. I wished T could write more stories. I liked “FLAT CAT” too. That was another great story he wrote. It was accepted in a children’s short story anthology. He is turning out to be a terrific writer just like his mother and great-grandfather, John.

i like it its good i like the guy that says little bro

wow amazing love this story its amazin mind blowing!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1

my teacher read me this story in s ience classs

What a great story, Iggy really did’t look happy in that first picture but it sounds like everything worked out for him in the end 🙂

I loved the story, AND the illustration. I think my favorite “rock” person is Commander Slate! Grandpa Grant is right up there too. They are all so good! You are such an amazing writer! Must run in the family. It would be such a gift to the kids your age learning Geology to read your books. You explain so clearly and in such a COOL way about the different types of rocks. Congratulations on an Amazing story!

Thanks! He had a lot of fun with this assignment and it shows. 🙂

That was a very cute story. The illustrations were very good, also.

Hey do u mind if I copy some parts of this story I wont plagiarize I just want to use some of its words because I got this 100 points project and I need some of these words do u mind?

Yes, you may use this story as inspiration for your own work. Good luck on your project!

Thank you very much tell your son he did a great job

Thanks! I will. 🙂

Aww so cute

WOW great story he did great i have a project like this i hope i can make mine as good as his.

I teach 6th grade science and am planning for my students to work on a creative writing story about the rock cycle. Your son did an outstanding job on this story. I would love to share this story with my kids.

Thanks! You’re welcome to share it with your class. 🙂

My class and I really enjoyed this story. We are going to write our own. The pictures are really cute. This is fun, but still educational. I’m glad that you shared this piece with us; you helped us with some ideas for our own writing. We liked how you used very descriptive words, like intense, and how you included intrusive and foliated. Great work! P.S. My students want to know what grade you were in when you wrote this.

Thanks for the comment! Yes, this was a great assignment and educational. I still remember the rock cycle because of it, lol. My son was in the sixth grade when he wrote this–which was two years ago. As I mentioned above, the story was his, but I helped with the sentence structure and punctuation. It was part of the assignment to use a list of rock related vocabulary words like intrusive and foliated. So, we worked those in where they made sense. Best of luck to your class with their stories. 🙂

Brilliant- so talented! I would love to use this as a stimulus for our Primary 5 class assembly- do you think he would mind? Such an accessible way for younger ones to understand. Thank you for sharing 🙂

Thanks! Yes, you are welcome to use it.

We will be having an employee appreciation day. one of the activities is to write a nice message on a rock which will be passed around in a circle. We want to find a fun rock story and each time the word “rock” is mentioned the rock will be passed around. at the end of the story, the rock that each person ends up with, they will keep. I would like to use your son’s rock story for this purpose. I thought is was a cute creative story and it made me laugh. I will give him credit when we read his story. this story is awesome!

That sounds like fun and yes, you’re welcome to use my son’s rock cycle story. Thanks for asking! 🙂

I love the creative writing! Very clever.

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What is the Rock Cycle

The rock cycle is the process that describes the gradual transformation between the three main types of rocks : sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous. It is occurring continuously in nature through geologic time.

What Causes the Rock Cycle

It occurs due to:

• Plate tectonic activity
• Erosional processes

Steps of the Rock Cycle: How does it Work

1) Formation of Igneous Rock – Melting, Cooling, and Crystallization

Magma, the molten rock present deep inside the earth, solidifies due to cooling and crystallizes to form a type of rock called igneous rocks . Cooling of igneous rocks can occur slowly beneath the surface of the earth or rapidly at its surface.

2) Formation of Sedimentary Rock – Weathering, Erosion, Sedimentation, and Compaction

Due to weathering and erosional activities, the igneous rocks are broken down to form sediments in the form of gravel, sand, silt, and clay, which gets mixed and pressed together for extended periods to form sedimentary rocks .

3) Formation of Metamorphic Rocks – Metamorphism

Over a very long period of time, sedimentary and igneous rocks end up being buried deep underground the soil, usually because of the movement of tectonic plates. Deep below the surface, these rocks are exposed to high heat and pressure, which change them into a different type of rock called metamorphic rock.

4) Weathering

Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks present on the surface of the earth are constantly being broken down by wind and water over a long time.

5) Transportation

Carrying away of broken rocks by rain, streams, rivers, and oceans to a distant place from their origin.

6) Deposition

During the carriage of rocks by rivers, the rock particles (mixed with soil) sink and become a layer of sediment. Often the sediments build up and form small accumulations, which over time and pressure turn into sedimentary rock.

Melting of underground metamorphic rock forms magma, which on crystallization forms igneous rock, thus continuing the cycle.

Why is the Rock Cycle Important

• Helping in the formation of soil thus sustaining every life forms on earth
• Forming life-sustaining minerals such as sodium, iron, potassium, and calcium into the biosphere
• Forming the energy reserves of the earth like fossil fuels and radioactive sources
• Providing the building materials used to build structures such as iron, limestone, marble, granite, and basalt
• Providing raw materials for currency, investments, and adornments such as gold, diamonds, rubies, and emeralds

Ans. The two main forces that provide energy for the earth’s rock cycle are the sun and the internal heat of the earth. While the sun provides energy for weathering, erosion, and transportation, the earth’s internal heat helps in the processes like subduction, melting, and metamorphism.

Ans. The concept of the rock cycle was first suggested by James Hutton, the 18th-century founder of modern geology.

Ans. Since the rock cycle is a continuous process, the cycle does not stop after the formation of quartzite. Eventually, the quartzite rock could change into a sedimentary or an igneous rock to continue the cycle.

Ans. Compaction is the process in which sediment is squeezed to reduce the pore space between the grains due to the weight and pressure of overlying layers. Cementation is the process in which sediments are glued together by minerals that are deposited by water. Both compaction and cementation help in the formation of sedimentary rocks.

Article was last reviewed on Monday, November 2, 2020

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8 responses to “Rock Cycle”

its a good website and also helped me to complete my assignment really like this website.

Thanks for the webpage. I am 8th grade Earth Science Teacher in Arizona. This is very helpful for me and for my students.

this is nice :0

Very helpful.

Good explanatory notes

this helps so much

i loved reading this

nice and understandable

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• Metamorphic Rocks - Metamorphic rocks are formed by great heat and pressure. They are generally found inside the Earth's crust where there is enough heat and pressure to form the rocks. Metamorphic rocks are often made from other types of rock. For example, shale, a sedimentary rock, can be changed, or metamorphosed, into a metamorphic rock such as slate or gneiss. Other examples of metamorphic rocks include marble, anthracite, soapstone, and schist.
• Igneous Rocks - Igneous rocks are formed by volcanoes. When a volcano erupts, it spews out hot molten rock called magma or lava. Eventually the magma will cool down and harden, either when it reaches the Earth's surface or somewhere within the crust. This hardened magma or lava is called igneous rock. Examples of igneous rocks include basalt and granite.
• Sedimentary Rocks - Sedimentary rocks are formed by years and years of sediment compacting together and becoming hard. Generally, something like a stream or river will carry lots of small pieces of rocks and minerals to a larger body of water. These pieces will settle at the bottom and over a really long time (perhaps millions of years), they will form into solid rock. Some examples of sedimentary rocks are shale, limestone, and sandstone.
• The word "igneous" comes from the Latin word "ignis" which means "of fire."
• Ores are rocks that include minerals that have important elements such as metals like gold and silver.
• Sedimentary rocks form layers at the bottoms of oceans and lakes.
• Marble is a metamorphic rock formed when limestone is exposed to high heat and pressure within the Earth.
• Layers of sedimentary rocks are called strata.
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Rock Cycle Short Essay

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There’s no escaping Philip Glass and his piano etudes right now

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In 1994, Philip Glass wrote six seemingly ordinary piano etudes for conductor and pianist Dennis Russell Davies on the occasion of his 50th birthday. Glass also wrote them for himself. Etudes are traditionally studies in technique, and here they’re an ever-pragmatic composer’s exercises to improve his own playing.

Davies gave the premiere in Bonn, Germany, in 1994 and soon after played them at the Brooklyn Academy of Music. They seemed then like both technical studies and compositional ones, focusing on this melodic cell or that propulsive rhythmic idea, meant to get the fingers going and the compositional juices flowing, but not much more than that.

With Glass, however, you never know where anything will wind up. He may start out in overly familiar territory, then through barely perceptible gradual changes the end point becomes an unexpected marvel. That the grain of the marvel was always there is sensed only in retrospect.

Something similar happened with the composition of the etudes themselves. Over a span of two decades, Glass wrote two books of 10 each, becoming ever more richly lavish and virtuosic beyond the composer’s own piano skills. The solemn and gorgeous 20th is a Glass masterpiece that abstractly mirrors the music to Godfrey Reggio ’s 2013 film “Visitors,” a series of small portraits that, with the help of Glass’ score, becomes a kind of cinematic transmigration of their souls.

The full 20 etudes are now essential Glass, his most performed music. There have been at least a dozen complete recordings, the latest by the eloquent Polish pianist Maciej Ganski, released March 25. They have become encore favorites by noted pianists. Yuja Wang turns No. 6 into a stunning showpiece. Choreographers as well as pianists (professional and amateur alike) can’t get enough of them.

A lovingly produced large box, with sheet music of each etude and a book of eclectic essays about the etudes, came out late last year. Among those who pay the etudes tribute in it are chef Alice Waters, painter Jenny Saville, choreographers Justin Peck and Lucinda Childs , film director Martin Scorsese , performance artist Laurie Anderson , writer Pico Iyer and NPR newscaster Ari Shapiro.

The 20 etudes have also been part of a touring in a production by Pomegranate Arts over the past decade. The cycle finally reached L.A. last month presented by the Los Angeles Philharmonic as a Green Umbrella concert.

It was a revelation, but not so much for what it told us about the etudes, although there was that, but about what Glass has wrought on music in general. Acceptance of the 87-year-old composer by the classical music establishment has been painfully slow and weirdly irregular. On same day of the etudes event at Walt Disney Concert Hall, the New York Philharmonic announced that its 2024-25 season includes Gustavo Dudamel conducting Glass’ Symphony No. 11. Shockingly, it will be the first time the orchestra will play a Glass symphony (he’s up to 14) and only its second time performing a concert work by New York’s most famous composer since Leonard Bernstein.

Over the 10 days following the etudes at Disney, at concert after concert in the hall and around town, on international radio and on recording, there was proof that — whether you love him, hate him, pay him or his music no mind, or pretend he doesn’t matter — you cannot escape Philip Glass. His impact on composers of succeeding generations, whether they accept him or oppose him, is indelible.

The weekend of concerts by the San Francisco Symphony, L.A. Phil and Colburn Orchestra at Disney following the etudes featured three central post-Glass generations of composers and performers — John Adams, Esa-Pekka Salonen and Timo Andres — all of whom have been affected one way or another by Glass. Their music may not sound anything like Glass (in Salonen’s case adamantly not), but none of it would have been the same without Glass’ precedent.

In this Adams is a central figure. As the longtime L.A. Phil creative chair, he programs the Green Umbrella series, and it was significant that Glass preludes preceded a weekend devoted to Adams and his influence at Disney. Much of Glass’ own influence on American classical music has been channeled through Adams. It was he who found a way to apply the hardcore outsider minimalist musical revolution of Glass, Steve Reich and Terry Riley to a more inclusive and original musical language. With startling originality, Adams combined the propulsive energy of Glass to his more mainstream musical enthusiasms, be they Sibelius symphonies, late Beethoven string quartets, Stravinsky, American jazz and much else.

At Disney, Salonen, touring with his San Francisco Symphony, led an arresting performance of Adams’ “Naïve and Sentimental Music,” a grand symphony in all but name, of which Salonen had given the world premiere with the L.A. Phil in 1999. No Glass is audible in this vast sonic landscape, but its propulsion has minimalist roots and in the exquisite quiet center of its slow movement there is a kind of Glassian sentience. The reception on this occasion was almost like a rock concert from a cheering, screaming audience. The players, too, applauded Salonen and stamped their feet, showing support for their music director, who has announced that he will not renew his contract as music director because of the lack of support from the orchestra’s board.

Not only had Glass helped to pave the way for Adams, but it was Adams who helped pave the way for Salonen as a composer. As far as I know, the only time Salonen has ever performed Glass was dressed in a bunny suit in a moment of silliness at the 1999 Ojai Music Festival. He and composer Magnus Lindberg began an opera-themed Saturday morning children’s concert seated at a piano as bunnies, banging out the opening of “Einstein on the Beach.” That evening, Salonen conducted Adams’ Chamber Symphony, in which Glass and a few other composers irreverently meet Schoenberg.

It was Adams and particularly the Chamber Symphony that had led to Salonen’s own compositional breakthrough with “LA Variations” two years earlier, not so much as a style (no Glass, for sure) but as permission to allow new uses of melody and harmony in his music.

Adams was just back in town after the London premiere of his latest wild and wildly engaging symphonic score, “Frenzy,” conducted by Simon Rattle with the London Symphony. (An L.A. Phil co-commission, it is supposed to arrive here in the 2025-26 season but can be heard through April 24 in an archived broadcast on BBC Radio 3 .) At Adams’ concert conducting the L.A. Phil last month, he turned to yet another of his large symphonic works, “City Noir,” this one commissioned for Dudamel in 2009. In a performance both moody and propulsive, Adams relished his echoes of jazz and classic soundtracks from 1950 Hollywood noir soundtracks.

He also conducted a premiere by his younger colleague, Timo Andres, who is a superb pianist and happened to be one of the five participants in the etudes concert. “Made of Tunes,” though, is a concerto for Aaron Diehl, a pianist equally conversant in classical music and jazz, and someone with his own attachment to Glass: He made a sparkling jazz trio arrangement of No. 16 . The “tunes” Andres makes use of in his concerto come from American folk songs, parlor songs, blues and ragtime, and they go through colorful repetitive transformations, embellished by Diehl’s improvisations. While sounding little of Glass or Adams, the way Andres develops his tunes as process, his arresting use of percussion and the music’s forward motion all imply that he has absorbed Glass and Adams into his own unique voice.

That originality was very much on display in the etudes marathon itself. Along with Andres’ brilliantly illuminating performances, Maki Namekawa, who has been muse to Glass, brought her radiance to all she touched, especially No. 20. Jenny Lin made sure we heard the etudes as brilliantly virtuosic new music. Russian pianist Anton Batagov made sure we heard them as brilliantly hypnotizing traditional music. Crossover pianist Lara Downes could have you believe the etudes were written in 2024.

In the book of short essays about the etudes, Davies, who has conducted nearly all of Glass’ operas and symphonies and who is married to Namekawa, contends that the challenge of the etudes is to keep them pure, “in the sense of keeping the ego out of it.” When his wife was learning them, he writes, he had to go outside to leave her alone.

He has a point. Letting the processes in Glass’ music speak for themselves is what gives license for others, including Glass dissenters such as Salonen, to find their own processes. But when it comes to interpreting the etudes, which Davies fears could be overly romanticized in the wrong hands, he’s going to need to spend a lot of time outside.

The week following the Disney cycle, the second and fifth etudes got a complete makeover in UCLA’s Center for the Art of Performance’s “Maya Beiser X Philip Glass in Concert” at the Nimoy . The cellist, joined by four cello colleagues, slowed the etudes down to almost half speed, wrapping and enrapturing her surroundings with the sonic blanket of amplified cellos. These transcriptions were no longer piano etudes, per se, but the performances conveyed the essence of practicing, of learning a piece by slowly going over and over passages, getting more and more inside the sound of your instrument.

The resonance of Glass’ openness in the etudes is, indeed, inescapable. Laurie Anderson and the composer Jlin both write of Glass creating a sense of the infinite. Closer at hand, Third Coast Percussion includes Glass and Jlin in its concert at the Nimoy on Friday. Works by Anderson and Jlin will be part of the the Kronos Quartet’s program at Royce Hall on April 28.

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Mark Swed has been the classical music critic of the Los Angeles Times since 1996.

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• Physics Concept Questions And Answers

Rock Cycle Questions

Rocks are mineral aggregates with a combination of properties of all the mineral traces.

There are three types of rocks:

• Igneous Rocks
• Sedimentary Rocks
• Metamorphic Rocks

The rock cycle defines the time-consuming transitions through the geologic time of rocks.

Read more: Rock cycle .

Important Rock Cycle Questions with Answers

1. State true or false: In the rock cycle, old rocks are converted into new ones.

Answer: a) TRUE

Explanation: The rock cycle involves many stages, and in this process, old rocks are converted into new rocks.

2. List the type of igneous rock.

Types of igneous rock are:

• Intrusive igneous rock
• Extrusive igneous rock

3. Limestone is a type of ______

• Igneous Rock
• Sedimentary Rock
• Metamorphic Rock
• None of the options

Answer: b) Sedimentary Rock

Explanation: Limestone is a type of sedimentary rock.

4. What are the main processes of the rock cycle?

The main processes of the rock cycle are:

• Crystallization
• Erosion and sedimentation
• Metamorphism

5. Choose YES or NO: Water is one of the forces that drive the rock cycle.

Answer: a) YES

Explanation: Water is one of the important forces that drive the rock cycle.

6. In which stage of the rock cycle rock is pushed deep under the Earth’s surface, they may melt into magma.

• Transition to Igneous
• Transition to Metamorphic
• Transition to Sedimentary

Answer: a) Transition to Igneous

Explanation: In the transition to the igneous rock state, rocks melt into magma.

7. What are the various factors responsible for the rock cycle?

Various factors responsible for the rock cycle are:

• Accelerated erosion
• Plate tectonics
• Continental collision
• Subduction zones
• Spreading ridges

8. In the transition to a metamorphic state, what happens?

• Rocks change physically
• Rocks change chemically
• It is exposed to high temperatures and pressures
• All the above options

Answer: d) All the above options.

Explanation: The rock exposed to high pressure and temperature changes it chemically or physically to form a different rock known as metamorphic rock.

9. Choose YES or NO: Do rocks undergo transformation?

Explanation: Rocks undergo a transformation and do not remain for a long period in their original form.

10. Define subduction.

A tectonic process at convergent margins by which slabs of oceanic lithosphere descend into the mantle is known as subduction.

Watch The Below Video to Know about Igneous Rocks and Its Types

Practice Questions

• What is a rock?
• What are the types of sedimentary rocks?
• Granite is which type of rock?
• Give three examples of sedimentary rocks.
• What are the stages of the rock cycle?

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First refuelling for Russia’s Akademik Lomonosov floating NPP

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The FNPP includes two KLT-40S reactor units. In such reactors, nuclear fuel is not replaced in the same way as in standard NPPs – partial replacement of fuel once every 12-18 months. Instead, once every few years the entire reactor core is replaced with and a full load of fresh fuel.

The KLT-40S reactor cores have a number of advantages compared with standard NPPs. For the first time, a cassette core was used, which made it possible to increase the fuel cycle to 3-3.5 years before refuelling, and also reduce by one and a half times the fuel component in the cost of the electricity produced. The operating experience of the FNPP provided the basis for the design of the new series of nuclear icebreaker reactors (series 22220). Currently, three such icebreakers have been launched.

The Akademik Lomonosov was connected to the power grid in December 2019, and put into commercial operation in May 2020.

Electricity generation from the FNPP at the end of 2023 amounted to 194 GWh. The population of Pevek is just over 4,000 people. However, the plant can potentially provide electricity to a city with a population of up to 100,000. The FNPP solved two problems. Firstly, it replaced the retiring capacities of the Bilibino Nuclear Power Plant, which has been operating since 1974, as well as the Chaunskaya Thermal Power Plant, which is more than 70 years old. It also supplies power to the main mining enterprises located in western Chukotka. In September, a 490 km 110 kilovolt power transmission line was put into operation connecting Pevek and Bilibino.

Image courtesy of TVEL

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Rosatom Starts Production of Rare-Earth Magnets for Wind Power Generation

TVEL Fuel Company of Rosatom has started gradual localization of rare-earth magnets manufacturing for wind power plants generators. The first sets of magnets have been manufactured and shipped to the customer.

In total, the contract between Elemash Magnit LLC (an enterprise of TVEL Fuel Company of Rosatom in Elektrostal, Moscow region) and Red Wind B.V. (a joint venture of NovaWind JSC and the Dutch company Lagerwey) foresees manufacturing and supply over 200 sets of magnets. One set is designed to produce one power generator.

“The project includes gradual localization of magnets manufacturing in Russia, decreasing dependence on imports. We consider production of magnets as a promising sector for TVEL’s metallurgical business development. In this regard, our company does have the relevant research and technological expertise for creation of Russia’s first large-scale full cycle production of permanent rare-earth magnets,” commented Natalia Nikipelova, President of TVEL JSC.

“NovaWind, as the nuclear industry integrator for wind power projects, not only made-up an efficient supply chain, but also contributed to the development of inter-divisional cooperation and new expertise of Rosatom enterprises. TVEL has mastered a unique technology for the production of magnets for wind turbine generators. These technologies will be undoubtedly in demand in other areas as well,” noted Alexander Korchagin, Director General of NovaWind JSC.

For reference:

TVEL Fuel Company of Rosatom incorporates enterprises for the fabrication of nuclear fuel, conversion and enrichment of uranium, production of gas centrifuges, as well as research and design organizations. It is the only supplier of nuclear fuel for Russian nuclear power plants. TVEL Fuel Company of Rosatom provides nuclear fuel for 73 power reactors in 13 countries worldwide, research reactors in eight countries, as well as transport reactors of the Russian nuclear fleet. Every sixth power reactor in the world operates on fuel manufactured by TVEL. www.tvel.ru

NovaWind JSC is a division of Rosatom; its primary objective is to consolidate the State Corporation's efforts in advanced segments and technological platforms of the electric power sector. The company was founded in 2017. NovaWind consolidates all of the Rosatom’s wind energy assets – from design and construction to power engineering and operation of wind farms.

Overall, by 2023, enterprises operating under the management of NovaWind JSC, will install 1 GW of wind farms. http://novawind.ru

Elemash Magnit LLC is a subsidiary of Kovrov Mechanical Plant (an enterprise of the TVEL Fuel Company of Rosatom) and its main supplier of magnets for production of gas centrifuges. The company also produces magnets for other industries, in particular, for the automotive

industry. The production facilities of Elemash Magnit LLC are located in the city of Elektrostal, Moscow Region, at the site of Elemash Machine-Building Plant (a nuclear fuel fabrication facility of TVEL Fuel Company).

Rosatom is a global actor on the world’s nuclear technology market. Its leading edge stems from a number of competitive strengths, one of which is assets and competences at hand in all nuclear segments. Rosatom incorporates companies from all stages of the technological chain, such as uranium mining and enrichment, nuclear fuel fabrication, equipment manufacture and engineering, operation of nuclear power plants, and management of spent nuclear fuel and nuclear waste. Nowadays, Rosatom brings together about 350 enterprises and organizations with the workforce above 250 K. https://rosatom.ru/en/

U.S. Added Less New Wind Power in 2021 Than the Previous Year — Here’s Why

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Vietnam's Largest Wind Power Plant Starts Operational

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Trung Nam Group Inaugurates Wind Power Plant in Vietnam

Vietnam Plans to Double Wind Power Generation by 2030

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Rosatom Starts Life Tests of Third-Generation VVER-440 Nuclear Fuel

• 16 June, 2020 / 13:00

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