nala is writing an analytical essay about british propaganda

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3 Propaganda and war, 1939–1945

• Published: April 2022
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During the Second World War, on the home front, the BBC became the crucial mechanism for keeping up morale and distributing official information and propaganda. Similarly, in its international work, the BBC cemented links with Britain’s allies, sought to encourage the US to enter the war against fascism, encouraged a spirit of resistance in occupied nations, and conducted increasingly aggressive psychological warfare against the enemy. This was when the BBC truly became a global broadcaster: its international work was, arguably, a higher priority than broadcasting for listeners in the UK. It forged particularly strong links with US broadcasters, strengthening the transatlantic flow of programmes and ideas. It also conducted propaganda targeting audiences across the British empire, and launched a massively expanded set of foreign-language services aimed at Europe. To maintain morale, and to keep listeners away from enemy stations, the BBC channelled resources into entertainment, especially in the new Forces Programme. It produced truly popular broadcasts: this had a lasting legacy in terms of its approach to making programmes. It also, hesitantly, began to enter the business of journalism, particularly by providing eyewitness accounts of D-Day and the liberation of Europe.

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• Source Criticism
• Interpretation
• Propaganda Posters

How to interpret propaganda posters

Interpreting a visual source , like a propaganda poster, is very different to interpreting words on a page, which is the case with written sources .

Therefore, you need to develop a different set of skills.

What is a 'propaganda poster'?

Propaganda is an attempt to influence peoples’ opinions or behaviour through the use of specific images and words.

It usually gives limited information which is heavily biased in its presentation. Propaganda typically achieves its aims by generating an emotional reaction in the viewer.

For much of the twentieth century, public posters were a common way for governments to use propaganda to persuade their citizens.

They often relied upon simple images in order to manipulate people through fear or guilt. 

Further information

Propaganda in the First World War:

Propaganda in the Second World War:

How do I understand the meaning of a propaganda poster?

Understanding what a historical propaganda poster means can be difficult for us because we did not live through the events that inspired them.

However, many propaganda posters rely upon a limited number of elements to persuade their audience . Once we learn those elements, we can begin to understand the specific message of a particular poster.

Propaganda Poster Elements

1 . Stereotypes

It was common for posters to represent a particular group of people (usually in a very racist way) using stereotypes. A stereotype is an over-simplification of what a particular racial group looks like. For example, Chinese people in the 19th century were drawn with a long pony-tail in their hair. Propaganda uses stereotypes so that audiences can readily identify which people group is the target of the poster. Getting to know common stereotypes can be quite confronting for us, since they can be very racist in nature. However, once you become familiar with common forms of stereotyping, you can identify the appropriate people group being targeted in a particular poster.

Common Stereotypes: 

People Group:

Australians

Jewish People

Exaggerated Features:

Pickelhaube (the spiked helmet), gorilla-like body

Long pony-tail, narrow eyes, thin moustache, traditional Chinese clothes and hat, two large front teeth

Circular glasses, narrow eyes, toothy grin

Slouch hat, clean-shaven, khaki clothes

Large nose, kippah (Jewish prayer cap)

2 . Symbolism

Just like political cartoons , propaganda posters use simple objects, or symbols, that the general public would be familiar with. These symbols are used to represent important concepts or ideas. For example, using a ‘skull and crossbones’ could represent ‘death’ or ‘danger’. While you’re interpreting a poster, identify any symbols and try to work out what concept the image is meant to represent.

Here are some common symbols used in propaganda, along with their common meanings: 

Posters will often include short sections of information: either statistics or statements. This information is meant to provide the audience with just enough data for them to draw the conclusion the creator wanted them to make. When you are looking at the poster, it is worth asking whether the information provided is completely accurate or what other information has been left out. Finally, try to work out why the propaganda wanted the audience to know about the specific information they have presented. For example, how does this information help persuade the audience?

Posters will try to connect directly with their audiences though a number of techniques. They will either use the second person pronoun "you" in the text, ask a rhetorical question that the audience is meant to think about, or it will have people in the poster looking directly at the viewer. Propaganda does this in order to make the audience feel like they need to respond in some way.

Propaganda will try to play on a person's emotions in order to prompt them to respond. The most frequent emotional responses posters try to generate are:

• guilt (e.g., making the audience feel like they have failed),
• patriotism (e.g., appealing to the love of their country),
• fear (e.g., that if they don't act, something bad will happen),
• or shame (e.g., that they are weak, cowardly or selfish).

6 . Call to Action

Almost every propaganda poster has a statement about what their audience should do after seeing the poster. For example: 'Enlist Today!' or 'Buy War Bonds'. The call to action is often the best way to determine the poster's purpose and intended audience . 

How do I write an interpretation?

Once you have deconstructed the poster, you can start creating your explanation. To do so, answer the following questions:

• Who or what is represented by the stereotypes and symbols?
• What information is provided by the text in the poster?
• How does the poster try and connect directly with the audience? (Using "you", asking a question, or by 'looking at the audience'?)
• What does the 'call to action' say?
• What emotion is the viewer supposed to feel? (e.g. Shame, guilt, patriotism, etc.)

Once you have answered these questions, you are ready to answer the final one:

• What did the propaganda want their audience to believe and do? 

What do I do with my interpretation?

Identifying the message of a propaganda poster shows that you understand the primary source, which means that you can use it as an indirect quote in your historical writing.

Your interpretation can also help you in your analysis and evaluation of the source. For example, identifying the source's message can help you ascertain:

• The purpose of the propaganda
• The intended audience of the poster
• The accuracy of the information presented in the image

Parliamentary Recruiting Committee. (1915). 'Daddy, what did YOU do in the Great War?'. London. © IWM (Art.IWM PST 0311). Source: https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/17053

Demonstrating interpretation of propaganda posters in your writing:

This propaganda poster produced by the British government in 1915 sought to persuade British citizens to enlist for military service. It does this by employing a range of propaganda techniques. First of all, the main character is an idealised middle class British family man. The use of this stereotypical character is an attempt to connect with British middle-class men who had not yet joined the war effort. Secondly, the poster uses the symbolism of the toy soldiers, which the young boy is depicted as playing with. The fact that the man's son is more impressed with symbols of war than his own father begins to play on the audience's emotions. Thirdly, the text that accompanies the image, which is spoken by the daughter, inquires about the man's role in the war. The use of the second person pronoun of "you" is a clear attempt to engage personally with the audience. This is reinforced by the fact that the man's eyes are looking directly at the viewer. Therefore, although the girl is talking to her father, the poster intends to directly address the viewer. The clear intent is to make the audience the target of the question so that they will wonder what role they will play in the contemporary conflict. All of these techniques combine with the intention of generating the feelings of shame and guilt in the viewer. The propaganda hopes that young men will feel embarrassed to admit to their future children that they were 'too cowardly' to join the war effort. Even though there is no explicit 'call to action' for the viewer on the poster, the tacit expectation is that the guilt would result in young men enlisting to fight in the hopes of being able to allay the shame produced by the picture. The overall message produced by the propaganda poster is that real men will enlist in the war effort in the belief that their future children will be proud to know that their fathers did their part.

What do you need help with?

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Propaganda and world war ii.

In this activity, students compare World War II propaganda posters from the United States, Great Britain, Nazi Germany, and the Soviet Union. Then students choose one of several creative or analytical writing assignments to demonstrate what they've learned.

Students will understand how waging a "total war" altered the nature of American society.

Students will read, write, listen, and speak for critical analysis and evaluation.

Students will understand the effects of World War II at home.

Instructions

Step 1: Poster Analysis

Before the lesson begins, the teacher should prepare packets of posters for each nation: United States, Great Britain, Nazi Germany, and Soviet Union. 

Divide students into small groups of 3-4 students. Assign each group one of the four nations and pass out the packets to the appropriate groups. Each student should choose one poster from the packet to analyze, using the Poster Analysis Worksheet. 

After individually analyzing posters, the groups should reconvene. Each group member should present their poster to their group members. After presentations, group members should discuss how they feel the posters work together: Is there a common theme? Are there common images? What aspects of the posters make them propaganda?

Step 2: Essay Writing

After the group discussion, students should individually write an essay about the posters. The teacher may choose one assignment from the list below or allow students to choose from among the options; the teacher may also differentiate the lesson by varying which assignment is given to each student:

Compare and contrast two or more posters

Visual essay: pull together different images to tell a story; text should bridge the posters together

Responsive essay: elaborate on the emotions (anger, sadness, pride, etc.) that the poster(s) evoke

Historial writing: Historically contextualize the poster: Is there a particular event or person the poster refers to? What makes this a World War II poster? (Requires additional research)

Point of view writing: Pretend you are a person in the poster; what story do you want to convey?

Fiction writing: Make up a narrative describing the events leading up to or following the scene depicted in the poster

Historical Context

Propaganda was one of many weapons used by many countries during World War II, and the United States was no exception. From posters to films and cartoons, the federal government used propaganda not only to buoy the spirit and patriotism of the home front, but also to promote enlistment in the military and labor force. Several government agencies were responsible for producing propaganda, with the largest being the Office of War Information (OWI), created in 1942. The OWI created posters, worked with Hollywood in producing pro-war films, wrote scripts for radio shows, and took thousands of photographs that documented the war effort. Worried by the increase in government sponsored propaganda, academics and journalists established the Institute for Propaganda Analysis. The Institute identified seven basic propaganda devices: Name-Calling, Glittering Generality, Transfer, Testimonial, Plain Folks, Card Stacking, and Band Wagon. [For more on the IPA and the seven devices, please see http://www.propagandacritic.com/] All of these devices were used during the war. In this activity, students will analyze World War II posters, examining the different techniques and themes used by the OWI and other branches of government.

Materials for this Activity

"I'm Proud... My Husband Wants Me To Do My Part"

"We Can Do It!"

"Pvt. Joe Louis Says - We're Going to do our part"

"United We Win"

"Someone Talked"

"Warning! Our Homes Are in Danger Now!"

A Black Candidate Runs on Civil Rights in 1940s New York

Up Housewives and At 'Em!

Dig for...Plenty

Keep Mum, She's Not So Dumb!

They Can't Get on Without Us

"Altpapiersammlung (Paper Drive)"

"Nicht spenden, Opfern (Don't give, Sacrifice)"

"We will ruthlessly defeat and destroy the enemy!"

"Du Bist Front (You Are the Front)"

"Death to the Fascist Reptile!"

"Der Jude (The Jew)"

"Red Army man, come to the rescue!"

"On the Joyous Day of Liberation from under the Yoke of the German Invaders"

Propaganda Poster Analysis Worksheet

Historical Era

Great Depression and World War II (1929-1945)

Group Work , Interdisciplinary , Lessons in Looking , Making Connections , World War II

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Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda? Analyzing World War II Posters

• Resources & Preparation
• Instructional Plan
• Related Resources

In this lesson plan, students analyze World War II posters, chosen from online collections, to explore how argument, persuasion and propaganda differ. The lesson begins with a full-class exploration of the famous "I WANT YOU FOR U.S. ARMY" poster, wherein students explore the similarities and differences between argument, persuasion, and propaganda and apply one of the genres to the poster. Students then work independently to complete an online analysis of another poster and submit either an analysis worksheet or use their worksheet responses to write a more formal essay.

Featured Resources

• Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda? : This handout clarifies the goals, techniques, and methods used in the genres of argument, persuasion, and propaganda.
• Analyzing a World War II Poster : This interactive assists students in careful analysis of a World War II poster of their own selection for its use of argument, persuasion, or propaganda.

From Theory to Practice

Visual texts are the focus of this lesson, which combines more traditional document analysis questions with an exploration of World War II posters. The 1975 "Resolution on Promoting Media Literacy" states that explorations of such multimodal messages "enable students to deal constructively with complex new modes of delivering information, new multisensory tactics for persuasion, and new technology-based art forms." The 2003 "Resolution on Composing with Nonprint Media" reminds us that "Today our students are living in a world that is increasingly non-printcentric. New media such as the Internet, MP3 files, and video are transforming the communication experiences of young people outside of school. Young people are composing in nonprint media that can include any combination of visual art, motion (video and film), graphics, text, and sound-all of which are frequently written and read in nonlinear fashion." To support the literacy skills that students must sharpen to navigate these many media, activities such as the poster analysis in this lesson plan provide bridging opportunities between traditional understandings of genre and visual representations. Further Reading

Common Core Standards

This resource has been aligned to the Common Core State Standards for states in which they have been adopted. If a state does not appear in the drop-down, CCSS alignments are forthcoming.

State Standards

This lesson has been aligned to standards in the following states. If a state does not appear in the drop-down, standard alignments are not currently available for that state.

NCTE/IRA National Standards for the English Language Arts

• 1. Students read a wide range of print and nonprint texts to build an understanding of texts, of themselves, and of the cultures of the United States and the world; to acquire new information; to respond to the needs and demands of society and the workplace; and for personal fulfillment. Among these texts are fiction and nonfiction, classic and contemporary works.
• 3. Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts. They draw on their prior experience, their interactions with other readers and writers, their knowledge of word meaning and of other texts, their word identification strategies, and their understanding of textual features (e.g., sound-letter correspondence, sentence structure, context, graphics).
• 4. Students adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language (e.g., conventions, style, vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes.
• 5. Students employ a wide range of strategies as they write and use different writing process elements appropriately to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes.
• 11. Students participate as knowledgeable, reflective, creative, and critical members of a variety of literacy communities.
• 12. Students use spoken, written, and visual language to accomplish their own purposes (e.g., for learning, enjoyment, persuasion, and the exchange of information).
• Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda?
• Document Analysis for Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda
• Poster Analysis Rubric

Preparation

• Make appropriate copies of Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda? , Document Analysis for Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda , and Poster Analysis Rubric .
• Explore the background information on the Uncle Sam recruiting poster , so that you are prepared to share relevant historical details about the poster with students.
• If desired, explore the online poster collections and choose a specific poster or posters for students to analyze. If you choose to limit the options, post the choices on the board or on white paper for students to refer to in Session Two .
• Decide what final product students will submit for this lesson. Students can submit their analysis printout from the Analyzing a World War II Poster interactive, or they can write essays that explain their analysis. If students write essays, the printouts from the interactive serve as prewriting and preparation for the longer, more formal piece.
• Test the Analyzing a Visual Message interactive and the Analyzing a World War II Poster interactive on your computers to familiarize yourself with the tools and ensure that you have the Flash plug-in installed. You can download the plug-in from the technical support page.

Student Objectives

Students will

• discuss the differences between argument, persuasion, and propaganda.
• analyze visual texts individually, in small groups, and as a whole class.
• (optionally) write an analytical essay.

Session One

• Display the Uncle Sam recruiting poster using an overhead projector.
• Ask students to share what they know about the poster, noting their responses on the board or on chart paper.
• If students have not volunteered the information, provide some basic background information .
• Working in small groups, have students use the  Analyzing a Visual Message interactive to analyze the Uncle Sam poster.
• Emphasize that students should use complete, clear sentences in their responses. The printout that the interactive creates will not include the questions, so students responses must provide the context. Be sure to connect the requirement for complete sentences to the reason for the requirement (so that students will understand the information on the printout without having to return to the  Analyzing a Visual Message interactive.
• As students work, encourage them to look for concrete details in the poster that support their statements.
• Circulate among students as they work, providing support and feedback.
• Once students have completed the questions included in the  Analyzing a Visual Message interactive, display the poster again and ask students to share their observations and analyses.
• Emphasize and support responses that will tie to the next session, where students will complete an independent analysis.
• Pass out and go over copies of the Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda Chart .
• Ask students to apply genre descriptions to the Uncle Sam poster, using the basic details they gathered in their analysis to identify the poster's genre.

Session Two

• Review the Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda? chart.
• Elicit examples of argument, persuasion, and propaganda from the students, asking them to provide supporting details that confirm the genres of the examples. Provide time for students to explore some of the Websites in the Resources section to explore the three concepts.
• When you feel that the students are comfortable with the similarities and differences of the three genres, explain to the class that they are going to be choosing and analyzing World War II posters for a more detailed analysis.
• Pass out the Document Analysis for Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda , and go over the questions in the analysis sheet. Draw connections between the questions and what the related answers will reveal about a document's genre.
• Demonstrate the Analyzing a World War II Poster interactive.
• Point out the connections between the questions in the interactive and the questions listed on the Document Analysis for Argument, Persuasion, or Propaganda .
• If students need additional practice with analysis, choose a poster and use the Analyzing a World War II Poster interactive to work through all the analysis questions as a whole class.
• Explain the final format that students will use for their analysis—you can have students submit their analysis printout from the Analyzing a World War II Poster interactive, or they can submit polished essays that explain their analysis.
• Pass out copies of the Poster Analysis Rubric , and explain the expectations for the project.
• Posters on the American Home Front (1941-45), from the Smithsonian Institute
• Powers of Persuasion, from the National Archives
• World War II Poster Collection, from Northwestern University
• World War II Posters, from University of North Texas Libraries

Session Three

• Review the poster analysis project and the handouts from previous session.
• Answer any questions about the Analyzing a World War II Poster interactive then give students the entire class session to work through their analysis.
• Remind students to refer to the Poster Analysis Rubric to check their work before saving or printing their work.
• If you are having students submit their printouts for the final project, collect their work at the end of the session. Otherwise, if you have asked students to write the essay, ask them to use their printout to write the essay for homework. Collect the essays and printouts at the beginning of the next session (or when desired).
• If desired, students might share the posters they have chosen and their conclusions with the whole class or in small groups.

The Propaganda Techniques in Literature and Online Political Ads lesson plan offers additional information about propaganda as well as some good Websites on propaganda.

Student Assessment / Reflections

Use the Poster Analysis Rubric to evaluate and give feedback on students’ work. If students have written a more formal paper, you might provide additional guidelines for standard written essays, as typically used in your class.

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This resolution discusses that understanding the new media and using them constructively and creatively actually requires developing a new form of literacy and new critical abilities "in reading, listening, viewing, and thinking."

This strategy guide clarifies the difference between persuasion and argumentation, stressing the connection between close reading of text to gather evidence and formation of a strong argumentative claim about text.

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Home / Guides / Writing Resources / Topics Guides / American Revolution / Analyzing Structure and Purpose of Propaganda

Analyzing Structure and Purpose of Propaganda

You will learn how to:

• Analyze the structure of complex primary texts including political cartoons, speeches, and propaganda posters

What is Propaganda?

Merriam Webster defines propaganda as :

“the spreading of ideas, information, or rumor for the purpose of helping or injuring an institution, a cause, or a person.”

A variety of sources can act as propaganda. Texts like newspaper articles or editorials, letters or petitions, and essays can all be forms of this extremely persuasive speech. Propaganda can be visual or auditory as well. Cartoons, posters, songs, speeches, radio, television broadcasts, and even graffiti can be forms of propaganda.

Structure Defined

Structure is the overall format or organization of the source. As you analyze a source, its organization can help you better understand the information presented to you.

Each type of propaganda will have a distinct structure. For example, the way an author organizes information in a political cartoon will be much different than a propaganda poster or a speech.

Purpose Defined

Purpose is the reason a source was created. Historical texts typically have one of three purposes:

• to persuade
• to entertain

The purpose of propaganda can be tricky. On the surface it may look like the purpose is to inform or to entertain, but a closer examination of the item will reveal its true goal: to persuade.

Cartoons as Primary Sources

Political cartoons are an important type of historical document that show social or political thoughts from a specific point in  time.

To examine these cartoons, look at both the images and the words. The images and the words are the structure of the cartoon; together they reveal the message and purpose.

Analyzing Cartoons

Usually, political cartoons are usually a combination of text and images.

When analyzing images, look for:

• characters and figures…who or what do they represent or symbolize?
• exaggerated features
• what the characters or figures are doing

When analyzing the text, look for:

• titles or captions
• dialogue or thoughts
• any visible play on words or puns

For additional information about analyzing a cartoon, look at the Cartoon Analysis Guide from the Library of Congress.

Political Cartoon Example

View Paul Revere’s Four coffins of men killed in the Boston Massacre . Examine the images, the use of symbols, and the surrounding words to see the message the cartoon conveys.

For additional help analyzing the structure and purpose, use the  ​Cartoon Analysis Worksheet  from the National Archives as a guide.

Political Cartoon Analysis

Listen to the sound clip below:

Paul Revere’s  Four coffins of men killed in the Boston Massacre  includes:

• section of newspaper column
• illustration of four coffins with a skull and crossbones
• the initials of those killed on the coffins – Samuel Gray, Samuel Maverick, James Caldwell, and Crispus Attucks

Source: LOC  Bibliographic Information page

Speeches as Primary Sources

Speeches are an important historical source, both in their spoken and written forms.

Speeches are meant to be delivered verbally to an audience, so their structure should be very clear and easy to follow .

Speeches usually follow a dramatic arc that includes an exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and the dénouement, or resolution. The audience goes on this ride with the speaker.

The Purpose of Speeches

The purpose of a speech can be to inform and  persuade .   Speeches use rhetorical language in a number of ways to convince the audience not only to follow along, but to also accept the argument presented.

Speeches as Propaganda

Speeches are often personal and make an emotional appeal to persuade the audience to believe or do something. Because speeches are oral, the original audience will not have a text with citations to follow along with during the delivery of the speech.

As a result, propaganda speeches can gloss over any weaknesses in the argument  by making emotional appeals to the unsuspecting audience, who may or may not realize a lack of logical reasoning.

Speech Example

Listen to the sound clip below:In 1774, four years after the Boston Massacre, John Hancock delivered a speech at the annual commemoration of the event. Hancock was already known in the community for his support of the Patriot cause.

Read the fourth paragraph of the speech  ​Boston Massacre Oration  from America’s Homepage. This, and the paragraph that follows, are the climax of his speech.

Posters, also called broadsides, were another popular form of communication in Colonial America.

The  Massachusetts Historical Society explains , “Broadsides are single sheets printed on one side that served as public announcements or advertisements…bringing news of current events to the public quickly and often disappearing just as quickly.”

The structure of these posters is like that of a cartoon – broadsides are visual , use images and words to convey ideas , and compress a few ideas into a limited amount of space .

The purpose of these posters could be  informational ,  persuasive , or a  combination of the two.

How Propaganda Posters Work

Posters served as propaganda tools in the past, especially during World War I and World War II. The United States Government issued propaganda posters to encourage citizens to take action by enlisting, buying war bonds, or working in factories. One of the most iconic posters is J. Howard Miller’s “We Can Do It!” featuring Rosie the Riveter. Click here to examine the poster’s details.

Propaganda posters often appeal to emotion over logic. They do this by using popular images of home or nation, vibrant colors, and large fonts to convey simple, direct commands or statements.

Older broadsides often contain more writing, in smaller font, partially because these posters were encountered up close.

Propaganda Poster Example

Paul Revere created what may be the most famous poster (broadside) of the American Revolution: “The bloody massacre perpetrated in King Street Boston on March 5th 1770 by a party of the 29th Regt.”

Click here to examine that poster. Examine both the words and the scene on the poster. Consider Revere’s message and his use of historical accuracy.

For help examining the poster, use the ​Poster Analysis Worksheet from the National Archives

Propaganda Poster Analysis 1

Because  Revere’s Boston Massacre Poster is so famous, it has been analyzed by many historians.

Read the poster analysis in the article  ​Boston Massacre Engraving by Paul Revere  from the Paul Revere Heritage Project. Reread the title of the poster and the poem that appears below the scene.

Consider whether or not you think this broadside is propaganda.

Propaganda Poster Analysis 2

Revere’s Boston Massacre Poster fits the criteria for propaganda. The images are graphic and create an emotional response . The title, labels, and poem make a persuasive case, along with the images, that the British were at fault when they shot and killed harmless colonists.

The facts of the Boston Massacre are more complex than the poster depicts…oversimplification is a characteristic of propaganda.

This poster influenced American opinion. Ultimately this helped to create public support for the American Revolution.

You learned:

• To analyzed the structure of complex primary sources to uncover central ideas about the American Revolution.

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Propaganda During World War II Essay

The Second World War was a complicated time for both the general public and the authorities since while the former worried for their safety, family, and homeland, the latter needed to maintain the national spirit and support the soldiers at the front. For such purposes, posters were implemented involving colorful images with strong words. However, while some might think that posters from the 20th century served as inspiration or plea, they were aimed to influence people psychologically.

The first propaganda poster Every minute counts! represents the influence of lost time on the battlefield failures of their soldiers. The technique used in this poster involves fear, through which the authorities strive to scare individuals working at manufacturing factories, urging them to work harder. In this sense, the poster incorporates statistics and figures, implying that every ten minutes that are lost will lead to less ammunition and weaponry, which will, in turn, postpone the victory.

Another poster, Air defense is home defense uses the technique of connecting with the audience. In their attempt to recruit as many individuals into air defense, the authorities aim to incorporate a heart-warming illustration of a family that looks in the sky and admires the national military plane. In a way, stereotypes in posters were common during wartime (Brewer 26). Here, the objective is to emphasize the pride in national defense and show the general public endorsement of the air forces.

The last poster, England expects, incorporates the technique of calling to action via bright colors, illustration of the national flag, and words. The phrase national service is written in bold red color that is contrasted by the dark blue background, which is used to catch the attention of the audience. Moreover, the number of people illustrated in the poster serves to show the national spirit, urging others to join the forces.

Hence, while some individuals might mistakenly believe that 20th-century posters acted as calls to action or acts of inspiration, their true purpose was to affect the audience psychologically. Every minute counts! is a propaganda poster that employs the technique of fear to illustrate the impact of wasted time on their soldiers’ failures on the battlefield. Another poster, Air defense is home defense , employs the audience-connection strategy. The final poster, England expects , employs the strategy of urging action via the use of bold colors, an image of the national flag, and text.

Brewer, Susan A. To Win the Peace: British Propaganda in the United States During World War II . Cornell University Press, 2019.

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IvyPanda. (2023, September 21). Propaganda During World War II. https://ivypanda.com/essays/propaganda-during-world-war-ii/

"Propaganda During World War II." IvyPanda , 21 Sept. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/propaganda-during-world-war-ii/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Propaganda During World War II'. 21 September.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Propaganda During World War II." September 21, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/propaganda-during-world-war-ii/.

1. IvyPanda . "Propaganda During World War II." September 21, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/propaganda-during-world-war-ii/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Propaganda During World War II." September 21, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/propaganda-during-world-war-ii/.

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Translating Propaganda: John Buchan’s Writing During the First World War

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• Kate Macdonald  

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John Buchan (1875–1940) is now best known as a novelist, particularly for inventing the modern thriller. He wrote The Thirty-Nine Steps (1915), his eighth novel, at the outbreak of the First World War, when he was a publisher and literary advisor to the Edinburgh firm Thomas Nelson and Sons. His career had also encompassed journalism (contributor to and deputy editor of The Spectator and editor of The Scottish Review ), the civil service (working for Lord Milner in South Africa after the Boer War), and the law (he had practised briefly as a barrister). 1 The war directed Buchan away from commercial publishing towards government censorship and propaganda. After a year in the Intelligence Corps under General Sir Douglas Haig he moved to the Foreign Office, and ended the war as Director of Information for the Ministry of Information, and a Lieutenant Colonel.

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The principal biographies of John Buchan are Janet Adam Smith, John Buchan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965),

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and Andrew Lownie, John Buchan, The Presbyterian Cavalier (London: Constable, 1995).

The standard bibliography is Robert G. Blanchard, The First Editions of John Buchan (North Haven, CT: Archon Books, 1981).

B. Bond, ‘Introduction’, in B. Bond (ed.) The First World War and British Military History (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), p.3.

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Buchan, Memory Hold-the-Door: the Autobiography of John Buchan (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1940), p.164.

C. Haste, Keep the Home Fires Burning: Propaganda in the First World War (London: Allen Lane, 1977), pp.30–1.

In 1917 Buchan wrote an introduction to an English translation of a book about the German army’s atrocities in Belgium by a Dutch journalist, Lambertus Mokveld ( De overweldiging van België , W.L. & J. Busse, Rotterdam, 1916), which again was more extreme than his own publications. See Buchan, ‘Introduction’, in L. Mokveld, The German Fury in Belgium (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1917).

A. Green, Writing the Great War: Sir James Edmonds and the Official Histories 1915–1948 (London: Frank Cass, 2003), p.199.

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P. Buitenhuis, The Great War of Words: British, American and Canadian Propaganda and Fiction, 1914–1933 (Vancouver: University of British Colombia Press, 1987), p.93.

Buchan, Nelson’s History of the War: From the Beginning of the War to the Fall of Namur , Vol.I (London: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1915), p.215.

H. Strachan, ‘John Buchan, Douglas Haig and military genius’, The Foundation Journal , 1 (2005), p.28.

Buchan, Mr Standfast (1919; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp.197–8.

J.F. Williams, Anzacs, the Media and the Great War (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 1999), p.3. I am grateful to Dr Stephen Badsey for finding me this reference.

G. Messinger, British Propaganda and the State in the First World War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992), p.89.

R. Prior and T. Wilson, The Somme (London: Yale University Press, 2005), pp.111–18.

A. Callewaert, Yper. De gebeurtissenen van October 1914 tot Mei 1915 (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1916), v–vi.

E.H. Kossman, The Low Countries 1780–1940 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), p.543.

Andre Charles Borne, Distinctions Honorifiques de la Belgique 1830–1985 (Brussels: Servis-Creatif, 1987), p.261.

D. Cannadine, ‘John Buchan: A life at the margins’, American Scholar , Vol.67, No.3 (1998), p.89.

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© 2007 Kate Macdonald

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Macdonald, K. (2007). Translating Propaganda: John Buchan’s Writing During the First World War. In: Hammond, M., Towheed, S. (eds) Publishing in the First World War. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230210837_11

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230210837_11

Publisher Name : Palgrave Macmillan, London

Print ISBN : 978-1-349-35287-6

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