cultural differences in communication essay

Cultural Differences’ Impact on Communication Essay

Culture is the specialized and intergenerational collection of one group’s ideas, beliefs, and customs. In our increasingly globalized society, it is important to be conscious of cultural differences in order to negotiate effectively. According to research, there are seven major cultural distinctions that have the biggest impact on communication (DeVito, 2016). Four of them are included in the TV show Outsourced , a sitcom that caricatures the cultural differences between Americans and Indians. Firstly, individualist or collectivist orientation decides whether the individual’s or group’s goals are given greater importance. For example, in Outsourced , a cultural misunderstanding occurs because an American character does not comprehend the Indian tradition of arranged marriage wherein the family’s choice of spouse is more important than the individual’s. Secondly, high-context cultures emphasize personal relationships and oral agreements, while low-context cultures value verbalized, explicit explanations (DeVito, 2016). Indian culture is more high-context than American culture, so the Outsourced employees use indirect communication to preserve face and do not openly criticize the manager. In one of the episodes, the main character hosts a sexual harassment seminar, and an employee expresses her discomfort through the company hot-line instead of confronting him directly.

Thirdly, power in high-power-distance cultures is concentrated in the hands of the few, and it is distributed more evenly in low-power-distance ones. Since India fits into the former category, there is a rigid hierarchal rule in the Outsourced office, and they are surprised by the manager’s active and hands-on approach. Fourthly, long-term orientation prioritizes future rewards, but short-term orientation focuses more on the past and present. It can be inferred that Indian culture is more short-term oriented since one of the employees prefers flirting with the clients rather than increasing revenue. Acknowledging cultural differences is important so the workplace misunderstandings that are spoofed in Outsourced can be avoided.

I have unknowingly encountered many cultural differences both in the classroom and at work. An argument once occurred between my classmate and me because our respective cultures had different distributions of power. She was from Russia, and she was angry with a professor who had unexpectedly moved her exam date a day forward with less than twelve hours’ warning. Since she had less time to prepare than expected, she was forced to pull an all-nighter and cram for the exam. I advised her to confront the professor about the injustice of not giving her at least a week’s warning and to complain to the administration if he refused to move the exam back to its original date. However, she said complaining would be useless, and it would be easier to acquiesce to the professor’s decision. At the time I believed her hesitation was due to her individual shyness, and I criticized her for it. However, after reading DeVito’s chapter on cultural differences, I understand that she came from a culture with a greater power distance between students and teachers (DeVito, 2016). In Russia, where students are expected to be modest and respectful, it would be unacceptable to challenge a superior such as a professor.

People generally tend to overestimate individual agency and disregard cultural differences. I believe this is because we are generally unaware of the fact that our beliefs are the product of our cultural orientation and are not universally applicable. There have definitely been instances when I was frustrated by my classmates or co-workers and criticized them as individuals, even though now I understand that there was simply a cultural gap between us. These situations highlight the importance of developing intercultural competence in the workplace since misunderstandings can be easily avoided with proper training and education.

As our economy grows more globalized and American society becomes more diverse, there is an increasing need for intercultural competence in the workplace. Organizations should implement a variety of initiatives, such as trainings and workshops, to create awareness of intercultural competence as an integral soft skill in the modern socio-economic climate. Tailored sessions should be held for teams who have an international clientele (Bodis, 2020). Individual coaching should be offered to employees that exhibit stereotyped and ethnocentric thinking. Additionally, companies can promote cross-cultural dialogue through photo exhibitions, film screenings, and excursions to cultural institutions such as museums. Furthermore, diagnostic assessments of intercultural sensitivity and competence should be undertaken regularly and on an organization-wide scale. A comprehensive approach that includes training, tailored sessions, individual coaching, cultural outings, and regular diagnostic assessments is required to develop intercultural competence.

There are several reasons organizations should prioritize the development of intercultural competence. Firstly, it forces employees to confront ethnic, racial, and national stereotypes to avoid their undue influence on the perception of co-workers or clients. People from different backgrounds should be regarded as unique, multi-faceted individuals rather than members of a specific group. Secondly, intercultural competence reduces ethnocentrism, the tendency to judge the customs of another culture by the standards of your own. Ethnocentrism leads to judgment, condescension, and should be eradicated since it hinders effective communication by assuming a position of superiority. Thirdly, a “system of symbols” encompasses the meaning of words and nonverbal cues that need to be shared by both interlocutors in order to communicate effectively (DeVito, 2016). Since it varies by culture, intercultural competence would enable employees to adapt to different systems. Confronting stereotypes, reducing ethnocentrism, and adjusting to new systems of symbols are a few of the many reasons organizations need to improve intercultural competence.

Bodis, A. (2020). Integrating intercultural competence in course curricula in a tailored way. English Australia Journal, 36 (1), 26-38.

DeVito, J. A. (2016). The interpersonal communication book (14th ed). Pearson.

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Intercultural competence.

Lily A. Arasaratnam Lily A. Arasaratnam Director of Research, Department of Communication, Alphacrucis College
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.68
Published online: 03 February 2016

The phrase “intercultural competence” typically describes one’s effective and appropriate engagement with cultural differences. Intercultural competence has been studied as residing within a person (i.e., encompassing cognitive, affective, and behavioral capabilities of a person) and as a product of a context (i.e., co-created by the people and contextual factors involved in a particular situation). Definitions of intercultural competence are as varied. There is, however, sufficient consensus amongst these variations to conclude that there is at least some collective understanding of what intercultural competence is. In “Conceptualizing Intercultural Competence,” Spitzberg and Chagnon define intercultural competence as, “the appropriate and effective management of interaction between people who, to some degree or another, represent different or divergent affective, cognitive, and behavioral orientations to the world” (p. 7). In the discipline of communication, intercultural communication competence (ICC) has been a subject of study for more than five decades. Over this time, many have identified a number of variables that contribute to ICC, theoretical models of ICC, and quantitative instruments to measure ICC. While research in the discipline of communication has made a significant contribution to our understanding of ICC, a well-rounded discussion of intercultural competence cannot ignore the contribution of other disciplines to this subject. Our present understanding of intercultural competence comes from a number of disciplines, such as communication, cross-cultural psychology, social psychology, linguistics, anthropology, and education, to name a few.

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A Brief Introduction

With increasing global diversity, intercultural competence is a topic of immediate relevance. While some would question the use of the term “competence” as a Western concept, the ability to understand and interact with people of different cultures in authentic and positive ways is a topic worth discussing. Though several parts of the world do remain culturally homogenous, many major cities across the world have undergone significant transformation in their cultural and demographic landscape due to immigration. Advances in communication technologies have also facilitated intercultural communication without the prerequisite of geographic proximity. Hence educational, business, and other projects involving culturally diverse workgroups have become increasingly common. In such contexts the success of a group in accomplishing its goals might not depend only on the group members’ expertise in a particular topic or ability to work in a virtual environment but also on their intercultural competence (Zakaria, Amelinckx, & Wilemon, 2004 ). Cultural diversity in populations continues to keep intercultural competence (or cultural competence, as it is known in some disciplines) on the agenda of research in applied disciplines such as medicine (Bow, Woodward, Flynn, & Stevens, 2013 ; Charles, Hendrika, Abrams, Shea, Brand, & Nicol, 2014 ) and education (Blight, 2012 ; Tangen, Mercer, Spooner-Lane, & Hepple, 2011 ), for example.

As noted in the historiography section, early research in intercultural competence can be traced back to acculturation/adaptation studies. Labels such as cross-cultural adaptation and cross-cultural adjustment/effectiveness were used to describe what we now call intercultural competence, though adaptation and adjustment continue to remain unique concepts in the study of migrants. It is fair to say that today’s researchers would agree that, while intercultural competence is an important part of adapting to a new culture, it is conceptually distinct.

Although our current understanding of intercultural competence is (and continues to be) shaped by research in many disciplines, communication researchers can lay claim to the nomenclature of the phrase, particularly intercultural communication competence (ICC). Intercultural competence is defined by Spitzberg and Chagnon ( 2009 ) as “the appropriate and effective management of interaction between people who, to some degree or another, represent different or divergent affective, cognitive, and behavioral orientations to the world” (p. 7), which touches on a long history of intercultural competence being associated with effectiveness and appropriateness. This is echoed in several models of intercultural competence as well. The prevalent characterization of effectiveness as the successful achievement of one’s goals in a particular communication exchange is notably individualistic in its orientation. Appropriateness, however, views the communication exchange from the other person’s point of view, as to whether the communicator has communicated in a manner that is (contextually) expected and accepted.

Generally speaking, research findings support the view that intercultural competence is a combination of one’s personal abilities (such as flexibility, empathy, open-mindedness, self-awareness, adaptability, language skills, cultural knowledge, etc.) as well as relevant contextual variables (such as shared goals, incentives, perceptions of equality, perceptions of agency, etc.). In an early discussion of interpersonal competence, Argyris ( 1965 ) proposed that competence increases as “one’s awareness of relevant factors increases,” when one can solve problems with permanence, in a manner that has “minimal deterioration of the problem-solving process” (p. 59). This view of competence places it entirely on the abilities of the individual. Kim’s ( 2009 ) definition of intercultural competence as “an individual’s overall capacity to engage in behaviors and activities that foster cooperative relationships in all types of social and cultural contexts in which culturally or ethnically dissimilar others interface” (p. 62) further highlights the emphasis on the individual. Others, however, suggest that intercultural competence has an element of social judgment, to be assessed by others with whom one is interacting (Koester, Wiseman, & Sanders, 1993 ). A combination of self and other assessment is logical, given that the definition of intercultural competence encompasses effective (from self’s perspective) and appropriate (from other’s perspective) communication.

Before delving further into intercultural competence, some limitations to our current understanding of intercultural competence must be acknowledged. First, our present understanding of intercultural competence is strongly influenced by research emerging from economically developed parts of the world, such as the United States and parts of Europe and Oceania. Interpretivists would suggest that the (cultural) perspectives from which the topic is approached inevitably influence the outcomes of research. Second, there is a strong social scientific bias to the cumulative body of research in intercultural competence so far; as such, the findings are subject to the strengths and weaknesses of this epistemology. Third, because many of the current models of intercultural competence (or intercultural communication competence) focus on the individual, and because individual cultural identities are arguably becoming more blended in multicultural societies, we may be quickly approaching a point where traditional definitions of intercultural communication (and by association, intercultural competence) need to be refined. While this is not an exhaustive list of limitations, it identifies some of the parameters within which current conceptualizations of intercultural competence must be viewed.

The following sections discuss intercultural competence, as we know it, starting with what it is and what it is not . A brief discussion of well-known theories of ICC follows, then some of the variables associated with ICC are identified. One of the topics of repeated query is whether ICC is culture-general or culture-specific. This is addressed in the section following the discussion of variables associated with ICC, followed by a section on assessment of ICC. Finally, before delving into research directions for the future and a historiography of research in ICC over the years, the question of whether ICC can be learned is addressed.

Clarification of Nomenclature

As noted in the summary section, one of the most helpful definitions of intercultural competence is provided by Spitzberg and Chagnon ( 2009 ), who define it as “the appropriate and effective management of interaction between people who, to some degree or another, represent different or divergent affective, cognitive, and behavioral orientations to the world” (p. 7). However, addressing what intercultural competence is not is just as important as explaining what it is, in a discussion such as this. Conceptually, intercultural competence is not equivalent to acculturation, multiculturalism, biculturalism, or global citizenship—although intercultural competence is a significant aspect of them all. Semantically, intercultural efficiency, cultural competence, intercultural sensitivity, intercultural communication competence, cross-cultural competence, and global competence are some of the labels with which students of intercultural competence might be familiar.

The multiplicity in nomenclature of intercultural competence has been one of the factors that have irked researchers who seek conceptual clarity. In a meta-analysis of studies in intercultural communication competence, Bradford, Allen, and Beisser ( 2000 ) attempted to synthesize the multiple labels used in research; they concluded that intercultural effectiveness is conceptually equivalent to intercultural communication competence. Others have proposed that intercultural sensitivity is conceptually distinct from intercultural competence (Chen & Starosta, 2000 ). Others have demonstrated that, while there are multiple labels in use, there is general consensus as to what intercultural competence is (Deardorff, 2006 ).

In communication literature, it is fair to note that intercultural competence and intercultural communication competence are used interchangeably. In literature in other disciplines, such as medicine and health sciences, cultural competence is the label with which intercultural competence is described. Some have also proposed the phrase cultural humility as a deliberate alternative to cultural competence, suggesting that cultural humility involves life-long learning through self-awareness and critical reflection (Tervalon & Murray-Garcia, 1998 ).

The nature of an abstract concept is such that its reality is defined by the labels assigned to it. Unlike some concepts that have been defined and developed over many years within the parameters of a single discipline, intercultural competence is of great interest to researchers in multiple disciplines. As such, researchers from different disciplines have ventured to study it, without necessarily building on findings from other disciplines. This is one factor that has contributed to the multiple labels by which intercultural competence is known. This issue might not be resolved in the near future. However, those seeking conceptual clarity could look for the operationalization of what is being studied, rather than going by the name by which it is called. In other words, if what is being studied is effectiveness and appropriateness in intercultural communication (each of these terms in turn need to be unpacked to check for conceptual equivalency), then one can conclude that it is a study of intercultural competence, regardless of what it is called.

Theories of Intercultural Competence

Many theories of intercultural (communication) competence have been proposed over the years. While it is fair to say that there is no single leading theory of intercultural competence, some of the well-known theories are worth noting.

There are a couple of theories of ICC that are identified as covering laws theories (Wiseman, 2002 ), namely Anxiety Uncertainty Management (AUM) theory and Face Negotiation theory. Finding its origins in Berger and Calabrese ( 1975 ), AUM theory (Gudykunst, 1993 , 2005 ) proposes that the ability to be mindful and the effective management of anxiety caused by the uncertainty in intercultural interactions are key factors in achieving ICC. Gudykunst conceptualizes ICC as intercultural communication that has the least amount of misunderstandings. While AUM theory is not without its critics (for example, Yoshitake, 2002 ), it has been used in a number of empirical studies over the years (examples include Duronto, Nishida, & Nakayama, 2005 ; Ni & Wang, 2011 ), including studies that have extended the theory further (see Neuliep, 2012 ).

Though primarily focused on intercultural conflict rather than intercultural competence, Face Negotiation theory (Ting-Toomey, 1988 ) proposes that all people try to maintain a favorable social self-image and engage in a number of communicative behaviours designed to achieve this goal. Competence is identified as being part of the concept of “face,” and it is achieved through the integration of knowledge, mindfulness, and skills in communication (relevant to managing one’s own face as well as that of others). Face Negotiation theory has been used predominantly in intercultural conflict studies (see Oetzel, Meares, Myers, & Lara, 2003 ). As previously noted, it is not primarily a theory of intercultural competence, but it does address competence in intercultural settings.

From a systems point of view, Spitzberg’s ( 2000 ) model of ICC and Kim’s ( 1995 ) cultural adaptation theory are also well-known. Spitzberg identifies three levels of analysis that must be considered in ICC, namely the individual system, the episodic system, and the relational system. The factors that contribute to competence are delineated in terms of characteristics that belong to an individual (individual system), features that are particular to a specific interaction (episodic system), and variables that contribute to one’s competence across interactions with multiple others (relational system). Kim’s cultural adaptation theory recognizes ICC as an internal capacity within an individual; it proposes that each individual (being an open system) has the goal of adapting to one’s environment and identifies cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions of ICC.

Wiseman’s ( 2002 ) chapter on intercultural communication competence, in the Handbook of International and Intercultural Communication provides further descriptions of theories in ICC. While there have been several models of ICC developed since then, well-formed and widely tested theories of ICC remain few.

Variables Associated with Intercultural Competence

A number of variables have been identified as contributors to intercultural competence. Among these are mindfulness (Gudykunst, 1993 ), self and other awareness (Deardorff, 2006 ), listening skills (Ting-Toomey & Kurogi, 1998 ), positive attitude toward other cultures, and empathy (Arasaratnam & Doerfel, 2005 ), to name a few. Further, flexibility, tolerance for ambiguity, capacity for complexity, and language proficiency are also relevant. There is evidence to suggest that personal spiritual wellbeing plays a positive role in intercultural competence (Sandage & Jankowski, 2013 ). Additionally, there is an interesting link between intercultural competence and a biological variable, namely sensation seeking. Evidence suggests that, in the presence of a positive attitude towards other cultures and motivation to interact with people from other cultures, there is a positive relationship between sensation seeking and intercultural competence (Arasaratnam & Banerjee, 2011 ). Sensation seeking has also been associated with intercultural friendships (Morgan & Arasaratnam, 2003 ; Smith & Downs, 2004 ).

Cognitive complexity has also been identified with intercultural competence (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003 ). Cognitive complexity refers to an individual’s ability to form multiple nuanced perceptual categories (Bieri, 1955 ). A cognitively complex person relies less on stereotypical generalizations and is more perceptive to subtle racism (Reid & Foels, 2010 ). Gudykunst ( 1995 ) proposed that cognitive complexity is directly related to effective management of uncertainty and anxiety in intercultural communication, which in turn leads to ICC (according to AUM theory).

Not all variables are positively associated with intercultural competence. One of the variables that notably hinder intercultural competence is ethnocentrism. Neuliep ( 2002 ) characterizes ethnocentrism as, “an individual psychological disposition where the values, attitudes, and behaviors of one’s ingroup are used as the standard for judging and evaluating another group’s values, attitudes, and behaviors” (p. 201). Arasaratnam and Banerjee ( 2011 ) found that introducing ethnocentrism into a model of ICC weakened all positive relationships between the variables that otherwise contribute to ICC. Neuliep ( 2012 ) further discovered that ethnocentrism and intercultural communication apprehension debilitate intercultural communication. As Neuliep observed, ethnocentrism hinders mindfulness because a mindful communicator is receptive to new information, while the worldview of an ethnocentric person is rigidly centered on his or her own culture.

This is, by no means, an exhaustive list of variables that influence intercultural competence, but it is representative of the many individual-centered variables that influence the extent to which one is effective and appropriate in intercultural communication. Contextual variables, as noted in the next section, also play a role in ICC. It must further be noted that many of the ICC models do not identify language proficiency as a key variable; however, the importance of language proficiency has not been ignored (Fantini, 2009 ). Various models of intercultural competence portray the way in which (and, in some cases, the extent to which) these variables contribute to intercultural competence. For an expansive discussion of models of intercultural competence, see Spitzberg and Chagnoun ( 2009 ).

If one were to broadly summarize what we know thus far about an interculturally competent person, one could say that she or he is mindful, empathetic, motivated to interact with people of other cultures, open to new schemata, adaptable, flexible, able to cope with complexity and ambiguity. Language skills and culture-specific knowledge undoubtedly serve as assets to such an individual. Further, she or he is neither ethnocentric nor defined by cultural prejudices. This description does not, however, take into account the contextual variables that influence intercultural competence; highlighting the fact that the majority of intercultural competence research has been focused on the individual.

The identification of variables associated with intercultural competence raises a number of further questions. For example, is intercultural competence culture-general or culture-specific; can it be measured; and can it be taught or learned? These questions merit further exploration.

Culture General or Culture Specific

A person who is an effective and appropriate intercultural communicator in one context might not be so in another cultural context. The pertinent question is whether there are variables that facilitate intercultural competence across multiple cultural contexts. There is evidence to suggest that there are indeed culture-general variables that contribute to intercultural competence. This means there are variables that, regardless of cultural perspective, contribute to perception of intercultural competence. Arasaratnam and Doerfel ( 2005 ), for example, identified five such variables, namely empathy, experience, motivation, positive attitude toward other cultures, and listening. The rationale behind their approach is to look for commonalities in emic descriptions of intercultural competence by participants who represent a variety of cultural perspectives. Some of the variables identified by Arasaratnam and Doerfel’s research are replicated in others’ findings. For example, empathy has been found to be a contributor to intercultural competence in a number of other studies (Gibson & Zhong, 2005 ; Nesdale, De Vries Robbé, & Van Oudenhoven, 2012 ). This does not mean, however, that context has no role to play in perception of ICC. Contextual variables, such as the relationship between the interactants, the values of the cultural context in which the interaction unfolds, the emotional state of the interactants, and a number of other such variables no doubt influence effectiveness and appropriateness. Perception of competence in a particular situation is arguably a combination of culture-general and contextual variables. However, the aforementioned “culture-general” variables have been consistently associated with perceived ICC by people of different cultures. Hence they are noteworthy. The culture-general nature of some of the variables that contribute to intercultural competence provides an optimistic perspective that, even in the absence of culture-specific knowledge, it is possible for one to engage in effective and appropriate intercultural communication. Witteborn ( 2003 ) observed that the majority of models of intercultural competence take a culture-general approach. What is lacking at present, however, is extensive testing of these models to verify their culture-general nature.

The extent to which the culture-general nature of intercultural competence can be empirically verified depends on our ability to assess the variables identified in these models, and assessing intercultural competence itself. To this end, a discussion of assessment is warranted.

Assessing Intercultural Competence

Researchers have employed both quantitative and qualitative techniques in the assessment of intercultural competence. Deardorff ( 2006 ) proposed that intercultural competence should be measured progressively (at different points in time, over a period of time) and using multiple methods.

In terms of quantitative assessment, the nature of intercultural competence is such that any measure of this concept has to be one that (conceptually) translates across different cultures. Van de Vijver and Leung ( 1997 ) identified three biases that must be considered when using a quantitative instrument across cultures. First, there is potential for construct biases where cultural interpretations of a particular construct might vary. For example, “personal success” might be defined in terms of affluence, job prestige, etc., in an individualistic culture that favors capitalism, while the same construct could be defined in terms of sense of personal contribution and family validation in a collectivistic culture (Arasaratnam, 2007 ). Second, a method bias could be introduced by the very choice of the use of a quantitative instrument in a culture that might not be familiar with quantifying abstract concepts. Third, the presence of an item that is irrelevant to a particular cultural group could introduce an item bias when that instrument is used in research involving participants from multiple cultural groups. For a more detailed account of equivalence and biases that must be considered in intercultural research, see Van de Vijver and Leung ( 2011 ).

Over the years, many attempts have been made to develop quantitative measures of intercultural competence. There are a number of instruments that have been designed to measure intercultural competence or closely related concepts. A few of the more frequently used ones are worth noting.

Based on the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) (Bennett, 1986 ), the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) measures three ethnocentric and three ethno-relative levels of orientation toward cultural differences, as identified in the DMIS model (Hammer, Bennett, & Wiseman, 2003 ). This instrument is widely used in intercultural research, in several disciplines. Some examples of empirical studies that use IDI include Greenholtz ( 2000 ), Sample ( 2013 ), and Wang ( 2013 ).

The Intercultural Sensitivity Inventory (ICSI) is another known instrument that approaches intercultural competence from the perspective of a person’s ability to appropriately modify his or her behavior when confronted with cultural differences, specifically as they pertain to individualistic and collectivistic cultures (Bhawuk & Brislin, 1992 ). It must be noted, however, that intercultural sensitivity is not necessarily equivalent to intercultural competence. Chen and Starosta ( 2000 ), for example, argued that intercultural sensitivity is a pre-requisite for intercultural competence rather than its conceptual equivalent. As such, Chen and Starosta’s Intercultural Sensitivity scale should be viewed within the same parameters. The authors view intercultural sensitivity as the affective dimension of intercultural competence (Chen & Starosta, 1997 ).

Although not specifically designed to measure intercultural competence, the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire (MPQ) measures five dimensions, namely open mindedness, emotional stability, cultural empathy, social initiative, and flexibility (Van Oudenhoven & Van der Zee, 2002 ), all of which have been found to be directly related to intercultural competence, in other research (see Matsumoto & Hwang, 2013 ).

Quantitative measures of intercultural competence almost exclusively rely on self-ratings. As such, they bear the strengths and weaknesses of any self-report (for a detailed discussion of self-knowledge, see Bauer & Baumeister, 2013 ). There is some question as to whether Likert-type scales favor individuals with higher cognitive complexity because such persons have a greater capacity for differentiating between constructs (Bowler, Bowler, & Cope, 2012 ). Researchers have also used other methods such as portfolios, reflective journals, responses to hypothetical scenarios, and interviews. There continues to be a need for fine-tuned methods of assessing intercultural competence that utilize others’ perceptions in addition to self-reports.

Can Intercultural Competence Be Learned?

If competence is the holy grail of intercultural communication, then the question is whether it can be learned. On the one hand, many researchers suggest that the process of learning intercultural competence is developmental (Beamer, 1992 ; Bennett, 1986 ; Hammer, Bennett, & Wiseman, 2003 ). Which means that over time, experiences, and deliberate reflection, people can learn things that cumulatively contribute to intercultural competence. Evidence also suggests that collaborative learning facilitates the development of intercultural competence (Helm, 2009 ; Zhang, 2012 ). On the other hand, given research shows that there are many personality variables that contribute to intercultural competence; one could question whether these are innate or learned. Further, many causal models of intercultural competence show that intercultural competence is the product of interactions between many variables. If some of these can be learned and others are innate, then it stands to reason that, given equal learning opportunities, there would still be variations in the extent to which one “achieves” competence. There is also evidence to suggest that there are certain variables, such as ethnocentrism, that debilitate intercultural competence. Thus, it is fair to conclude that, while there is the potential for one to improve one’s intercultural competence through learning, not all can or will.

The aforementioned observation has implications for intercultural training, particularly training that relies heavily on dissemination of knowledge alone. In other words, just because someone knows facts about intercultural competence, it does not necessarily make them an expert at effective and appropriate communication. Developmental models of intercultural competence suggest that the learning process is progressive over time, based on one’s reaction to various experiences and one’s ability to reflect on new knowledge (Saunders, Haskins, & Vasquez et al., 2015 ). Further, research shows that negative attitudes and attitudes that are socially reinforced are the hardest to change (Bodenhausen & Gawronski, 2013 ). Hence people with negative prejudices toward other cultures, for example, may not necessarily be affected by an intercultural training workshop. While many organizations have implemented intercultural competency training in employee education as a nod to embracing diversity, the effectiveness of short, skilled-based training bears further scrutiny. For more on intercultural training, see the Handbook of Intercultural Training by Landis, Bennett, and Bennett ( 2004 ).

Research Directions

In a review of ICC research between 2003 and 2013 , Arasaratnam ( 2014 ) observed that there is little cross-disciplinary dialogue when it comes to intercultural competence research. Even though intercultural competence is a topic of interest to researchers in multiple disciplines, the findings from within a discipline appear to have limited external disciplinary reach. This is something that needs to be addressed. While the field of communication has played a significant role in contributing to current knowledge of intercultural competence, findings from other disciplines not only add to this knowledge but also potentially address gaps in research that are inevitable from a single disciplinary point of view. As previously observed, one of the reasons for lack of cross-disciplinary referencing (apart from lack of familiarity with work outside of one’s own discipline) could be the use of different labels to describe intercultural competence. Hence, students and scholars would do well to include these variations in labels when looking for research in intercultural competence. This would facilitate consolidation of inter-disciplinary knowledge in future research.

New and robust theories of intercultural competence that are empirically tested in multiple cultural groups are needed. As previously observed, the majority of existing theories in intercultural communication competence stem from the United States, and as such are influenced by a particular worldview. Theories from other parts of the world would enrich our current understanding of intercultural competence.

Thus far, the majority of research in intercultural communication has been done with the fundamental assumption that participants in a dyadic intercultural interaction arrive at it from two distinct cultural perspectives. This assumption might not be valid in all interactions that could still be classified as intercultural. With increasing global mobility, there are more opportunities for people to internalize more than one culture, thus becoming bicultural or blended in their cultural identity. This adds a measure of complexity to the study of intercultural competence because there is evidence to show that there are cultural differences in a range of socio-cognitive functions such as categorization, attribution, and reasoning (Miyamoto & Wilken, 2013 ), and these functions play important roles in how we perceive others, which in turn influences effective and appropriate communication (Moskowitz & Gill, 2013 ).

The concept of competence itself merits further reflection. Because the majority of voices that contribute to ongoing discussions on intercultural competence arise from developed parts of the world, it is fair to say that these discussions are not comprehensively representative of multiple cultural views. Further, the main mechanisms of academic publishing favor a peer-review system which can be self-perpetuating because the reviewers themselves are often the vocal contributors to the existing body of knowledge. For a more well rounded reflection of what it means to engage in authentic and affirming intercultural communication, sources of knowledge other than academic publications need to be considered. These may include the work done by international aid agencies and not-for-profit organizations for example, which engage with expressions of intercultural communication that are different from those that are observed among international students, expatriates, or medical, teaching, or business professionals, who inform a significant amount of intercultural competence research in academia.

Historiography: Research in Intercultural Competence over the Years

The concept of “competence” is not recent. For example, in an early use of the term, psychologist Robert W. White ( 1959 ) characterized competence as “an organism’s capacity to interact effectively with its environment” (p. 297) and proposed that effectance motivation (which results in feelings of efficacy) is an integral part of competence. Today’s research in intercultural competence has been informed by the work of researchers in a number of disciplines, over several decades.

In the field of communication, some of the pioneers of ICC research are Mary Jane Collier ( 1986 ), Norman G. Dinges ( 1983 ), William B. Gudykunst ( 1988 ), Mitchell R. Hammer ( 1987 ), T. Todd Imohari (Imohari & Lanigan, 1989 ), Daniel J. Kealey ( 1989 ), Young Yun Kim ( 1991 ), Jolene Koester (Koester & Olebe, 1988 ), Judith N. Martin ( 1987 ), Hiroko Nishida ( 1985 ), Brent D. Ruben ( 1976 ), Brian H. Spitzberg ( 1983 ), Stella Ting-Toomey ( 1988 ), and Richard L. Wiseman (Wiseman & Abe, 1986 ).

While much of the momentum in communication research started in the late 1970s, a conservative (and by no means comprehensive) glance at history traces back some of the early works in intercultural competence to the 1960s, where researchers identified essential characteristics for intercultural communication. This research was based on service personnel and Americans travelling overseas for work (Gardner, 1962 ; Guthrie & Zetrick, 1967 ; Smith, 1966 ). The characteristics they identified include flexibility, stability, curiosity, openness to other perspectives, and sensitivity, to name a few, and these characteristics were studied in the context of adaptation to a new culture.

In the 1970s, researchers built on early work to further identify key variables in intercultural “effectiveness” or “cross-cultural” competency. Researchers in communication worked toward not only identifying but also assessing these variables (Hammer, Gudykunst, & Wiseman, 1978 ; Ruben & Kealey, 1979 ), primarily using quantitative methods. Ruben, Askling, and Kealey ( 1977 ) provided a detailed account of “facets of cross-cultural effectiveness” identified by various researchers.

In the 1980s, research in ICC continued to gain momentum, with a special issue of the International Journal of Intercultural Relations dedicated to this topic. ICC was still approached from the point of view of two specific cultures interacting with each other, similar to the acculturation approach in the previous decade. Many of the conceptualizations of ICC were derived from (interpersonal) communication competence, extending this to intercultural contexts. For example, Spitzberg and Cupach’s ( 1984 ) conceptualization of communication competence as effective and appropriate communication has been foundational to later work in ICC.

Researchers in the 1990s built on the work of others before them. Chen ( 1990 ) presented eleven propositions and fifteen theorems in regards to the components of ICC, building from a discussion of Dinges’ ( 1983 ) six approaches to studying effective and appropriate communication in intercultural contexts. Chen went on to propose that competence is both inherent and learned. The 1993 volume of the International and Intercultural Communication Annual was dedicated to ICC, introducing some of the theories that later become influential in intercultural research, such as Gudykunst’s ( 1993 ) Anxiety/Uncertainty Management (AUM) theory, Cupach and Imahori’s ( 1993 ) Identity Management theory, and Ting-Toomey’s ( 1993 ) Identity Negotiation theory. Contributions to intercultural competence theory came from other disciplines as well, such as a learning model for becoming interculturally competent (Taylor, 1994 ) and an instructional model of intercultural strategic competence (Milhouse, 1996 ), for example. The formation of the International Academy for Intercultural Research, in 1997 , marked a significant step toward interdisciplinary collaboration in intercultural research. Research in the 1990s contributed to the strides made in the 2000s.

In a meta-review of ICC, Bradford, Allen, and Beisser ( 2000 ) observed that ICC and intercultural communication effectiveness have been used (conceptually) interchangeably in previous research. Despite the different labels under which this topic has been studied, Arasaratnam and Doerfel ( 2005 ) made the case for the culture-general nature of ICC, and Deardorff ( 2006 ) demonstrated that there is consensus amongst experts as to what ICC is. The publication of the SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence (Deardorff, 2009 ) and Spitzberg and Chagnon’s ( 2009 ) comprehensive introductory chapter on conceptualizing intercultural competence are other noteworthy contributions to literature in intercultural competence. In 2015 , the publication of another special issue on intercultural competence by the International Journal of Intercultural Relations (some 25 years after the 1989 special issue) signals that intercultural competence continues to be a topic of interest amongst researchers in communication and other disciplines. As discussed in the Research Directions section, the areas that are yet to be explored would hopefully be addressed in future research.

Intercultural Communication

(14 reviews)

Shannon Ahrndt, University of Missouri-St. Louis

Publisher: University of Missouri - St. Louis

Language: English

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Reviewed by Christi Masters, Clinical Associate Professor, Purdue University on 12/19/23

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

This covers a fairly wide range of topics in regard to intercultural learning. For an introductory course (especially geared towards freshmen), this will provide a nice overview of topics. Given the title, I was expecting to see more comprehensive information about culture and communication (e.g., how to communicate more effectively). Chapter 1 covered this more comprehensively than the remaining chapters.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

Overall the information is accurate and sources are cited. Writing about this topic can be tricky as we often view this from our own experiences in life, but the author appropriately references material discussed.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

The overall topic and broad information is quite relevant. While there are a few examples that are recent, many of the examples (including video clips) were often quite old (and not clearly related to how it is relevant to current times).

Clarity rating: 5

The clarity is excellent. I appreciated how each chapter provides clear learning objectives before getting started. The key terms at the start of each chapter (and being able to click on them for more information) was helpful, especially when thinking of the student perspective.

Consistency rating: 4

Consistency with terminology throughout the text was noted. The consistent start of each chapter with learning objectives and key terminology was helpful. All of the chapters ended with "key takeaways", but two chapters did not include "exercises" at the end of the chapter.

Modularity rating: 5

Although chapter 1 was long and contained more information than others, there were still clear sections and subheadings that aided modularity. Although some of the information builds off previous content/chapters, it would still be feasible to assign a chapter or section and still make sense to the reader and allow for learning based on that specific assignment/chapter.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The text was organized and flowed well while reading. As mentioned previously, the organization of each chapter was helpful (starting with learning objectives and key terms, and ending with key takeaways and exercises).

Interface rating: 5

The images and charts were clear. The key terms and videos were easy to click on and find. There were no distracting features noted.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

A few minor errors but nothing that hindered content or readability.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

Given this is the focus of the text, it covers a range of cultural topics. Again, some of the information/examples are older and it would benefit from more recent examples.

There were many things I appreciated about this text. For example, noting the importance of reflection and reflective practice when it comes to intercultural learning. I wish there was more focus and an explicit statement about intercultural communication competence being a life-long journey - you don't just one day become "competent". While I am sure the author knows that, I think an undergraduate student could read the section on ICC and think there is an "endpoint" where you are finally competent.

Reviewed by Kay L. Colley, Professor of Mass Communication, Texas Wesleyan University on 7/31/23

This book is a comprehensive yet concise read allowing students to really understand the basics of intercultural communication. The glossary provides a great resource for students and anyone who wants to understand how to more effectively... read more

Most intercultural communication texts are written through a lens, so examples veer toward a focus on one area, usually the area of specialization of the author. This text provides a good depth of examples that seem to go beyond your traditional examples in such a text.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The basic theories and concepts of intercultural communication are tackled effectively in this text, and content is fairly up-to-date. As this topic changes so quickly, it is difficult to keep intercultural communications up-to-date, but examples and issues are relevant to today.

This text is well-written and more accessible to students than several other texts I have reviewed. A limit on jargon and clear explanations of complicated topics make the text one that students will use.

Consistency rating: 5

Consistent use of terminology and phrasing is clear throughout the book.

Modularity rating: 4

The first two chapters are a bit long, especially chapter 1. Breaking the chapter into a bite-sized portion would be helpful.

Clear flow and logic are present in this text.

I was impressed by how the text looked. It is clear, attractive and written in a font that makes reading easier.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

There are a few grammatical errors, which is common in most texts today. Nothing is glaring, in terms of grammar, but there are some S-V agreement issues.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The topics that this textbook covers are sometimes hot button. There are some graphics that may be jarring, but that is the nature of intercultural communications. In studying how to communicate effectively across cultures, there are times when issues must be addressed that are uncomfortable.

This textbook is far more accessible to my students than the previous textbook in terms of writing, tone and style. I really believe my students will understand the subject better as they use this text, which is integral to understanding how to communication effectively across cultures.

Reviewed by Marc Pinheiro-Cadd, Associate Professor, Drake University on 12/15/22

While each chapter is of interest and potentially useful for an introductory course to intercultural communication, there is no index and no glossary. This could be addressed using ancillary materials, but it would not suffice as a stand-alone... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

The content is unbiased, taking a "neutral" stance on the various topics. The content is consistent with current research in the field, although there are some missing content that would be useful.

My primary motivation for reviewing the text was to find a better presentation of the chapter on gendered communication, i.e., something that addresses more the interaction between males and females. While the text discusses the LGBTQ+ movement and community, it lacks a thorough discussion of communication within the community and with other communities. While the research in this area has not been largely forthcoming, most instructors will want a text (or replacement chapter) that is more current. A chapter devoted to acculturation might be a useful addition.

The text is very clearly written and 100% appropriate for an introductory course. Studnets who wish for or need material that can be applied directly to their lives without difficult jargon, this would be an appropriate selection.

Assessing this is a little difficult given that there is no index or glossary, but based on my reading, it is consistent. The framework remains consistent in that it is a very user-friendly text.

I believe this is one of the strengths of the text. Individual chapters could be used to supplement or replace chapters of other texts. Alternatively, chapters of this text could be omitted and replaced by others more suitable to the instructor and their students. The divisions internally within each chapter have been well chosen.

The first three chapters of the text are the more "theoretical," although they are easily processed by a reader unfamiliar with the field. The remainder of the chapter address various aspects of human society that face some of the issues addressed in the first three chapters.

There were no interface issues to note. Every chart and image were clearly displayed and easily understood.

No grammatical errors were found.

Race, class, and gender were addressed in individual chapters. A discussion of communication between non-binary and binary/cis individuals would be an appropriate addition. No offensive material was detected.

Having known little about OER prior to the search that led me to this text, I was very pleasantly surprised to discover this text. It will be useful for future iterations of my courses.

Reviewed by Elissa Mitchell, Associate Professor, University of Southern Indiana on 11/18/22

This book covers many areas (e.g., stereotyping, beliefs and values, race and ethnicity, social class, gender and sexuality) so it's diverse enough to be used in a broad course, likely as a supplemental text/reading. Each chapter has a good... read more

Content Accuracy rating: 4

While I am not expert in this field, it appears as though the information in this book is based on the appropriate literature and is supported by in-text citations and linked in the references.

This is an up-to-date discussion of intercultural communication, although I would have liked to have seen more of a discussion on nonverbal communication (an important factor). While language or preferred terms may evolve over time, this could easily be updated to reflect those changes. A list of key terms would be a nice addition to each chapter, perhaps included at the end with the key takeaways.

I found this to be a very well-written text. It is fairly informal, not including a lot of unnecessary jargon, and makes the text accessible (ideal for undergraduates). Personal examples and stories are included which engages the reader.

The text is consistent in terms of formatting, style of writing, and additional content (key takeaways, student exercises) throughout

This is a highly modular text and chapters could easily be used independently without assigning the whole text. Chapters on race or gender, for example, could be used as supplemental readings in courses addressing those topics. The chapters can be a bit long so one might even consider breaking up chapters into subsections.

The text is well-organized and flows well. While some chapters start differently than others, I think that helps break up the monotony of some texts. The book starts with an overview of the topic and then each subsequent chapter talks about a specific aspect of culture or identity.

The text is free of significant interface issues or navigation problems. The images/charts are clear and cited & I appreciate the linked in-text citations.

This is a well-written text with few grammatical issues. Those that are present do not detract from the topic or information being presented.

This is an appropriate book for intercultural communication from an American perspective. Those from other nations would likely have a different view. That being said, the U.S. has many cultures and subcultures and this book does a nice job of discussing potential issues and considerations.

Reviewed by Reslie Cortés, Assistnat Professor, James Madison University on 11/9/22

The information provided and the chapter organization is interesting and good but overall, I think this book is more about identity than culture. It covers very little ground to the extent that I would not be able to keep it as my main book and would only be able to use it to supplement a different text. It is also quite short at only 100 pages. So while it could be used as a helpful reference it’s not a stand-alone text.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

While the book often brings in widely accepted concepts regarding prejudice, there is insufficient/inaccurate discussion of how these function through colonialism. For example, in discussion of social class the author points to overpopulation in the global south. This is a myth borne out of colonial discourse which erases exploitation of these countries and has been widely disproven. We have also moved beyond considering oppression as an individual experience and much more structurally.

Does not extensively use “current events” to explain concepts so it feels very anachronistic. This could increase its longevity but also detaches it from everyday experiences.

Writing style is very clear, accessible, and personable. The author refers to themselves in the third person which I think student would like. Most students should be able to easily digest the reading.

The terminology is consistent, however there is an imbalance in paradigmatic coverage. There seems to be an implied assumption that all intercultural communication research has this critical approach which I feel is very inaccurate and limits the coverage on social scientific or interpretive perspectives in the field. In other words, presenting critical perspectives as the umbrella instead of one approach. I myself am I critical scholar, however in a survey course we must address the other paradigms as well.

Chapters are 25 pages or less with plenty of subsections

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The chapters are divided by different identities and while this contributes to a good flow, there is more to intercultural communication than identity. I fear this organization has excluded some important themes such as cultural space, identity performance, globalization and modern-day imperialism, the role of media, cultural practices, language, etc. Furthermore, while intersectionality is discussed, this organization hampers readers ability to see how these functions because the identities are all discussed separately.

Well placed headers, images, charts. Links work correctly.

None detected

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

There seems to be a hesitance address modern-day colonization and imperialism in this book. Additionally, I think it could be updated by using “enslavement” rather than “slavery”. It discusses important social inequalities at length but mostly at an individual level, leaving out explorations of more structural oppressions. There are also some red flags throughout that reveal internalized oppressive discourse of the author. For example the chapter on social class (only 10pgs or so) talks about criminal justice and uses a photograph of a black man being arrested with no contextualization or discussion of rates of arrest in different communities or police brutality. Literally choosing to include this without drawing its relevance to culture. What was their goal for discussing this topic? Out of touch and completely unacceptable.

Reviewed by Caleb Lamont, Adjunct Faculty in Communication Studies, Eastern Oregon University on 9/9/22

Various topics and theories are explored in the text and present them in a fun and engaging way. Everything is easy to understand throughout and students are able to see how one topic connects to another one. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

Everything was accurate and relatable to the students.

Everything is very relevant and up-to-date. Granted, some things might need to be revised down the road in future editions to make things more relatable and current but as of today, everything was fine and relevant.

Everything was very easy to understand and flowed clearly from chapter to chapter.

The author was consistent throughout.

Overall, everything is easy to understand throughout and is a solid text the way it is today. Everything flows and builds off of previous chapters/topics.

The text is very well organized and everything flows from the first chapter to the last chapter.

No issues with this, no broken links were found.

While not a major issue, there were several typos and other grammatical errors in the text. Not a major issue at all though, and it did not take away from the material being presented to students.

The examples used were all current and relatable to students but it was more geared toward North American culture it seemed. Expanding the cultural examples being used is suggested for future revisions.

Overall, this is a solid text and does a great job presenting information to students.

Reviewed by Andrea (Ané) Pearman, Assistant Professor, Tidewater Community College on 7/28/22

Although the text covers a vast amount of content, there are foundational aspects of ICC that are not addressed as well as I would prefer. There appears to be a more sociological or cultural anthropology focus to this text and less of a focus on the field of communication. For example, nonverbal communication was barely addressed yet it plays such a significant role in ICC.

I appreciate the listing of key terms at the beginning of each chapter as well as the direct links between the listing and the content within the chapter. I would recommend a well-structured glossary as an addition to this text or a detailed index to the entire text for reference; this would make content even more accessible for students. I appreciate the inclusion (which is not rather standard process) of learning objectives for each chapter but I do not always see the connection within the chapters.

Content, without copiously scrutinizing each chapters’ content and fact checking each and every single reference, appears to be accurate. The author cites sources at the end of each chapter and within the content of the chapters. Links to source citations are added within each chapter’s content for credibility and to enhance further research. I appreciated the links within the "References" section for each chapter to easily access original source content.

Overall, the language of the writing does not tend to “date” the content as the author has written with “timeless” language. The author includes both historical and current examples which may impact the long-term relevance of the text. The inclusion of incredibly current content (text written in 2020 with sources from 2020) may help this text stand the test of time. The language is current and there is a good inclusion of up-to-date examples of some concepts discussed within some of the content (particularly in the Ch. 7 Socialization and Human Sexuality). These examples could easily be updated to keep the content as current as possible.

Clarity rating: 4

The chapters are clearly written with the author’s writing style being very “readable” and I feel that this puts the readers at ease regarding the content. The author’s language is written at a level easily accessible for both higher and lower-level undergraduate course students. The author uses anecdotes and personal examples to make the content more “relatable” and the author tries to create connections with students, overall, with the language style of the writing. However, the somewhat heavy reliance on personal examples by the author can take away from the overall research value- for me, as a reader.

The chapters’ language, formatting and content follow a consistent pattern. I appreciate the use of key terms, learning objectives, photo boxes, “getting real” and “getting plugged in “sections, key takeaways, examples, video links and one level of sub-heading throughout each chapter. I would even value a further level of sub-heading, if possible, in future editions. The flow of content is logical and consistent, but some chapters are significantly longer or include more content than others which requires the professor to break down into addition reading sections for students.

In the text’s current organization, the chapters seem to flow logically into each other or lead logically to the next chapter’s content. Having said this, the chapters are structured in a manner that they can easily be rearranged for teaching style and timing. The subdivision of content with secondary headers within the chapters makes it easier to “pick and choose” if necessary, content to be addressed.

As previously noted, some chapters contain considerably more content than others and this could be modified with either adding more chapters OR more content to other chapters. The flow of content is logical and well-structured. There is consistency in the content included with the exception of some chapters including more pedagogical aids than others.

Interface rating: 4

Basic but, overall, easy to use. Downloadable pdf with links (but it’s easy to lose your original place of reading when using links). Although I appreciate the links for key words and source information, the “open in another tab” option is not available, but it would make the process easier to return to prior reading place.

I did not review the text as an editor nor run through editing software, but I did notice a few slight grammatical issues present; the errors were nominal and none that would impact the author’s credibility.

The examples were very current as well as relevant and, overall, would relate to, or at least interest, students. I found the book to be sensitive to a variety of aspects of culture but found it to be somewhat “American-centric” meaning it was more relevant to North America than subcultures of other geographic areas (like Africa, Asia, Australia and Europe).

I found the text to be an enjoyable read and I think students would find value in the content included. I appreciated the key term links and exercises for students as well as the personal anecdotes of the author. While the coverage of intercultural communication from a sociological perspective was quite thorough, I would not be able to use this as a “stand alone” source for my Intercultural Communication courses but would need to supplement with additional content regarding communication theories as well as more content from cultures outside of the United States.

Reviewed by Sweta Baniya, Assistant Professor, Virginia Tech on 4/1/22

The book is less comprehensive than I thought. Though it covers a variety of important topics, I wanted some comprehensive historical grounding of IC and its importance. read more

The book is less comprehensive than I thought. Though it covers a variety of important topics, I wanted some comprehensive historical grounding of IC and its importance.

All content seems accurate.

Content is very relevant

The language is really clear.

Information is very consistent. However, I think the history of IC is missing.

I think so! I like the format.

It seems like there are so many items within one page but those are easily identifiable.

No issues that I can think of

None that I can see.

I think the book is really good. However, I think I wanted a comprehensive history of intercultural communication that will help the students to understand the grounding of IC. I do think the book is really good. However, I am not so confident in using only this text as my major text for my class. The chapter on Race and Ethnicity is really important. I will definitely assign some chapters from the book to my future IC class because the book has important topics.

Reviewed by Gloria Wenman, Adjunct Instructor, English Language Acquisition, Kirkwood Community College on 12/15/21

The textbook covers a wide range of the American cultural landscape. It explains the history of certain issues with tact while also conveying the good and bad of historical figures and impactful decisions (historical as in the past few to many years ago). Explanations are placed with the initiation of a concept. This is convenient as it alleviates the need to grab another book to find the meaning. At times, explanations are tied back to previous concepts to help with understanding, e.g., “the socializing institutions we discussed earlier…” The table of contents could be revised to include headings within each chapter. This would help the reader to see at a glance all that a chapter focuses on, rather than just the chapter's main thesis.

While most of the content consists of statements of fact, the author's opinions are obvious in the words used to examine different concepts. It is usually clear when the author's own viewpoint is being expressed. The content is well referenced with a discussion of the sourced information. In-text citations are linked to the reference page. Most of the references are linked to the originating document. This makes it easy to fact-check a discussed concept or approach. A random sampling showed that the author stayed true to the represented ideas of the linked articles.

Very few ‘currently trending’ words or phrases are used thus lessening the need for interpretation. This lends to the relevance of the material as it prevents ‘dating’ of the material. Much of the textbook is tied to the historical beginnings of certain outcomes. While the interpretation of these may change, hopefully, the facts won’t. When combined with common use words, this will keep the textbook from being outdated within the next decade (as is the case with many printed books).

The author's style of writing helps the reader understand the different approaches used. The contained concepts are well defined and considered from several perspectives. It is also written with good sentence structure and paragraph placement making for a clearer understanding of theories, opinions, and explanations. Headers, sub-headers, and highlighting help to simplify content and connections.

The style of writing is consistent throughout the textbook. Words, phrases, and concepts of the same level of proficiency are conveyed in a similar manner throughout. Chapters are laid out in the same pattern making it easy to pinpoint references, suggested learning outcomes, key terms, key takeaways, and student exercises. The flow of the chapters is similar without any jarring (or chaotic) changes. The call-backs to previous chapters or discussions help to connect the entirety of the communication concept between and within different American ideals, beliefs, and systems.

Moving through the book in a linear fashion allows certain aspects to bloom in a particular way. However, the author’s way of developing the textbook does allow for segmentation. Chapters could be subdivided with the extractions combined in different ways. This helps home in on certain facets that may be at the forefront of common thought, the news of the day, or the planned focus of a class. This makes it easier to pick and choose which portions to use in classroom discussions. While each chapter has a set focus, some of the concepts do overlap. This helps with flow and understanding but may make it more difficult to subdivide without seeming fragmentary.

The textbook is organized into overall categories then subdivided into specific areas of focus. This continuity of structure helps the reader move from one aspect, or focus, of the chapter to another. However, some chapters begin with a story of a recent event, others start with consideration of different research, and yet others begin with an expressed opinion. While this might lend an interesting diversity, it impacts the flow between chapters. This keeps the textbook from being as useful of a classroom tool as it could be. Some chapters have questions after the opening foray, but most do not. The questions are useful because they make the reader immediately question their own biases. They also provide a great starting point for discussion-based classes.

Interface rating: 3

Links within the document help with understanding. The links allow you to click on a keyword or reference and be taken to the definition or usage within the textbook. Getting back to your starting point is not as easy due to the necessity of scrolling back. Clicking on a picture byline or reference did not result in the same issue. Hitting the back button returns you to the exact place in the textbook you left. Perhaps the issue is only true of links within the document rather than those linked to outside sources. While this aspect is probably true of many online documents, having a link that goes backward and forwards could alleviate this.

There are some dropped words, such as indirect articles, and some awkward word usage. However, I didn’t read it with the intent of proofreading, and the meaning and intent appear clear.

The dynamics and inter-connectedness of the different aspects of American culture are well explored. The textbook is somewhat limited to those already in or wishing to integrate into, the existing stratified American culture or to better understand their place(s) in it. For those coming to this country with the wish to understand the culture, and not change their own, this is a great overall introduction. However, while there may be commonalities between cultures, the book doesn’t consider outside backgrounds and cultures.

The textbook is focused on the intersectionality within American culture. It is more intracultural than intercultural. I had looked at this textbook for possible use in an English Language Acquisitions’ Culture and Communication class. This is a high-level class, and in the next lowest (in a progression-based system) we discuss a person’s culture of familiarity in comparison with the American culture. When I first looked at this book, it seemed to be a possibility. After more in-depth consideration though, I don’t think it will work for helping students to understand the American culture as it relates to their own. Thanks to the decent modularity, there are many facets that I can use. I just can’t use it as a whole class. I think this textbook is great, and I certainly like it for its inclusivity of American’s varied cultures.

Reviewed by Kristen Livingston, Associate Instructional Professor, Pittsburg State University on 6/3/21

Very dense- all encompassing and dare I even say "loaded" with all of the connecting ideologies to sociological foundations. I worry that it is not effective in communication practices but may be helpful understanding people which is how connections in communication may be made. I would reduce the overwhelming focus on descriptions and focus on what intercultural means in terms of communication. Intercultural communication can be an overwhelming subject and this may encourage more anxiety with the topic. The key terms would benefit including definitions at the beginning or the end of the chapters to help reiterate the importance of those in relation to intercultural communication. The exercises are helpful to generate discussion/reiteration of content.

The content, in accordance with best practices, theoretical framing, and academic acknowledgments, is referenced adequately. The citations at the end of each chapter clarify anything within the text that may encourage questioning. Intercultural communication is heavily reliant on experience as much as academics- I know this may not be a popular "opinion. Thus, this text does a good job collecting information to help further a classroom discussion.

Since intercultural is tangible and reliant on those individuals communicating, this book is relatively up to date but will not adjusted often. It is helpful to have the historical timelines, case studies, and the author's references to aid in the exploration of content. It will be up to the instructor to guide students through the text and engage them with approaches to understanding the content. It helps to know where we have come from to know where the discussion will allocate further in the classroom.

The seven chapters are clearly written, organized, and offer context for the terminology used throughout the text. It is easy to read, navigate, and connects the subject matter from chapter to chapter. I would appreciate a bit more connectivity to student learning and an understanding that this can be very overwhelming (which at times I felt was without during my reading).

The text is consistent, has a clear identity in reading, and flows from one subject to the next. Some chapters don't have the abundance of student inclusion (exercises) but that may be due to the subject matter in question. It does a good job in framing ideologies, given how the text pulls from a variety of resources, and condenses into a relatively unified voice.

The chapters can be divided easily throughout a semester or a summer course. Given the lengths of chapters, some information may need to be reduced by the instructor through picking and choosing the most important content (due to how much content there is overall). How each chapter is divided into sections is helpful to for discussions and assignments.

The textbook is organized in an easy "map" formation that will lend to understanding one topic to the next. The subject builds upon itself to help set tone, standards, and understanding before moving on.

Everything worked, links were not broken, and imagery was clear without pixelation.

There were some typos that I caught during my brief experience with the text (however, due to how dense the material is, I am not surprise).

This text is HIGHLY relevant and is inclusive by default of subject matter. However, all examples, case studies, and references help to monitor and recognize all aspects of intercultural exploration.

This is a well-written book that just needs some minor considerations as an adoption in class. I think an instructor can cherry pick the materials from this text OR ultimately will choose to create content themselves from OER resources. Overall, I would recommend but each instructor should recognize how much material is embodied in the text, the scope of the text in seven chapters, and what they would like their students to learn most importantly.

Reviewed by Noel Neptune, Lecturer/Clinical Education Coordinator, University of Southern Maine on 3/31/21

Covers the content expected. I appreciate all the works cited sections at the end of the chapters as well to see their references. I think a section at the beginning of each chapter defining key terms would be beneficial. I also like the explanation of some of the exercises that have been used when looking at cultural awareness. It provides a lot of resources to look into to use for courses.

I believe the content is accurate and free of bias, but there are several points in the book that the author tells their own story. I think these would make better boxed out discussion or authors thoughts rather than in the middle of the text. The author also lists all of their references.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

The content is up to date but I think many of the sections and references will seem poorly written as time goes on (refers to things in recent history, etc...). I do like the historic timelines of important dates and those will be easy to update. But the in-text references will be harder to update.

Fairly clear but I think a chapter in the beginning that clearly defined key words, or having tabs off of the text to do so would be helpful. Some of the definitions of terms you had to read the whole section to decipher the authors definition. Also, lots of first person story telling. I like the stories, but think they should be separated from the researched information.

The author is consistent throughout the entire book.

The text is obviously divided but I think it may even be more beneficial to break into even smaller segments. I like books that make it easy to break up the reading into small segments with clear places you can stop and resume at later dates. This does have several subsections you can do this with in some chapters but others it doesn't work as well. Chapter 1 is a bit too long and reads dry.

Topics are all introduced but I find the flow of the book a bit choppy for some reason. It might be because the book jumps from personal story to research, then to definitions and back and forth.

I did not have any issues with interface with the online text.

No issues that I noticed but I will admit, this is not my strong point.

It is a book about Intercultural Communications. It can't get much more culturally relevant than that. The examples the text used are all relevant to evaluating cultural awareness and competence.

I like the exercises at the end of the chapters. I also enjoy the authors personal notes, just wish they were introduced outside of the chapter reading. I would also add a list of terms and definitions at the beginning of the chapter for quick reference. Overall a good text. My biggest concern is the amount of timely references made in the book and how they will hold up and read with time.

Reviewed by Cory Geraths, Visiting Assistant Professor of Rhetoric, Wabash College on 2/28/21

Comprehensiveness rating: 2 see less

This book, unfortunately, is not comprehensive. The textbook proposes a focus on intercultural communication and, while this is a recurring theme throughout (particularly in the opening chapter), much of the content focuses more on the "intercultural" side of "intercultural communication." The selections compiled by the editor into this text stem largely from Sociology and, while this is helpful to a degree from the perspective of interdisciplinarity, Communication teachers looking to use this book in an Intercultural Communication course will find the book quite light in terms of explicit focus on communication theories, practices, and situations. The text does not include an index, though it does include highlighted key terms throughout. Such terms are also noted at the outset of each chapter alongside core learning objectives. Each chapter also ends with a bulleted summary of key themes and most chapters (there is an inconsistency here) also include some exercises for students. Unfortunately, the learning objectives and summaries are often quite lengthy; a more refined list of student goals and key takeaways would be helpful.

The book does not contain, to my eye, significant issues in accuracy of content. The primary issue, as noted elsewhere in this review, stems from the need for a richer focus on Communication Studies as a discipline, broadly, and Intercultural Communication as a rich subfield of that discipline, specifically. Of particular concern, in my view, is that multiple chapters (namely, Ch. 5 on class and Ch. 7 on sexuality) lack a rich engagement with scholarship and other evidence. Rather than drawing upon work by academics and others, these chapters rely primarily on Wiki sources. And, while such sources can be useful as sites for general information, they lack a needed rigor and richness in the context of a textbook to be assigned to students.

This textbook is inconsistent in terms of relevance. At times, examples are up-to-date (as in parts of Ch. 7 on sexuality). More often than not, however, the data marshaled and the examples proffered in this book lack a necessary recency. There are, for instance, multiple occasions where data is marshaled from the 1990s or 2000s. Such data is not explicitly connected to the present moment or even a more recent moment. It is, instead, used without sufficient context in a way that is troubling and would, in my view, lead a faculty member assigning this textbook to have to fill in the gaps on her own.

The seven chapters compiled by the editor into this text are, by and large, clearly written. Terms are clearly defined and highlighted, and the book appears as one would expect a textbook to appear. The prose is accessible was easy to follow. At times, however, I would have appreciated more explicit engagement with the student audience. It is not always clear that these chapters conceive of students as the primary audience; for instance, this is more common in Ch. 1 and Ch. 2 and much less so in later chapters.

By and large, the textbook has a clear flow and is consistent in terms of terminology and framework. Because the chapters are taken from a variety of original open-access sources, however, there are occasional repeats in key terms and the style of language/prose is not always as consistent as one would like. Moreover, as noted elsewhere in this review, there are a few chapters that lack exercises for students at the end.

The textbook can certainly be divided into modules over the arc of a semester, quarter, or other class. I wish, though, that the chapters were more even in length. Ch. 1 and Ch. 2 are quite dense, and would likely need to be split up over a few days (depending on the level of the course and one's students). The latter chapters, on the other hand, were quite short and, at times, led to me desiring more information, content, and examples. That said, chapters all contain helpful subheadings and would be easily assigned to students in this regard.

Yes. The textbook, as compiled, moves from overarching theory in the beginning chapters to more specific subject areas. This makes sense at a logical level.

Yes. I found no significant issues with the interface. Links (at least those I clicked, worked) and images, charts, and figures were clear on the pages.

There are a handful of grammatical errors in this text. I noticed a few typos, words missing or out of order, and so forth. By and large, however, this is not a distracting issue.

I found no significant issues here. The textbook works purposefully to cite examples across identity categories and life experiences.

I went into my reading of this text hopeful that I could assign it in a forthcoming upper-division Intercultural Communication course. I am, however, disappointed with the end product due to the reasons that I have noted above. And, for those reasons, I will look elsewhere for an open-access text on intercultural communication.

Reviewed by Kerric Harvey, Associate Professor, The George Washington University on 1/15/21

This is not just a comprehensive assemblage of material about the topic, but it actually stretches the conventional boundaries of "intercultural communications" in the best way possible -- and in a way that is long overdue. Intercultural communication, as a field, has always been one of those subjects best approached as a "praxis," a vibrant, supple, dynamic combination of theory and practice that must react to changes in the "real world" just as nimbly as it responds to the development of new concepts and hypotheses. As such, any textbook in this discipline must be sensitive to shifting social values and cultural conventions to a degree that isn’t necessarily the case with other dimensions of communications studies, per se. Ahrndt’s text fulfils this requirement at the Olympic level. She not only covers the best and most enduring of the legacy material, but expands what “intercultural” means to include sub-divisions within the American “body cultural,” including LGBTQ+ populations, hearing impaired, differently-abled, gender fluid, religious, and other affinity groups not usually addressed in a text of this sort. She also addresses the “intercultural” communication dynamics among African-American, Native American, and Latinex, and several types of Asian, Arab, and Indian sub-continent populations whose immigrants and American-born descendants interact with Americans of European descent.

Interpreting the word “accuracy” to mean the degree to which the text presents without error the theories, concepts, specialized vocabularies, relevant canonical literatures, and real-world case studies used to create a teaching instrument, this text is remarkably accurate across a wide range of core and cognate fields and sub-fields of intercultural communication. The author also does an excellent job with the photograph captions that pepper the text, providing clear, concise, but comprehensive commentary for these illustrations that accurately capture the political context of the events, issues, and objects they depict without overt editorializing or, at the other extreme, falling back on such vapid, "pro forma" descriptions that the captions rob the photos of their cultural vibrancy. Not being able to fact-check the entire text, I can’t guarantee that single piece of information it contains is correct in all ways, but I didn’t see any conspicuous errors, or even anything that suggested less than scrupulous attention to factual detail.

This is an extra-ordinarily relevant text. It’s really the model for understanding what “culture” means in the 21st century, especially in pluralistic societies and taking into account the meta-societies created by the emerging acceptance of multiple identities on many dimensions. Even the case studies are contemporary to the moment (this review is being written in January 2021), including as they do references to the Marriage Equality Act, the Summer of Ferguson, Take Back the Night, the Parks 51 controversy, and on-going tensions about Confederate flags and statues. Although as time progresses and events continue to unfold, these “teaching examples” might diminish in terms of their immediacy, they will still provide emotionally accessible insights into tensions, topics, and events that will retain salience for a very long time to come. The text can also be easily amended to augment the current material with anecdotes and information that “brings it up to speed” in subsequent editions.

One of the real joys of reviewing this text was how easy it was to read. The author moves along at a lively rate without short-changing important concepts or down-grading important theories into superficial versions of themselves. Instead, she condenses material without diminishing it, and does so using clear, approachable language that is deftly crafted and judiciously punctuated. Ideas are presented in digestible form and linked concepts are explored without falling into cumbersome, complicated grammatical constructions. Every chapter begins with a list of “key words” and any technical language or specialty vocabulary is explained organically within the text as it flows from point to point.

This book is very consistent in terms of tone and authorial approach as well as structure and organization. Each chapter is organized the same way, utilizing the same elements, and the informational content itself is recognizably the same authorial “voice” all throughout the work. Terminology remains consistent throughout the entire text, as well.

This book would be very easy to use as a course text. It’s broken up into subject-specific chapters that make intuitive sense, and each chapter is well-organized in a way that would translate easily to classroom presentation. Chapters build on each other as the book unfolds, but not to the extent that would prohibit instructors from re-arranging the chapters according to a different course organization, or using some and not others. This useful modularity continues within each chapter itself, in that instructors can avail themselves of all that each chapter offers, or can extract chapter sub-sections that can still stand on their own as teaching tools.

This book is very well-organized, in a way that leverages its modularity while simultaneously making it easy to use as a fully intact text, in its entirety. Specifically, each chapter begins with information about the source of the material within it, followed by a list of keywords and the learning objectives for that chapter. This is followed by the central material, augmented along the way with exercises, illustrations, relevant tables and graphs, and magazine-style “sidebars” in which the author raises pertinent questions or provides a more granulated look at the chapter’s main issues through a short “case study-like” story. Each chapter concludes with an executive summary of “key takeaways,” a chapter bibliography, and more structured and elaborate student exercises.

As far as I can tell, there are no serious problems with the technological interfaces or the various links associated with this book. It’s an especially nice feature to be able to click on citations to add immediate texture and enhancement to what’s being covered in the text at hand.

I didn’t find any grammatical issues in the text. There were a few instances of odd spacing and of double-words, although I strongly suspect that’s a casualty of my own computer clunky “reading” of the pdf rather than something that’s actually there in the text itself. I did notice that the word “Dutch” was not capitalized in the caption for the photo of Tiger Woods.

This book is absolutely culturally sensitive – in fact, I’d call it an exemplary model of how to do that well and gracefully. It’s also wonderfully diverse in the author’s attention to breaking up monolithic labels for what are rightfully heterogeneous populations. For example, she writes eloquently and sensitively about the diverse as well as the shared immigration experiences of the variety of Spanish-speaking peoples in the United States today, noting contrasts among Mexican, Puerto Rican, Central American, and other Latino and Latina groups. She repeats this useful approach several times, even when discussing the social biographies and the residual communication environments for different types of European immigrants. In subsequent editions, I’d love to see her complexify her discussion of the Native American experience a little more, focusing perhaps on the meaningful linguistic differences as well as cultural norms among different tribal groups and addressing the special situations faced by reservations in the Far North, as well as those on which casinos are located, a challenging setting for intercultural communication if ever there was one. Another place where what she’s already doing well could be expanded would be a bit more material on the escalating presence of immigrants from the Indian sub-continent, especially the women who are making such remarkable contributions to American science and medicine.

This is a highly readable, deeply sensitive, excitingly contemporary text. It preserves the best of the field’s canon while simultaneously introducing culturally salient, socially relevant, and intellectually invigorating new material that is highly relatable for today’s students and easily adaptable to a wide range of courses. I’m so taken with it that I’m already trying to figure out how I can use it in the courses I already teach, or use it as a springboard into ones I’ve yet to develop.

Reviewed by Jackie Mosley, Associate Professor, University of Arkansas on 1/6/21, updated 2/2/21

I have yet to find a textbook that fits with my Cultural Competence course, and this might just be the one! This text covers various theories of cultural competence, without going into a "boring theories section", which is difficult to find. The material is presented in an easy way for my undergraduate students to comprehend with tangible examples, rather than larger concepts and ideas that are often boring or more difficult to understand.

Content is timely and accurate.

This book is super relevant right now, and could be utilized in so many different types of social sciences courses. This text was written in 2020, which is imperative, given the current climate in the United States and has timely topics related to cultural events.

Text is very easy to comprehend, especially for undergraduate students in introductory courses related to cultural competence.

Consistent terms and material.

I love that the Learning Objectives are very clear and then what major terms will be focused on in the module - very helpful for readers (students) and faculty who want to organize for their own class. I also enjoy the Takeaways at the end of the module that are bulleted - easier to read quickly vs. a large paragraph of a summary. I think students would enjoy this too.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

I feel that the material (especially in the 1st module) jumps around and covers a lot of material, that I'm not quite sure how I would adapt in my own classroom. It will make it difficult to specify which pages to read (or sections), but it is do-able. Just wish introductory terms were focused on first, and then go into more of the contextual issues later. But I also recognize, each curricula is organized by an Instructor's own preferences; and I may try to use the organization of this text for my class, is possible.

I enjoyed being able to click on citations or other images to discover more; very useful for an online textbook. I do wish there was a way to "highlight" specific things you like in the text that students can see, basically the Instructor telling students what is most important to read (I've seen this in other platforms and really enjoyed that).

No grammar issues.

Inclusive book to all types of identities and communities related to cultural competence in the United States in today's modern age.

Overall, this book is perfect for any course on cultural competence or diversity, equity and inclusion. It covers all the major groups/communities in the US; however, it could use more research and discussion on other diversity issues: ageism, body size issues and neuro-diversity.

CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Intercultural Communication
CHAPTER 2: Social Categorization, Stereotyping, and Discrimination
CHAPTER 3: Beliefs, Values, and Cultural Universals
CHAPTER 4: Introduction to Race and Ethnicity
CHAPTER 5: The Impacts of Social Class
CHAPTER 6: Gender and Gender Inequality
CHAPTER 7: Socialization and Human Sexuality

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Intercultural Communication examines culture as a variable in interpersonal and collective communication. It explores the opportunities and problems arising from similarities and differences in communication patterns, processes, and codes among various cultural groups. It explores cultural universals, social categorization, stereotyping and discrimination, with a focus on topics including race, ethnicity, social class, religion, gender and sexuality as they relate to communication.

About the Contributors

Shannon Ahrndt , University of Missouri-St. Louis

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cultural differences in communication essay

How Does Culture Affect Communication: Exploring the Impact, Importance & Examples

Communication is a cornerstone of our society. It helps us to build meaningful personal relationships, share ideas and create strong organizations. However, the way we communicate is influenced greatly by culture, which in turn has an undeniable impact on how efficient and effective communication is.

This article explores the importance of culture in communication and some practical examples demonstrating its profound effect. We will consider key concepts such as language styles, intercultural communication refers, barriers, and global business practices that are all pertinent facets of this topic.

By the end, readers will have a deeper understanding of how social influences shape the way we communicate.

How Does Culture Affect Communication?

Cultural differences, such as language, words, gestures, and phrases, can have a huge impact on how people communicate – like two ships passing in the night. Culture can also be a bridge between people; by understanding the culture of an other person’s culture or group, it is easier to connect and interact with each other.

Culture has an immense effect on communication – it shapes how we talk to one another, what kind of language we use, and what kinds of communication are considered appropriate. This is especially true in business settings where cultural values and norms can determine the decision-making process and the way messages are interpreted.

Frankness may be seen as normal in some cultures while frowned upon in others; this means that people from different cultures may not always understand the same message in the same way. Therefore, being mindful of cultural differences when communicating is essential for successful dialogue – like putting together pieces of a puzzle!

In conclusion, culture plays an important role when it comes to communication: from the same culture to language to beliefs, habits to customs – culture influences how we interact with each other and interpret messages. Taking these differences into account will help ensure effective communication between parties.

High and Low Context Cultures

Cross-cultural communication is a must for global harmony – but how does culture shape the way we communicate? High and low-context world cultures have distinct differences in their approach to communication. In high-context cultures, such as Japan and China, relationships are king; while in low-context countries, like the US or Germany, content is key.

The style of communication also varies between cultures: language use, words, and phrases, non-verbal cues like body language and gestures – even seating arrangements! In high-context societies, it’s all about acquiring knowledge through subtlety and indirectness, whereas, in low-context ones, it’s more about exchanging ideas directly.

Nonverbal communication can be especially tricky when navigating different cultural norms. Do you know what your facial expressions mean to someone from another country? Misunderstandings can easily arise if we don’t take into account these cultural nuances – so being aware of them is essential for effective intercultural communication and dialogue.

Culture has a profound power over how we communicate, like a sculptor chiseling away at a block of marble. Every culture has its own unique beliefs and values that shape how culture influences communication and the way people interact with each other – from social norms to decision-making processes. In some cultures, it’s polite to keep personal opinions and emotions under wraps; in others, it’s rude not to express them.

These beliefs and values also influence communication in different contexts – for instance, some cultures may require greetings before starting conversations while others don’t. And there are varying expectations for topics discussed in certain situations, such as business meetings or social gatherings.

It’s essential to recognize cultural differences when communicating with others: what is polite in one culture may be considered impolite in another! So remember this rule of thumb: respect the customs of all cultures you encounter – then your conversations will flow smoothly!

Cultural habits and customs can be compared to a powerful wave crashing onto the shore of communication. Different cultures have different ways of communicating – from body language and facial expressions to gestures. These non-verbal cues are like secret messages, conveying feelings or emotions without words. In some cultures, direct eye contact is seen as rude, while in others, it’s a sign of respect.

Habits and customs also shape how effective communication is in different contexts – like pieces on a chessboard that move around depending on the situation. For example, interrupting conversations may be acceptable in one culture but considered rude in a low-context culture in another. Additionally, expectations for directness vary between cultures too. How does culture influence communication?

Geographical factors can have a huge impact on how people and cultures communicate together. Physical distance, resources, and climate can all shape the way cultures interact. For instance, if two groups are close together, they may rely more heavily on verbal communication, while those further apart might use non-verbal cues to stay connected.

Different geographical locations also affect communication styles in other ways. Different languages may be spoken in different areas, or technology and media access could vary from place to place. Additionally, climates can influence how people communicate – for example, colder climates often lead to increased reliance on tech, while warmer ones tend to foster face-to-face communication front-to-face conversations.

In conclusion, geography plays an important role in determining how we communicate with each other – from language barriers to technological availability and even climate conditions!

What Cultural Aspects Affect Communication?

Culture can have a powerful effect on communication, like a sculptor shaping the way we understand and express ourselves. Cultural values and norms can influence our nonverbal cues – from facial expressions to body language to gestures. It can also affect how we interpret and respond to verbal and nonverbal messages. But cultural differences can create barriers to understanding, as different cultures have varying connotations for words, expectations for communication styles, and ways of expressing themselves.

When attempting to communicate effectively with people from other cultures, challenges such as language barriers or communication styles may arise. Plus, if the culture of the other person is not understood when communicating, it could lead to misunderstandings that damage trust in conversation.

That’s why it’s so important to consider cultural perspectives when communicating – interpreting information in a culture-specific way helps ensure messages are accurately conveyed and received. Cultural norms even play into how we use our hands or body language when speaking without words!

Values and Norms

Cultural values and norms can have a profound effect on how people communicate nonverbally. Different cultures have different ways of expressing themselves, such as through facial expressions, body language, and gestures. People from different cultures may interpret and respond to nonverbal communication and nonverbal communication differently, depending on their own cultural values and norms. For example, in some cultures, it is considered disrespectful to maintain eye contact with someone of higher status, while in other cultures, it is seen as a sign of respect.

Cultural values and norms can also influence how people communicate verbally. Different cultures have different expectations for communication styles and different connotations for words. For example, in some cultures, it is considered polite to be indirect when communicating, while in other cultures, it is seen as being overly polite or even disingenuous.

It is important to be aware of these cultural differences when communicating with people from different cultures in order to ensure that messages are accurately conveyed and received.

Cultural freedom is like a key that unlocks the door to honest communication. It allows people to express their thoughts and feelings without fear of judgment, encouraging openness, honesty, and mutual respect. Without it, conversations can become stifled, and trust may be lost.

Cultural freedom encourages directness in conversation, which helps ensure messages are accurately conveyed and received. This leads to more effective communication as everyone is on the same page with what’s being said. But how important is cultural freedom for successful communication?

Frankness is a cultural trait that can have a powerful impact on communication. It’s the direct and straightforward expression of thoughts and opinions without fear of judgment. Cultures that value frankness tend to be more open in their conversations, as they feel comfortable expressing themselves honestly and openly.

On the other hand, politeness is all about being respectful and courteous when talking with others. While it’s important for maintaining good relationships, too much politeness can lead to a lack of trust between people.

When communicating in different cultures, it’s essential to consider how frankness is perceived there – as what may be seen as honest in one culture could come across as rude or disrespectful in another.

Customs and traditions are a part of life, passed down from generation to generation and forming the identity of a culture. They can have an immense impact on communication between different cultures – from gestures and body language to how people interact with each other.

For instance, direct eye contact during conversations may be seen as disrespectful in some cultures while being viewed as respectful in others. Similarly, hand gestures can mean completely different things depending on where you are – a thumbs-up could be interpreted as approval or an insult!

Moreover, customs and traditions also dictate how people should greet one another; something that is considered polite in one culture might not be so in another. The use of formal languages such as honorifics, titles, and polite expressions also varies greatly between cultures.

It’s essential to understand these customs when communicating with someone from another culture if we want our messages to be accurately conveyed and received without any misunderstandings arising. Doing this will help build trust and understanding between us all!

Read also our posts about: How Communication Affects the Flow of Work in an Organization How Does Self Concept Affect Communication? Why is Feedback Needed in Interpersonal Communication How to Launch an Online Course in 2022

Tips for Effective Communication in Culture

Effective communication in a cross-cultural context is like a puzzle – it requires all the pieces to fit together. To ensure successful conversations, we must understand and appreciate cultural differences between the parties involved. Businesses must also adopt a cultural shift to make networked communication happen.

So how can we engage stakeholders and create an open and collaborative business culture? Virtual brainstorming sessions, informal company conversations during working hours, pairing different teams into virtual break-out rooms – these are just some of the approaches that can be used!

To foster open lines of communication within a company, businesses should encourage teams to exchange ideas, recognize individual contributions, respect different cultures and holidays – plus give feedback for understanding and improvement.

But what about celebrating individuals in their team? It’s important to create an inclusive environment by being aware of cultural differences, creating safe spaces for dialogue, and adapting to each other’s way of communicating. By following these tips, you’ll be well on your way toward effective communication in any cross-cultural context!

Impact, Importance & Examples

The impact of culture on communication is undeniable, and it can be a recipe for disaster if left unchecked. Cultural differences in communication styles, lack of awareness of cultural differences, and the use of language and customs that are unfamiliar to a person from a different culture can all lead to misunderstandings and conflict.

In high-context cultures and businesses, cultural diversity can have an array of effects on how people communicate with each other. Encouraging the exchange of thoughts and ideas, recognizing the significance behind words spoken, understanding context, and being aware of silence are all key components for successful business communication. When cultural differences are acknowledged and respected by companies, they open up their doors to new perspectives, which can enhance their public image as well as expand their global reach.

The big takeaway here is that when teams embrace cross-pollination, they reap better results – both in terms of effectiveness (twice as often rated by executives) but also financially (harnessing diverse ideas leads to more revenue).

Cultural sensitivity plays an important role in how companies interact with one another across cultures. Understanding beliefs, habits, and values – these things help bridge gaps between cultures so effective communication isn’t hindered by misunderstanding or miscommunication due to ignorance or prejudice. Being mindful of cultural barriers will ensure smooth sailing when communicating with people from backgrounds other than your very own culture.

To sum it up: The impact culture has on communication should not be underestimated; embracing different cultures helps foster better collaboration while understanding them prevents potential conflicts arising from miscommunication or misinterpretation due to a lack of knowledge about foreign customs or languages.

In conclusion, culture has a major influence on our interactions and communication. Our beliefs, values, habits, geography, and freedom all shape the way we communicate with one another. It is important to be conscious of cultural norms and understand how they can negatively or positively affect interpersonal communication .

This understanding of cultural differences can help businesses and employees to foster more effective communication in an international setting. To do this, companies should practice cultural sensitivity, provide the necessary education for their certain cultures, and adapt communication styles to those of different cultures.

By doing this, businesses will be better able to bridge cultural rifts, avoid miscommunication, and collaborate more successfully.

Frequently Asked Questions

How does culture affect communication examples.

Culture can greatly affect the way in which people communicate. For instance, certain cultural norms may dictate whether direct eye contact is deemed appropriate or inappropriate. Additionally, language use can differ drastically between cultures and heavily influence communication style.

It is essential to be aware of these differences in order to foster successful communication.

Why does culture influence communication?

Culture has a significant impact on the way individuals communicate, shape their communication styles, and can even determine the methods of communication used. This is because individuals are likely to be influenced by cultural elements such as values, beliefs, norms, and practices that are shared in the community.

As a result, culture plays an important role in setting the boundaries for effective communication.

What is the relationship between communication and culture?

Communication and culture are intimately connected, as communication is the method through which a culture’s cultural characteristics—customs, roles, rules, rituals, laws, and more—are created and shared.

In this way, communication plays a key role in forming and sustaining cultures.

Culture profoundly influences the way individuals communicate with one another. For example, different cultures may employ varying levels of directness or politeness in their communication styles.

Additionally, cultural norms affect word choices and the ways in which people interact with others. As such, it is essential to be mindful of how culture affects communication examples when communicating with people from various cultural backgrounds together.

I’m a student, with all due respect, I would like to ask the author about the reason behind the creation of this article. So, why did the author write the article?

read it and you will understand why.

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Compare & Contrast Essay: How Culture Affects Communication

Culture directly affects the way individuals communicate with each other. When you cross the divide between east and west, you’ll surely notice a difference in communication. In eastern cultures, where collectivism reigns, you will meet with nonverbal and indirect communication, which can sometimes be frustrating for westerners. On the flipside, eastern cultures might be affronted by individualistic western culture, which breeds a more direct and concrete line of communication. We will examine how the perception of saving face, social power and direct versus indirect communication diverges between eastern and western cultures.

Saving face is not unique to any culture; preserving one’s image is universal and humanly ingrained. However, the east and the west view “face” differently, thus they go about saving face in a different manner. In the west, one must first make a face for oneself, and a person does so by setting him/herself apart from the pack, whether through personal achievement, status, wealth, etc. Once face is made, maintaining it might involve remaining relevant or unique, which often lies in asserting individual opinion and doing so vocally. Saving face in an eastern collectivist society is quite the opposite. One does not wish to stand out, be aggressive or assert opinion, as this, on the contrary, often damages face. Instead, eastern culture promotes group harmony, avoiding conflict at all costs. If a person loses face in an eastern culture, it’s nearly impossible to get it back.

The egalitarian culture of the west versus the hierarchy in eastern cultures creates a chasm where social power is concerned. Again, this has much to do with saving face. In a western company, to assert oneself as a new employee shows ambition, which is considered a good character trait by western standards. However, if a new or younger employee in an eastern company was to come across as outspoken or ambitious, he/she would appear disobedient and even, perhaps, disloyal to upper management and, thus, would lose face. This is due to the concentration of power being much more top-heavy in eastern cultures.

These disparities between the east and the west create great differences in communication, the east being nonverbal and indirect, and the west being direct and concrete. A western person will not often speak in riddles of which the listener must guess the meaning. Instead, a westerner speaks exactly what he means, and this directness can often be perceived by the east as ill-mannered. Honesty, openness and pointed speech are the keystones of western communication. In the east, the meaning of the spoken word might be in direct contrast with a person’s actions. Meaning is fudged in communication, so as to preserve the relationship. Being direct – for instance, giving someone a direct “no” – is seen as harsh; hence, speaking so directly would lose one face.

Eastern and western cultures’ views on the perception of saving face, social power and directness versus indirectness create this divergence in communication. However, it is important to note that differences do not mean it’s impossible for two different cultures to communicate. Though it may be more difficult, a simple adjustment of cultural sensitivity will make conversation run smooth.

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Research: How Cultural Differences Can Impact Global Teams

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Fabian Froese

And what managers can do to help their international teams succeed.

Diversity can be both a benefit and a challenge to virtual teams, especially those which are global. The authors unpack their recent research on how diversity works in remote teams, concluding that benefits and drawbacks can be explained by how teams manage the two facets of diversity: personal and contextual. They find that contextual diversity is key to aiding creativity, decision-making, and problem-solving, while personal diversity does not. In their study, teams with higher contextual diversity produced higher-quality consulting reports, and their solutions were more creative and innovative. When it comes to the quality of work, teams that were higher on contextual diversity performed better. Therefore, the potential challenges caused by personal diversity should be anticipated and managed, but the benefits of contextual diversity are likely to outweigh such challenges.

A recent survey of employees from 90 countries found that 89 percent of white-collar workers “at least occasionally” complete projects in global virtual teams (GVTs), where team members are dispersed around the planet and rely on online tools for communication. This is not surprising. In a globalized — not to mention socially distanced — world, online collaboration is indispensable for bringing people together.

VT Vasyl Taras is an associate professor and the Director of the Master’s or Science in International Business program at the University of North Carolina, Greensboro, USA. He is an associate editor of the Journal of International Management and the International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management, and a founder of the X-Culture, an international business competition.
DB Dan Baack is an expert in international marketing. Dan’s work focuses on how the processing of information or cultural models influences international business. He recently published the 2nd edition of his textbook, International Marketing, with Sage Publications. Beyond academic success, he is an active consultant and expert witness. He has testified at the state and federal level regarding marketing ethics.
DC Dan Caprar is an Associate Professor at the University of Sydney Business School. His research, teaching, and consulting are focused on culture, identity, and leadership. Before completing his MBA and PhD as a Fulbright Scholar at the University of Iowa (USA), Dan worked in a range of consulting and managerial roles in business, NGOs, and government organizations in Romania, the UK, and the US.
AJ Alfredo Jiménez is Associate Professor at KEDGE Business School (France). His research interests include internationalization, political risk, corruption, culture, and global virtual teams. He is a senior editor at the European Journal of International Management.
FF Fabian Froese is Chair Professor of Human Resource Management and Asian Business at the University of Göttingen, Germany, and Editor-in-Chief of Asian Business & Management. He obtained a doctorate in International Management from the University of St. Gallen, Switzerland, and another doctorate in Sociology from Waseda University, Japan. His research interests lie in international human resource management and cross-cultural management.

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Essay on Cross-Cultural Communication & Differences

Explore the intercultural difference with our cross-cultural communication essay sample! Here, you can find information on the importance of the topic and gain inspiration for your multicultural communication essay!

Cross-Cultural Communication as a Topic

Cross-cultural differences, communicating across cultures: essay conclusion, cross-cultural communication faq.

Cross-cultural communication is a crucial success component nowadays. Globalization and integration contribute to the importance of it. 

Cross-cultural contact is vital on all levels. Relations across borders are no longer unusual. Businesses all over the world strive to get into the global arena. Countries cooperate with foreign parties.

Any person can get communicate with foreigners regularly. Expertise in the field is a competitive advantage. This multicultural communication essay focuses on cross-cultural differences. It provides examples of cross-cultural communication. 

Intercultural contact has become a popular essay topic these days. Pupils and students of different levels need to elaborate on it. One of the benefits is that we start realizing how important the topic is. 

Interpersonal contact occurs when any kind of information gets from one person to another. We can define the process as a sender-recipient transmission of ideas. 

During intercultural communication, people from different cultures understand each other’s messages. At least, they should try to do so. Some people seek to only get their point across. They do not pay as much attention to their partner’s ideas. 

Successful interpersonal communication implies various factors. It is connected with many competencies. Some of them are emotional intelligence and conflict management skills.

There are numerous barriers to effective communication. They include both objective and subjective aspects. Subjective factors might be emotional, psychological, connected with perception peculiarities, etc. For instance, the emotional state of the speaker and the receiver affect their perceptions of ideas. Moreover, interlocutors might face a lack of attention and interest. Sometimes the transmitted information seems irrelevant to the receiver, so they do not listen properly. 

Objective barriers might be: 

Distractions
Physical disabilities
Language differences, etc.

Those possible challenges are relevant to any communication. However, they become even more acute when the partners belong to different cultures. There are even more factors that start tuning in. In extreme cases, effective contact might even seem impossible.

Getting on well with people from other cultural settings requires effort. People started realizing that fact long ago. In ancient times, when different tribes had to interact, they faced various challenges. People became aware of culture-specific differences and their impact on communication.

Since then, professionals studied the issue. Psychologists, sociologists, linguists, philosophers, and writers worked on it. All tried to find a key to effective cross-cultural contacts. 

In-depth research on the issue helped create new professions. Some of them are communication coaches, negotiation consultants, etc. There are many classes, webinars, conferences, and other events on the topic. As the study field developed, textbooks and guidelines appeared. We can choose from many books by businessmen, psychologists, and other specialists.

Colleges are integrating the subject into their study programs. Students can explore it in any country in the world. There are Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Ph.D. programs related to cross-cultural communication.

Businessmen are aware of the importance of that topic, too. Effective intercultural communication implies the success of business negotiations. 

A lack of the appropriate skills causes most conflicts in business. Negotiators cannot contact effectively because of culture-specific issues. It leads to a loss of business opportunities. An essential ingredient for building rapport in business is substantial cultural awareness.

Communication is imperfect due to culture-specific differences. The reasons are distinctions in language, behavior, etiquette, non-verbal signals, etc. 

One of the most apparent differences is a linguistic one. People from different countries might face language barriers. Insufficient language competence might lead to conflicts. Translators and interpreters can help the parties understand each other. These experts need specialized culture-specific knowledge to succeed.

There are many culture-specific linguistic elements. Some are metaphors, proverbs, and references to national literature and folklore. These things are difficult to translate without specific knowledge. One should be aware of the cultural implications behind such words.

There is such a phenomenon as culture-bound lacunae. These words denote some concepts that do not exist in the other party’s culture. There is no adequate analog in the other language.

Problems may arise even if both speakers use one language. There are many differences in the use of it. For instance, both speakers may be from the US, the UK, and Australia. They will see many variations in the vocabulary of each other. All parties can speak English and have trouble understanding each other.

Insufficient cultural awareness leads to conflicts. One may offend a person of a different culture without a purpose. It happens because of stereotypes, prejudices, and inadequate perceptions.

False expectations based on stereotypes and prejudices lead to false assumptions. People hear what they expect to hear rather than what others mean. This leads to incorrect conclusions. 

Cultural differences are apparent when comparing the norms of conduct. The rules of social interaction vary in different countries. Sometimes they differ even in the regions of the same country. The rules of etiquette include: 

Business cards exchange;
Non-verbal signals and their meaning;
Appropriate topics for small talk and more.

Those differences are apparent in negotiations where the parties are from the East and West. For example, Americans can be amazed by the Chinese specifics, and vice versa. 

Businessmen are to communicate with people from other countries. In these cases, they should make sure to explore the cultural specifics of their partners. Some other aspects that can vary in different cultures are:

How freely one expresses emotions;
The concept of personal space;
The concept of time;
Decision-making process;
The way people perceive presents;
How negotiators structure their meetings (whether they stick to the agenda or “go with the flow”), etc.

All this proves how difficult it is to communicate across cultural borders. 

Such communication is valuable because one can break stereotypes, enrich their perception, and learn new concepts. Stereotyping may seem comforting. Still, its negative impact is more important than the benefits. Prejudices and false expectations lead to a limited understanding of each other.

One should be open-minded and eager to embrace cultural specifics. That is the key to successful cross-cultural interaction. 

Contact between cultures is essential in our everyday lives. Some people communicate better than others. Some have conflicts, whereas others get on well. It is true when the two parties are from different cultural settings.

People presenting different cultures face numerous objective and subjective barriers. It is possible to overcome them. In the modern world, everyone should be aware of culture-specific differences and ready to embrace them.

Effective intercultural communication is crucial. It leads to good relationships, successful business deals, emotional enrichment, and more.

What does cross-cultural communication mean?

Cross-cultural communication is an interaction where the parties belong to different cultural settings. It is a vital component of modern life. Globalization and Internet technologies facilitate these contacts. Negotiations between American and Japanese business partners are cross-cultural. Another example is talking to a foreigner when traveling.

Why is cross-cultural communication important?

At present, a well-known saying, “It’s a small world,” has become as accurate as ever. Infrastructure and Internet technologies connect different parts of the world. People from various cultural settings interact all the time. Building a rapport with foreigners is only possible if we respect their cultural specifics.

What are the challenges of cross-cultural communication?

Naturally, people understand the world in different ways. Parties face various challenges of subjective and objective hindering factors. The culture we belong to shapes our perception. Every culture generates prejudice, stereotypes, specific etiquette rules, and more. Cross-cultural contact is much more complicated due to culture-specific differences.

How do you manage cross-cultural communication?

Managing cross-cultural contacts is one of the main tasks for present-day businessmen. Interaction with foreigners takes place often in our day-to-day lives. In successful contact, many factors are essential. We should research, respect, and embrace culture-specific differences. Multiple cross-cultural communication essays, textbooks, guides, classes, and other sources exist. They help to understand the concept better.

What are the principles of cross-cultural communication?

Different specialists list multiple principles. The common thing is that the parties should be open-minded, curious, respectful, and friendly. Intercultural communication breeds issues of verbal and non-verbal contact. The parties should be aware of those potential challenges. Another principle is to control your behavior and not offend others.

Cultural competency in the delivery of health services for Indigenous people (Australian Government)
Definitions of Cultural Competence (Georgetown University)
Multicultural Collaboration (Community Toolbox)
Culture Matters (The Peace Corps Cross-Cultural Workbook)
How to Improve Cross-Cultural Communication in the Workplace (Northeastern University)

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Beyond Intractability

The Hyper-Polarization Challenge to the Conflict Resolution Field: A Joint BI/CRQ Discussion BI and the Conflict Resolution Quarterly invite you to participate in an online exploration of what those with conflict and peacebuilding expertise can do to help defend liberal democracies and encourage them live up to their ideals.

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Hyper-Polarization, COVID, Racism, and the Constructive Conflict Initiative Read about (and contribute to) the Constructive Conflict Initiative and its associated Blog —our effort to assemble what we collectively know about how to move beyond our hyperpolarized politics and start solving society's problems.

By Michelle LeBaron

June 2003

Cultural Diversity

Montaigne said, "The most universal quality is diversity."[1] Given that diversity abounds, the project of understanding each other is both daunting and important. It is a journey never finished, because the process and the endpoints change constantly. The journey is bound up with communication and conflict, since misunderstandings and miscommunication can cause and escalate conflict. Effective communication is often the key to making progress in a conflict.

Progress through conflict is possible, and the route is twofold. First, self-knowledge and self-awareness are needed. Without these, our seemingly normal approaches to meaning-making and communication will never be clear enough that we can see them for what they are: a set of lenses that shape what we see, hear, say, understand, and interpret. Second, cultural fluency is needed, meaning familiarity with culture and the ability to act on that familiarity.[2] Cultural fluency means understanding what culture is, how it works, and the ways culture and communication are intertwined with conflicts.

This may sound simple enough, but it actually requires significant, continuous effort. As Edward T. Hall writes in the introduction to his book, The Dance of Life ,[3] for us to understand each other may mean, "reorganizing [our] thinking...and few people are willing to risk such a radical move." Communication theorists, anthropologists, and others have given us tools to develop awareness of our own lenses, and to facilitate the reorganization of thinking necessary to truly understand others whose starting points may differ from our own. Two of these tools are explored here.

Communication Tools for Understanding Culture

The tools we will examine here relate to communication and ways of seeing the self in relation to others. They are:

High-context and low-context communication, and
Individualist and communitarian conceptions of self and other.

Since all of these tools are used in the service of understanding culture, a working definition of culture is useful. Donal Carbaugh defines culture as "a system of expressive practices fraught with feelings, a system of symbols, premises, rules, forms, and the domains and dimensions of mutual meanings associated with these."[4] He also suggests culture is "a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behaviors of a relatively large group of people."[5] In each of these definitions, culture is linked to communication and a wide range of human experience including feelings, identity, and meaning-making. Communication is the vehicle by which meanings are conveyed, identity is composed and reinforced, and feelings are expressed. As we communicate using different cultural habits and meaning systems, both conflict and harmony are possible outcomes of any interaction.

There is no comprehensive way to understand culture and its relationships to communication and conflict. The two tools outlined here give windows into how different groups of people make sense of their worlds. They are neither reliable guides to every member of a particular group nor are they fixed in nature, since culture is constantly evolving and changing as people within groups and the contexts around them change. These two sets of tools are the most frequently used classifications of cultures used by anthropologists and communication scholars. We begin with one of the most familiar sets of tools: high-context and low-context communication.

High-context and Low-context Communication refers to the degree to which speakers rely on factors other than explicit speech to convey their messages. This tool, developed by Edward T. Hall,[6] suggests that communication varies according to its degree of field dependence, and that it can be classified into two general categories -- high-context and low-context. Field dependence refers to the degree to which things outside the communication itself affect the meaning. For example, a request for a child to "shut the door" relies comparatively little on context, while a comment containing meaning other than what is on the surface relies largely on context for its meaning to be received. A high-context message of disagreement might be telegraphed to a spouse or a co-worker by the words chosen or the way they are spoken, even if no disagreement is explicitly voiced.

Hall says that every human being is confronted by far more sensory stimuli than can possibly be attended to. Cultures help by screening messages, shaping perceptions and interpretations according to a series of selective filters. In high-context settings, the screens are designed to let in implied meanings arising from the physical setting, relational cues, or shared understandings. In low-context settings, the screens direct attention more to the literal meanings of words and less to the context surrounding the words.

All of us engage in both high-context and low-context communication. There are times we "say what we mean, and mean what we say," leaving little to be "read in" to the explicit message. This is low-context communication. At other times, we may infer, imply, insinuate, or deliver with nonverbal cues messages that we want to have conveyed but do not speak. This is high-context communication. Most of the time, we are somewhere nearer the middle of the continuum, relying to some extent on context, but also on the literal meaning of words.

To understand this distinction between high-context and low-context communication, ask yourself these questions:

Do I tend to "let my words speak for themselves," or prefer to be less direct, relying on what is implied by my communication? (low-context communication)
Do I prefer indirect messages from others, and am I attuned to a whole range of verbal and nonverbal cues to help me understand the meaning of what is said? (high-context communication)

As will quickly become clear, most people can and do function at both ends of the high-context, low-context continuum. There are times when direct, clear communication is most appropriate, and times when it is preferable to communicate in layers of meaning to save face, spare feelings, or allow for diffuse interpretations. Most people rely on a whole range of verbal and nonverbal cues to understand the meaning of what is said. Even in the most direct, low-context setting, meanings will be conveyed that are not explicitly spoken.

The novelist Amy Tan describes the different starting points of English and Chinese this way: "I try to explain to my English-speaking friends that Chinese language is more strategic in manner, whereas English tends to be more direct; an American business executive may say, 'Let's make a deal,' and the Chinese manager may reply, 'Is your son interested in learning about your widget business?' Each to his or her own purpose, each with his or her own linguistic path."[7]

As people communicate, they move along a continuum between high context and low context. Depending on the kind of relationship, the situation, and the purpose of communication, they may be more or less explicit and direct. In close relationships, communication short-hand is often used, which makes communication opaque to outsiders but perfectly clear to the parties. With strangers, the same people may choose low-context communication.

Low- and high-context communication refers not only to individual communication strategies, but may be used to understand cultural groups. Generally, Western cultures tend to gravitate toward low-context starting points, while Eastern and Southern cultures tend to use high-context communication. Within these huge categories, there are important differences and many variations. Where high-context communication tends to be featured, it is useful to pay specific attention to nonverbal cues and the behavior of others who may know more of the unstated rules governing the communication. Where low-context communication is the norm, directness is likely to be expected in return.

It is less important to classify any communication as high or low context than it is to understand whether nonverbal or verbal cues are the most prominent. Without this understanding, those who tend to use high-context starting points may be looking for shades of meaning that are not present, and those who prefer low-context communication may miss important nuances of meaning.

The choice of high-context and low-context as labels has led to unfortunate misunderstandings, since there is an implied ranking in the adjectives. In fact, neither is better or worse than the other. They are simply different. Each has possible pitfalls for cross-cultural communicators. Generally, low-context communicators interacting with high-context communicators should be mindful that

nonverbal messages and gestures may be as important as what is said;
status and identity may be communicated nonverbally and require appropriate acknowledgement;
face-saving and tact may be important, and need to be balanced with the desire to communicate fully and frankly;
building a good relationship can contribute to effectiveness over time; and
indirect routes and creative thinking are important alternatives to problem-solving when blocks are encountered.

High-context communicators interacting with low-context communicators should be mindful that

things can be taken at face value rather than as representative of layers of meaning;
roles and functions may be decoupled from status and identity;
efficiency and effectiveness may be served by a sustained focus on tasks;
direct questions and observations are not necessarily meant to offend, but to clarify and advance shared goals; and
indirect cues may not be enough to get the other's attention.[8]

As communicators factor awareness of high-context and low-context communication into their relations, conflict may be lessened and even prevented.

Individualism and Communitarianism is the second dimension important to conflict and conflict resolution. In communitarian settings (sometimes called collectivist settings), children are taught that they are part of a circle of relations. This identity as a member of a group comes first, summed up in the South African idea of ubuntu: "I am because we are." In communitarian settings, members are rewarded for allegiance to group norms and values, interdependence, and cooperation. Wherever they go, their identity as a member of their group goes out in front. Identity is not isolated from others, but is determined with others according to group needs and views. When conflict arises, behavior and responses tend to be jointly chosen.

Individualist patterns involve ideas of the self as independent, self-directed, and autonomous. Many Western conflict-resolution approaches presuppose exactly this kind of person: someone able to make proposals, concessions, and maximize gains in their own self-interest. Children raised in this milieu are rewarded for initiative, personal achievement, and individual leadership. They may be just as close to their families as a child raised in a communitarian setting, but they draw the boundaries differently: in case of a conflict, they may feel more free to choose their individual preference. Duty, honor, and deference to authority are less prominent for those with individualist starting points than communitarian ones.

Individual and communitarian identities are two quite different ways of being in the world. They connect at some point, of course, since all groups are made up of individuals and all individuals find themselves in relationship with various groups. But the starting points are different. To discern the basic difference, ask yourself which is most in the foreground of your life, the welfare, development, security, prosperity, and well-being of yourself and others as individuals, or the shared heritage, ecological resources, traditional stories, and group accomplishments of your people? Generally, those who start with individualism as their beginning tend to be most comfortable with independence, personal achievement, and a competitive conflict style. Those who start with a communal orientation are more focused on social connections, service, and a cooperative conflict style.

French anthropologist Raymonde Carroll, who is married to a North American, suggests that North Americans tend to see individual identities as existing outside all networks. This does not mean that social networks do not exist, or that they are unimportant, but that it is notionally possible to see the self apart from these. In the North American view, there is a sense that the self creates its own identity, as in the expression, a "self-made person." This view explains why it is unnecessary for North Americans to hide things about their past, such as humble origins. It also explains why the alcoholic brother of a president of the United States is seen as having no connection to the president's standing or ability. In a communitarian setting, identity is defined much more by the person's social network, and cannot be so easily separated.

One way to discern communitarian or individualist starting points is to listen to forms of greeting and address. Thomas Morning Owl, a member of the Confederated Umatilla Tribes in Oregon, reports that his response to the question 'Shinnamwa?' (Who are you?) would not be his name, but a description of his father, mother, and tribe, and the place they came from. Morning Owl reflects that individual identities are subsumed into the collective in his culture: "Who preceded you, is who you are."[9]

Members of communitarian cultures place less importance than individualists on relationships with outsiders, such as strangers or casual acquaintances. Boundaries around relationships tend to be less porous in communitarian contexts like Japan, where attention is focused on maintaining harmony and cohesion with the group. In the individualist setting of the United States, by contrast, "friendly" behavior is directed to members of in-groups and strangers alike. This difference can lead to misunderstandings across cultures, since the U.S. American behavior of friendliness to strangers may be seen as inappropriately familiar by those from communitarian settings, while U.S. Americans may find social networks in communitarian settings very difficult to penetrate.

No matter which starting point seems natural, it is important to keep the entire continuum in mind when trying to understand and address conflict. From each vantage point, it is useful to remember some things:

From an individualist starting point,

achievement involves individual goal-setting and action;
I am ultimately accountable to myself and must make decisions I can live with;
while I consult with others about choices, I am autonomous: a discrete circle; and
I believe in equality and consider everyone able to make their own personal choices.

From a communitarian starting point,

maintaining group harmony and cohesion is important, and my decisions should not disrupt that;
choices are made in consultation with family and authority figures and their input is weighted as heavily, or even more heavily, than mine. I am an overlapping circle amidst other overlapping circles;
my decisions reflect on my group and I am accountable to them as a member; and
I notice hierarchy and accept direction from those of higher status than myself.

With these differences in mind, it is important for individualists to recognize the web of relations encompassing the communitarian party to a conflict, and to act in recognition of those. Similarly, it is helpful for those from communitarian settings to remember that individualists value autonomy and initiative, and to act in ways that respect these preferences.

Combining Starting Points: High-Context/Low-Context and Individualism/Communitarianism

As with any set of starting points, neither of these starting points exists in isolation. High-context communication often corresponds with communitarian settings, just as low-context communication often occurs in individualist settings. This is not always true, but it is worth exploring because it is frequently the case. Where communitarianism is the preferred starting point, individual expression may be less important than group will. Indirect communication that draws heavily on nonverbal cues may be preferable in such a setting, because it allows for multiple meanings, saves face, leaves room for group input into decisions, and displays interdependence. In individualist settings, low-context communication may be preferable because it is direct, expresses individual desires and initiatives, displays independence, and clarifies the meaning intended by the speaker.

Nobel Peace Laureate Jimmy Carter understood the importance of high-context communication with his counterparts from Israel and Egypt in the historic Camp David peace negotiations. In one example, Carter reports that Prime Minister Begin was about to leave the negotiations after several days, discouraged at having reached an impasse. Carter met Begin at his accommodations and presented him with pictures of the three heads of state, inscribed with the names of each of Begin's grandchildren. Prime Minister Begin repeated the names of his grandchildren out loud as he paused to look at the pictures, seeming to reflect on the importance of the peace negotiations to the grandchildren's futures.

Carter knew instinctively that no direct, low-context appeal would work to bring Prime Minister Begin back to the negotiating table. Perhaps low-context requests were already tried without success. Instead, Carter relied on a high-context reference to legacy, future generations, and the relations that Begin cared about. He invoked the communities each leader served by reminding Begin of his grandchildren. Through Carter's masterful, high-context appeal, negotiations resumed and peace was achieved between neighbors who had been in intractable conflict for many years.[10]

This example shows the importance of these two interrelated starting points, individualism/communitarianism and low/high context. While there are many exceptions to cultural patterns and all of us use different starting points depending on the context, noticing the intersections of ways of making meaning is often a useful window into conflict dynamics.

[1] Montaigne, 1580. Quoted in Tracy Novinger. Intercultural Communication . (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001)

[2] This is closely related to the concept of framing .

[3] Edward T. Hall, The Dance of Life. The Other Dimension of Time (New York: Doubleday, 1983), 7.

[4] Donal Carbaugh, Intercultural Theory [on-line] Available from http://eco.ittralee.ie/personal/theories-III.php#1 ; Internet.

[5] Lustig, Myron and Jolene Koester. 1998. Intercultural Competence: Interpersonal Communication Across Cultures (3 rd Ed.). (Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1998), 30.

[6] Edward T. Hall, Beyond Culture . (New York: Anchor/Doubleday, 1971)

[7] Tan, Amy. "The Language of Discretion," in About Language 3 rd Ed ., E.H.Roberts and G. Turgeon, eds. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992), 142.

[8] These points are taken from Michelle LeBaron, Bridging Cultural Conflicts: New Approaches for a Changing World (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2003)

[9] Quoted in Tracy Novinger, Intercultural Communication (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2001), 31.

[10] Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith (New York: Bantam Books, 1982), 392, 399.

Use the following to cite this article: LeBaron, Michelle. "Communication Tools for Understanding Cultural Differences." Beyond Intractability . Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Information Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: June 2003 < http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/communication-tools >.

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As many patients are spending their last days in critical care units, it is essential that they receive appropriate end-of -life care. However, cultural differences, ethical dilemmas and preference practices can arise in the intensive care settings during the end of life. Limiting therapy for dying patients in intensive care is a new concept with no legal definition and therefore there may be confusion in interpreting the terms ‘no resuscitation’ and ‘comfort care’ among physicians in Middle East. Therefore, the research question is ‘What helps or hinders effective end-of-life care in adult intensive care units in Middle Eastern countries?’

The authors conducted a comprehensive systematic literature review using five electronic databases. We identified primary studies from Medline, Embase, CINAHL, Psycinfo and Scopus. The team assessed the full-text papers included in the review for quality using the Joanna Briggs Institute checklist (JBI). We completed the literature search on the first of April 2022 and was not limited to a specific period.

We identified and included nine relevant studies in the review. We identified five main themes as end-of-life care challenges and/or facilitators: organisational structure and management, (mis)understanding of end-of-life care, spirituality and religious practices for the dying, communication about end-of-life care, and the impact of the ICU environment.

Conclusions

This review has reported challenges and facilitators to providing end-of-life care in ICU and made initial recommendations for improving practice. These are certainly not unique to the Middle East but can be found throughout the international literature. However, the cultural context of Middle East and North Africa countries gives these areas of practice special challenges and opportunities. Further observational research is recommended to confirm or modify the results of this review, and with a view to developing and evaluating comprehensive interventions to promote end-of-life care in ICUs in the Middle East.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Globally, the majority of people with chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, chronic respiratory diseases, kidney failure, and cancer require special care at the end-of-life (EOL) phase when their health worsens before death [ 1 , 2 ]. As the severity of illness of hospitalised patients increases, advanced technological support has increasingly helped such patients to survive longer [ 3 , 4 ]. However, the focus on technology in intensive care units (ICUs) can make the implementation of palliative and end-of-life care more problematic [ 5 ]. This is because the ICU is typically a curative setting that aims to treat reversible causes of serious illness [ 5 , 6 ].

The World Health Organisation defines palliative care as an approach that improves the quality of life of patients (adults and children) and their families who are facing problems associated with life-threatening illness. It prevents and relieves suffering through the early identification, correct assessment and treatment of pain and other problems, whether physical, psychosocial or spiritual [ 7 ]. According to The National Hospice and Palliative Care Organisation end-of-life care commences when an individual has a diagnosis of a terminal illness with less than six months to live, and curative therapies are no longer options [ 8 ]. Whilst there is an emerging international consensus on core goals and principles for palliative and EOL care in the ICU, there remain many differences in the outworking and application of these principles, depending on the legal, cultural and religious context for clinical practice [ 9 ]. This is especially the case for issues relating to withholding and withdrawing life-sustaining treatment, while ensuring the alleviation of suffering [ 10 ].

Nevertheless, it is widely accepted that providing aggressive care may not always benefit critically ill patients, and if curative care proves unsuccessful a change in management goals from restorative care to palliative care will be considered with patient and families. However, according to many ICU healthcare providers this transition is the most complicated stage in providing end-of-life care [ 11 , 12 ], and discussion about comfort and EOL goals is often postponed until it is obvious that death is near [ 13 ].

For the purposes of this review, we have focused on the 19 countries (Table 1 ) classified by the World Bank as from the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region [ 14 ]. There are of course many differences between countries, but across this region the beliefs, cultures, and traditions of the people have many similarities. The literature suggests that both Arab and Muslim culture make professionals reluctant to withhold any intervention for patients in the ICU, and discussion of death and dying is often avoided by both families and healthcare professionals [ 15 , 16 ]. Professional culture in ICUs is often described as hierarchical, with medical staff reserving the right to speak with families about EOL care and nurses reluctant to speak openly with families without medical approval [ 17 ]. Around 60-70% health care staff are from overseas, and so do not share patients’ culture, beliefs, or first language [ 18 , 19 , 20 ].

Middle Eastern countries have undergone rapid development of their healthcare systems, including the area of critical care [ 21 ]. However, palliative and EOL care has been much slower to develop [ 22 ]. Palliative care was first introduced to Middle Eastern countries in the early 1990s [ 23 ]. Despite this early introduction, access to palliative care is limited in most countries in the Middle East [ 24 , 25 , 26 ], with a significant shortage in palliative care programs compared to the high incidence of serious illness [ 27 ]. Even in Saudi Arabia, where there has been significant progress in introducing palliative and end-of-life care in the health care system, specialist services are not widely available, public knowledge is limited, and there is a persistent focus on curative treatments [ 28 ]. There is little consensus on practice regarding dying patients in Middle Eastern countries, as religious and cultural values raise additional challenges to the implementation of EOL care, especially where this may entail a ‘Do not resuscitate’ (DNR) decision [ 29 , 30 ]. An assessment of knowledge, beliefs, obstacles, and resources available in the provision of palliative care services in fifteen Middle Eastern countries Silbermann et al. [ 31 ] found that major barriers include lack of palliative care beds and services, training for healthcare providers, community awareness, access to hospice services, and insufficient time and personnel.

Unsurprisingly, the general limitations of palliative and EOL care provision are mirrored in the critical care environment. Substituting palliative care for aggressive life prolonging therapy for dying patients in intensive care is a new concept with no legal definition for many healthcare providers in the Middle East. Consequently, there may be confusion in interpreting such terms as ‘not to be resuscitated’ and ‘comfort care’ among physicians [ 32 ]. There is a low prevalence of withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment in ICUs in many regions of the Middle East [ 33 ]. The most acceptable practice of limiting therapy for terminally ill patients in ICU involves avoiding escalation while continuing present therapy [ 32 ]. It was found that the dominant culture is to preserve life, providing maximum life-supporting interventions to all patients regardless patient’s condition. When patients approach EOL, the focus may shift to DNR decisions but not necessarily to providing palliative care and support for the patients’ families [ 32 , 34 ].

Given the low prevalence of comprehensive palliative and EOL care offered in ICUs in Middle Eastern countries, it is important to understand the challenges to implementation (such as those discussed above) and how care can be supported and optimized [ 32 ].

Research question

What helps or hinders effective end-of-life care in adult intensive care units in Middle Eastern countries?

This systematic review is guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, which were developed to ensure the transparency of data reporting in systematic reviews [ 35 , 36 ].

Study eligibility criteria

Primary studies of palliative and end-of-life care in adult intensive care units in countries from the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region (Table 1 ) as defined by the World Bank [ 14 ].

English language studies were included.

Reviews, reports, and guidelines were excluded.

Information sources and search strategy

The research team identified primary studies from searching the following electronic databases: Medline, Embase, CINAHL, PsycInfo and Scopus. The search terms included: (End of life, OR death, OR dying OR terminally ill OR End-of-life care, OR terminal care, OR Palliative care) AND (Intensive care, OR critical care) AND (Algeria OR Bahrain OR Djibouti OR Egypt OR Iran OR Iraq OR Jordan OR Kuwait OR Lebanon OR Libya OR Morocco OR Oman OR Qatar OR Syrian Arab Republic OR Tunisia OR United Arab Emirates OR Palestine and Gaza OR Yemen OR Saudi Arabia OR Middle East OR Muslims OR Islam OR gulf states OR Arabs). In addition, we scanned the reference lists of the included studies. The team conducted the search in April 2022 and was not limited to a specific period.

Study selection process

After removing duplicated articles, three researchers P.O, B.B and N.A independently screened study titles and then abstracts from all databases for eligibility. Following that, the team read and discussed the full texts of the remaining studies and resolved disagreements on eligibility.

Data extraction

The researchers independently performed the data extraction and then checked for consistency to confirm accuracy of data reported. The following data were taken from each included study: author’s name, year of publication, objective, population and setting, study design and sample, measurement tool, main findings, and conclusions (Table 2 ) (Table 3 ).

Study assessment process

The team assessed the methodological quality of all included studies using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) critical appraisal tools [ 37 ]. We calculated quality scores by totaling the number of ‘yes’ responses to criteria in the critical appraisal checklist. Quantitative cross-sectional design studies could achieve a maximum 8 points, and qualitative studies 10 points.

Data synthesis

The heterogeneity of study designs and outcomes precluded meta-analysis, so we carried out a narrative synthesis. We summarized narratively in text the data extracted from studies and presented them in tabular form. Then, the team sorted the findings into five thematic categories according to their common characteristic with the frequency of studies presented. Subsequently, the team summarised the included studies in a narrative synthesis, which was drafted by one author and reviewed, and validated independently by the research team members [ 38 , 39 ].

Study selection

The initial search of databases produced 3,396 documents (Fig. 1 ). After removing duplicated studies, we screened 1,798 titles for eligibility from all databases. After initial screening of titles, we screened 76, and excluded 58 studies. Researchers read the remaining 18 full text studies and excluded 10 studies as they did not meet the eligibility criteria: one study was a case study, two studies were not conducted in a Middle Eastern country, and seven studies were assessed not to have relevant outcomes. We added one additional study, which had been identified from screening relevant review and reference lists of included studies. Therefore, nine studies are included in this review (Fig. 1 ). We had planned to exclude papers not written in English but in fact all papers identified through our search were written in English.

PRISMA flowchart diagram

Study characteristics

Study designs.

Of the nine included studies, three were quantitative, cross-sectional studies (Table 2 ), and six were qualitative studies (Table 3 ).

Methodological quality

The six qualitative studies were classified as measured five and above out of eight [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 ]; and the three quantitative cross-sectional studies measured eight and above out of 10 [ 46 , 47 , 48 ]. using the JBI) critical appraisal tools (Table 4 ) (Table 5 ).

Main objectives of the studies

Cross-sectional studies sought to measure ICU staff perceptions of barriers and supportive behaviors to the provision of end-of-life care in the intensive care unit [ 46 , 47 , 48 ]. The qualitative studies focus on exploring critical care nurses’ experiences and perceptions of providing end-of-life care for critically ill patients in an intensive care unit [ 43 , 45 ]; evaluating nurses’ care practices at the end of life and their understanding of the provision of spiritual care at the end of life [ 41 , 42 ]; identifying the needs, beliefs, and practices of Muslim family members during end-of-life care for a family member in the intensive care unit [ 40 ]; and the impact of organisational structures when integrating palliative care in intensive care units [ 44 ].

Study populations

With the exception of one study that focused on family members [ 40 ], all the studies were of healthcare professionals. Participants in six studies of the studies were ICU nurses [ 41 , 42 , 43 , 45 , 46 , 48 ]; one study involved ICU managers alongside health professionals [ 44 ] and another study involved ICU physicians and nurses [ 47 ].

Cultural context

The findings of this review can only be fully understood in the light of the cultural and religious context of MENA countries, and the related professional cultures in healthcare. Both Arab and Muslim culture make professionals reluctant to withhold any intervention or medication for any patient in the ICU, and Muslim culture and practices (such as reading the Qur’an to the patient, performing prayer, placing the dying patient to face toward Mecca and saying the Shahadatain or testimony of faith) are often important to families. God is seen as the ultimate healer, who is able to heal the sick person at any stage, which feeds into a desire to keep the patient alive at all costs. Consequently, while some families are open about their loved one’s likely prognosis, discussion of death and dying is often avoided by both families and health care professionals [ 40 ], and withdrawing non-effective treatment may be seen as complicity in causing the patient’s death [ 44 ]. The patient’s death may not be faced until medical staff make a DNR decision and even this is sometimes opposed by families, which further limits discussion of EOL, and so curtails the EOL care offered to both patient and family.

Communication with the family and their involvement in decisions about the patient can vary greatly between ICUs in different regions [ 41 , 44 ]. However, the professional culture in ICUs is often described as hierarchical, with medical staff reserving the right to speak with families about EOL care and yet often showing reluctance to make a DNR decision or to withdraw ineffective treatments. Nurses do not consider themselves professionally autonomous in these situations, and so are reluctant to speak openly with families without medical approval, resorting to hints and veiled references [ 41 ]. These difficulties in communicating with families are compounded by language barriers, in that many health care staff are from overseas [ 45 ]. Frequently, they do not share patients’ culture and beliefs, and usually speak English rather than Arabic, whilst Arabic is the first language for most families [ 41 , 45 , 46 ].

End-of-life care challenges and supportive behaviours

Within the overall cultural context described above, five main themes were identified as EOL care challenges and/or facilitators: organisational structure and management, (mis)understanding of end-of life care, spirituality and religious practices for the dying, communication about EOL care, and the impact of the ICU environment.

Organisational structure and management

Many ICUs lack policy and guideline documents in relation to palliative care. This leaves health care professionals without clear guidance and support in relation to DNR decisions and other clinical and ethical dilemmas. This means health care professionals are thrown back on their personal beliefs and cultural assumptions, as described above. This may create barriers for the integration of palliative care in ICU [ 44 ]. As noted above organisationally, ICUs may be hierarchical, with nurses deferring to doctors in end-of-life discussions with families, and a lack of professional autonomy and involvement in decision making. Yet medical staff were reluctant to speak plainly about death with families. Consequently, communication was unclear, treatments prolonged, and death sometimes unexpected by families. In addition, nurses identified a need for specialist education and training but reported none had received training in ethics or palliative care [ 41 ].

(Mis)understanding of end-of life care

The most reported challenge across the studies was related to different understandings of EOL care between healthcare team and family members [ 46 , 47 , 48 ]. Families may believe that introducing EOL care means actively ending the patient’s life, rather than providing the best supportive care and comfort measures when death has become inevitable. On the other hand, medical staff may avoid discussion with families about the patient’s prognosis and related EOL care, which contributes to the confusion for families and may lead to them not accepting the patient’s poor prognosis and misunderstanding what life-saving measures really mean. Some relatives may think that EOL care means abandoning the patient and neglecting ordinary care and treatment; or not appreciating how traumatic interventions such as CPR may be for the patient [ 46 , 47 , 48 ].

On the other hand, EOL care is facilitated when ICU staff take active steps towards patient and family-centred care. Family members can be taught how to approach caring for their dying relative. Agreeing a specific family member as the main communication link with the family enabled better communication of goals of care for the dying patient and avoided misunderstanding [ 48 ].

If family members are helped to accept that the patient is dying, this allows ICU staff to discuss EOL care and also provide appropriate support for the family, for example by providing a peaceful, dignified bedside scene for family members as their loved one approaches death, and by having the physician meet in person with the family after the patient’s death to offer support and reassure them that all possible care was given [ 47 ].

Spirituality and religious practices for the dying

Family members of critically ill patients place a high value on the spirituality of death, and religious practices such as prayer, and appreciate it when these practices can be accommodated in the ICU. However, family members may believe that God is the ultimate healer, and so hold on to hope of recovery in the face of a poor prognosis, or even deny the possibility of death [ 40 ]. This presents a challenge to physicians who may wish to discuss EOL care and DNR decisions with family members [ 47 ]. On the other hand, nurses are capable of delivering end-of-life care in a culturally sensitive manner and aligned to Islamic values [ 41 ]. Engagement with family members (and sometimes patients) about spiritual needs when facing EOL allowed nurses to facilitate spiritual care, usually based on religious beliefs and practices [ 42 ]. Spiritual and physical care may overlap, as keeping the patient clean, having someone recite the Holy Qur’an to the patient, closing the person’s eyes as they die, and after death aligning the body towards Mecca, are all part of asking God to comfort, forgive, or heal the individual. Carrying out these practices may provide spiritual comfort to both families and nurses [ 43 ]. However the spiritual care appears insufficient in some ICUs due to diversity of beliefs among nurses [ 45 ].

Communication about EOL care

Family members of ICU patients suggested that the need for frequent updates about the health status and prognosis of their loved one was an important part of end-of-life care [ 40 ]. However, the majority of ICU nurses are non-Arabic speakers as a result they found it difficult to communicate with patients and their families about EOL care [ 45 ].

Family members of ICU patients suggested that nominating a particular member of the medical member to provide information during visiting hours aided communication, as did the presence of social worker. The input of a social worker is important when communicating bad news and clarifying complex issues around EOL care. In addition, Attia [ 48 ] found that 94.3% of critical care nurses report effective communication between physicians and nurses caring for the dying patient as facilitator. This can ensure the staff are updated about that all possible care was provided and that family support was given by a multi-professional team.

Impact of the ICU environment

Other frequently identified obstacles to EOL care, related to the ICU environment reported by health professionals include poor design of critical care units, restricted visiting hours, and nurses’ heavy workload [ 48 ]. It was noted that the ICU bedside of patient does not allow for privacy of dying patients or grieving of family members. Therefore, it was difficult for family members to stay as much as they wish close to the dying patient. Likewise, critical care nurses report that providing a peaceful, dignified bedside scene for family members to grieve in private helped facilitate EOL care for the family [ 47 , 48 ]. It is also the case that nursing workload limits the time to provide the family with needed emotional support, which was reported as a further burden on nurses [ 40 , 47 ].

Only nine studies were included in the review, all observational rather than intervention studies, and six of them qualitative. Studies were moderately strong methodologically. The qualitative studies provide useful insights on the perceptions, experiences, attitudes and behaviors of healthcare professionals and patients’ families in relation to end-of-life care; while the three quantitative studies more directly measured the barriers and facilitators of EOL care in different middle eastern counties.

We found common cultural characteristics across the studies which had a profound effect on the perception and delivery of EOL care. The natural desire and expectation of families – and of health care professionals - is that health care is directed to the healing and restoration of their loved one, especially in the highly technological and interventionist context of the ICU. This, coupled with the hope that God will intervene to heal the critically ill person, seems to produce a social and psychological barrier to discussions of EOL care and the withdrawal of treatments that have become ineffective. These discussions and actions may be seen as synonymous with abandoning the patient or even actively ending their life.

In this overall cultural context, five interlocking phenomena that helped or hindered EOL care in ICU were identified: organisational structure and management, (mis)understanding of end-of life care, spirituality and religious practices for the dying, communication about EOL care, and the impact of the ICU environment. These themes were often mutually reinforcing in providing barriers to effective EOL care. For example, a hierarchical organisational structure that disempowers nurses in relation to communicating with families, is exacerbated by language barriers and the limitations of the ICU environment. Similarly, misunderstandings about the goals of EOL care may be compounded by the language and cultural distance between health care professionals, and patients and their families.

This is not an argument for marginalizing the cultural and religious concerns of patients and their families. There is evidence from the literature that where nurses deliver end-of-life care in a culturally sensitive manner and aligned to local Islamic and Arabic values, and make room for spiritual and religious practices, then communication can be effective, and all concerned can benefit from these spiritual and cultural resources [ 32 , 34 , 49 ].

In relation to organisational structure and management, the review identified a lack of guidance around EOL care contributing to uncertainty for ICU staff. Guidance is available [ 50 ], and the literature suggests organisations should have administrative processes in place to encourage critical care teams to lead the discussions and begin early EOL care plans when appropriate [ 6 , 51 ]. In addition, the application of a designed checklist and reminder to discuss end-of-life aspects may allow physicians to evaluate the situation and decide whether there is a need for palliative care consultation [ 52 , 53 , 54 ]. The interprofessional tensions between nurses and doctors reported in this review are common in ICUs, including in EOL care situations [ 17 ]. Hierarchical relations with senior doctors can contribute to moral distress for more junior staff and to unnecessary and burdensome treatment for patients [ 55 ]. The ICU is a complex social context, with multiple interactions between patients, their families and the various professional groups responsible for care [ 56 ]. Addressing the limitations of interprofessional working will require long-term engagement with stakeholders and an understanding of the cultural context for care [ 57 ]. As a minimum, the review has made clear the need for investment at an organisational level in appropriate education and training for ICU staff in order to promote interprofessional collaboration, and effective engagement with patients and their families in relation to EOL care.

Differing understandings in relation to end-of life care between families and ICU staff – compounded by poor communication - can lead to conflict and loss of trust. Family members experiencing difficulty in accepting a poor prognosis and resisting withdrawal of ineffective treatments is not unique to MENA countries. Similar challenges have been reported in Australian [ 51 ] and Canadian [ 52 ] contexts, where it was reported that the largest barrier to transition to end-of-life care was unrealistic family expectations. Gries et al. [ 58 ] acknowledge the importance of involving and supporting the patients’ family in EOL decisions. In these circumstances it is recommended that family members are provided with the goals of care to help them navigate decisions around EOL care [ 52 , 59 ]. This involvement is thought to lead to a better understanding of the treatment plan as well as enabling family members to have more realistic expectations regarding the patient’s prognosis and the effectiveness of treatment [ 52 ]. Family meetings are considered an effective approach to ensure patient- and family-centred care in palliative care. Family engagement in a serious illness discussion can clarify the values of patients and relatives, provide information, determine care preferences, and identify sources of illness-related distress. Among other benefits, these interventions may reduce family distress, mitigate unmet needs, prepare families, and improve bereavement outcomes. Palliative care experts believe that family meetings can reinforce the therapeutic alliance with families, facilitate consensus, and enhance families’ understanding of the patient’s serious condition [ 60 ].

Spiritual practices were given a high value by family members of ICU patients at end of life. This is a complex area of care, where misunderstanding may impede EOL care but sensitive engagement with the family can be very helpful. Some religious and spiritual beliefs can make discussions of EOL care challenging for all parties. On the other hand, spiritual and physical care may helpfully overlap, and consistent with the work of Kisorio and Langley [ 61 ], most families valued prayers and religious support during this difficult time. Spirituality is considered as a source of hope, and when prognosis is poor, as a means of seeking comfort, coping, and allowing the patient to die peacefully in a dignified manner. In this respect MENA countries may well be in a stronger position than others, as spiritual support is reported as lacking [ 61 , 62 ].

Reported challenges in communication about EOL care are consistent with research in South Africa [ 61 ] and the United Kingdom [ 63 ], which found that clear communication and receiving relevant information about the patient’s progress on a regular basis was one of the important needs raised by family members. This review highlighted the value of having an identified family member and staff contact to facilitate communication. This aligns with previous research reporting inadequate communication and inconsistencies in information received from different physicians [ 64 , 65 ]. Festic et al. [ 66 ] reported that improving communication among ICU team and with families was identified by 30% of the respondents as the change most required to improve EOL care. Similarly, Curtis et al. [ 67 ] emphasized that effective communication between healthcare professionals and families improves family understanding, clinical decision making and psychological well-being of family members.

Language and cultural barriers to communication have also been reported in the wider literature. Barwise et al. [ 68 ] noted that in the context of an unfamiliar language and culture, some physicians lack the skills necessary for adequate and effective discussions and may fear miscommunicating. As result, infrequent communication leads to patient and family distress, mistrust, and inadvertent misconceptions. In this situation, availability of interpreters in the organisation and specifically in ICU is an important support that facilitates communication and discussion of end-of-life care [ 69 ].

Families and healthcare professionals report that the ICU environment was not convenient for EOL care due to lack of private space and limited visiting time. Families need to be beside their dying patient and the poor design of ICUs makes it difficult for relatives to stay with the patient as much as they wish. These results agreed with the findings of Millner et al. [ 70 ] and Kyeremanteng et al. [ 52 ] who conclude that the lack of privacy could hinder the provision of quality end-of-life care. Limited visiting hours for dying patients in ICU was also viewed as a barrier to providing end-of-life care. Liberal flexible visiting hours should be considered for family based on the patient’s condition. Ghiyasvandian et al. [ 71 ] showed that most nurses believed that family presence with the patient can improve emotional support at end of life. This was supported by Hodde et al. [ 72 ], who suggested that ICU patients have a better quality of dying if they do not die alone. However, ICU visiting hours continue to be restricted [ 73 ].

Strengths and limitations

We used a broad search strategy that reduced the risk of missing relevant studies, and performed study selection, data extraction, and data synthesis in duplicate. However, most of the included studies focus on critical care nurses’ perceptions, which indicates that the review could not effectively represent the challenges and facilitators experienced by the multidisciplinary team involved in the delivery of end-of-life care in the ICU settings. The studies were drawn from only six of 19 MENA countries, and so may not reflect practice in other countries. Given the focus of the papers, many important palliative care practice (such as symptom control and family interventions) are not discussed as part of the review. In addition, this review is limited by inclusion of English language papers only.

Conclusion and recommendations

This review identified five phenomena influencing the quality of EOL care in adult intensive care units in MENA countries: organisational structure and management, (mis)understanding of end-of life care, spirituality and religious practices for the dying, communication about EOL care, and the impact of the ICU environment. These are certainly not unique to the Middle East but can be found throughout the international literature. However, the cultural context of MENA countries gives these areas of practice special challenges and opportunities. Of course, all ICU care takes place in a particular cultural context, and patients, families, and ICU staff – whether in MENA countries or elsewhere – are likely to carry with them the assumptions and values of the surrounding culture. However, one unusual factor in many MENA countries is the large proportion (60-70%) of expatriates delivering care. These professionals may not share local cultural assumptions and also experience language barriers, which will make communication about EOL care challenging.

With these challenges in mind, we offer the following recommendations.

Organisations should agree and make available suitable policies and guidance to provide a supportive framework for EOL care and reduce uncertainty and ambiguity for ICU staff.

ICU staff should have access to appropriate education and training to promote interprofessional collaboration, and effective engagement with patients and their families in relation to EOL care.

Where possible a named family member should be identified as the key communicator for the family and a member of ICU staff be similarly identified, with the aim of understanding the needs and perspectives of family members, avoiding misunderstanding, and effectively communicating goals of care, changes in prognosis, and reasons for treatment decisions.

The value of spiritual and religious care should be recognized by ICU staff and end-of-life care delivered in a culturally sensitive manner and, where appropriate to the patient and family, aligned to Islamic and Arabic values.

Where ICU staff are not confident in local languages, the organisation should make interpreters available to facilitate discussion of EOL decisions with the patient and family.

The limitations of the ICU environment should be considered when the patient is nearing the end of life, with consideration given to longer and more flexible visiting hours, and providing privacy at the patient’s bedside.

Given the complex and interactive effects of these important characteristics, it appears that interventions to promote more effective EOL care in the ICU should seek to address the full range of issues, rather than target isolated aspects of care. Finally, we recommend further observational research to confirm or modify the results of this review, and with a view to developing and evaluating comprehensive interventions to promote effective EOL care in ICUs in the Middle East.

Data availability

All data is available in the manuscript.

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Almalki, N., Boyle, B. & O’Halloran, P. What helps or hinders effective end-of-life care in adult intensive care units in Middle Eastern countries? A systematic review. BMC Palliat Care 23 , 87 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12904-024-01413-7

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What helps or hinders effective end-of-life care in adult intensive care units in Middle Eastern countries? A systematic review

Conclusions

Introduction

Research question

Study eligibility criteria

Information sources and search strategy

Study selection process

Data extraction

Study assessment process

Data synthesis

Study selection

Study characteristics

Methodological quality

Main objectives of the studies

Study populations

Cultural context

End-of-life care challenges and supportive behaviours

Organisational structure and management

(Mis)understanding of end-of life care

Spirituality and religious practices for the dying

Communication about EOL care

Impact of the ICU environment

Strengths and limitations