essay about stress impact on health

Stress and Its Effects on Health Essay

Introduction, physical effects, psychological effects, behavioral effects.

Stress is the emotional strain or tension experienced by an individual due to a reaction toward various demanding and influential situations. The challenging or compelling situations are termed stressors. Stressors can be internal or external and include life changes such as losing a significant figure, low socioeconomic status, relationship problems, occupational challenges, and familial or environmental factors. An individual’s response to stressors influences the outcome of their life. Health is a state of complete social, emotional, and physical well-being and not merely the absence of disease. Stress is a common risk factor for negative health status secondary to negative adaptation and coping with the stressors. Stressors can create a strain on one’s physical, psychological and behavioral well-being, leading to lasting effects that are detrimental to one’s health.

Stress is associated with various physical health impacts on an individual. In an online cross-sectional survey by Keech et al. (2020) to determine the association between stress and the physical and psychological health of police officers, the findings illustrate that stress negatively impacts physical and psychological well-being. One hundred and thirty-four police officers were involved in the study (Keech et al., 2020). The findings demonstrate that stress resulted in various short and long-term physical effects that included increased heart rates, sweating, high blood pressure, and long-term development of the cardiac condition. In addition, stress resulted in the development of gastrointestinal disorders such as peptic ulcer and irritable bowel syndrome. Keech et al. (2020) note that stress’s associated physical health effects are explained by various mechanisms that include overstimulation of the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis.

Overstimulation of the sympathetic nervous system results in increased sympathetic actions on the peripheral body organs leading to increased sweat production, heart rate, respiration rate, and urinary and bowel elimination. The study notes that chronic stress without positive adaptation measures results in the progressive development of hypertension, peptic ulcers, and irritable bowel syndrome as long-term effects (Keech et al., 2020). Within the gastrointestinal tract, chronic stress activity on the sympathetic nervous system results in increased parietal cell action. Overactivity of the parietal cells results in excessive gastric acid production, gradually eroding the mucosa, and ulceration occurs.

The effects of stress on the cardiovascular system are explained in a review by Kivimäki & Steptoe (2017) to determine the impact of stress on the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases. In the review, stress is identified to cause cardiovascular conditions secondary to the effects of sustained sympathetic action on heart contractility and peripheral vascular resistance (Kivimäki & Steptoe, 2017). The sympathetic nervous system contributes to normal heart and blood vessel contractility. However, when the system is overstimulated, a surge in contractility above the normal limits ensues, leading to the progressive development of heart conditions.

Psychological well-being incorporates a positive mental health status evidenced by an individual’s satisfaction with life, happiness, rational thinking and decision-making, and positive mood patterns. Stress has been associated with alterations in an individual’s psychological wellness. An explanation for alteration in an individual’s psychological well-being secondary to stress is negative adaptation. Keech et al. (2020) note that an individual’s response to a stressor determines whether stress results in positive or negative effects. In the online cross-sectional survey by Keech et al. (2020), the findings illustrate that pressure resulted in the development of anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorders as long-term effects among the participants. Exposure to stressful situations resulted in progressively developing anxiety among the individual secondary to persistent worry over the issue. The anxiety results in other physical manifestations, including increased heart rate, palpitations, sweating, and altered mobility. Depression and bipolar conditions were also associated with chronic stress secondary to the impacts of stress on neurotransmitter function and nerves.

Similar findings are noted in a cross-sectional study by Zhang et al. (2020) to compare the prevalence and severity of stress-associated mental health symptoms, including anxiety, depression, and insomnia among healthcare workers during the COVID pandemic. Five hundred and twenty-four healthcare workers were involved in the study. The study findings illustrate that 31.3% of the participants developed depression secondary to the stressful working environment, 41.2% reported anxiety, and 39.3% reported sleep disturbances (Zhang et al., 2020). The scientific explanation for the relationship between stress and depression was attributed to the effects of stressful periods on neurotransmitter homeostasis. Chronic stress results in the altered regulation of neurotransmitters in the central nervous system. Alterations in serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine resulted in the progressive development of depression and anxiety. Sleep disturbances reported by the participants are attributed to alterations in cortisol hormone homeostasis secondary to overstimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis.

Stressful situations can also lead to alterations in the behavioral patterns of an individual. The most common behavioral effects secondary to stress include the development of eating disorders, altered sleeping patterns, impaired concentration, and drug abuse especially alcohol. Alterations in sleep and eating patterns are linked to stress’s effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis (HPA). Exposure to stressful events leads to increased activation of the HPA axis with a net effect of increased catecholamine production (adrenaline and noradrenaline) (Moustafa et al., 2018). Increased adrenaline and noradrenaline production results in dysregulation in the eating and sleeping patterns. Sustained high levels of cortisol results in difficulty falling asleep and increased metabolic processes. The biological clock regulates the typical sleeping pattern that relies on producing the sleep hormone melatonin. Melatonin production by the pineal gland is regulated indirectly by the concentration of serum cortisol levels and directly by light perception. Imbalances in the serum concentration cycle secondary to stress results in imbalanced melatonin production and concentration with a net effect of sleeping difficulties.

The emotional strain caused by stress increases the risk of alcohol and other illicit drug use and dependence. Moustafa et al. (2018) conducted an integrative literature review to determine the relationship between childhood trauma, early-life stress, alcohol and drug use, addiction, and abuse. The review findings illustrate that stress increases the risk of alcohol and drug use, addiction, and abuse among the victims. An explanation for the increased risk is the individuals’ lack of identification and implementation of effective coping strategies (Moustafa et al., 2018). Lack of effective coping strategies results in maladaptive measures such as illicit drug use and alcohol consumption. Extensive use of the maladaptive measures results in progressive addiction and drug abuse among individuals with an increased predisposition to other health effects. Alcohol consumption and other illicit drug use over time increase the risk of developing cardiac, respiratory, and liver conditions.

Stress is the emotional strain or tension experienced by an individual due to a reaction toward various demanding and influential situations. Individual response to stressors influences their health. Maladaptive response to stress results in various physical, psychological, and behavioral negative effects. Negative effects of stress on physical health include increased heart rates, sweating, high blood pressure, and long-term development of the cardiac condition. Psychological effects include the development of anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorders. The behavioral effects of stress on an individual include the development of eating disorders, altered sleeping patterns, impaired concentration, and abuse of alcohol and other drugs. Based on the research findings, it is essential for healthcare providers to identify strategic measures and health initiatives to educate and sensitize the community members on effective stress management approaches in all settings to aid in combating the health effects.

Keech, J. J., Cole, K. L., Hagger, M. S., & Hamilton, K. (2020). The association between stress mindset and physical and psychological well being: Testing a stress beliefs model in police officers . Psychology & Health , 35 (11), 1306-1325. Web.

Kivimäki, M., & Steptoe, A. (2017). Effects of stress on the development and progression of cardiovascular disease . Nature Reviews Cardiology , 15 (4), 215–229. Web.

Moustafa, A. A., Parkes, D., Fitzgerald, L., Underhill, D., Garami, J., Levy-Gigi, E., Stramecki, F., Valikhani, A., Frydecka, D., & Misiak, B. (2018). The relationship between childhood trauma, early-life stress, and alcohol and drug use, abuse, and addiction: An integrative review . Current Psychology , 40 (2), 579–584. Web.

Zhang, X., Zhao, K., Zhang, G., Feng, R., Chen, J., Xu, D., Liu, X., Ngoubene-Italy, A. J., Huang, H., Liu, Y., Chen, L., & Wang, W. (2020). Occupational Stress and Mental Health: A comparison between frontline medical staff and non-frontline medical staff during the 2019 novel Coronavirus Disease outbreak . Frontiers in Psychiatry , 11 . Web.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2023, December 19). Stress and Its Effects on Health. https://ivypanda.com/essays/stress-and-its-effects-on-health/

"Stress and Its Effects on Health." IvyPanda , 19 Dec. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/stress-and-its-effects-on-health/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Stress and Its Effects on Health'. 19 December.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Stress and Its Effects on Health." December 19, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/stress-and-its-effects-on-health/.

1. IvyPanda . "Stress and Its Effects on Health." December 19, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/stress-and-its-effects-on-health/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Stress and Its Effects on Health." December 19, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/stress-and-its-effects-on-health/.

• History and Concept of the Psychoneuroimmunology
• Insomnia: Cause and Effect
• Genes, Neurotransmitters, and Emotions
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Its Theories
• Effect of Stress Hormones on Brain Cells
• Pathophysiology of Stress, Processed Foods, and Risky Alcohol Consumption
• Coronary Heart Disease Caused by Stress
• Mood and Stress Psychology: Causes, Effects and Treatments
• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone Regulation
• Jessie as the Most Sympathetic Character of “Night, Mother” by Marsha Norman
• Intergenerational Trauma and Traumatic Memory
• The Lifespan Theory Applied to a Grieving Case
• Psychological Conditions in Addition to Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory
• Self-Control: Individual Development Plan
• Arachnophobia: Systematic Desensitization Project

• Stress Essays

Stress and Health Essay

Stress is the state of being worried, run-down or overwhelmed by difficulties experienced in the modern daily lives. Health is the state of being free from any physical or psychological disease or malfunction. When one is stressed therefore, it has direct effects on the individual’s health as the main impact of stress is the distortion of the psychological and physical state. Stress in most cases is emotional and has evident symptoms so much as many human beings fail to admit that they are under stress. This serves the reason as to why many people in the modern generation die of illnesses caused by stress as compared to the generation before us who lived longer. Even though stress is well known for the damage that it causes to people’s health, at some point it appears helpful to the human body systems (Charleston & Nathan, 2012, p. 23-27).

Struggling with your HW?

Get your assignments done by real pros. Save your precious time and boost your marks with ease. Just fill in your HW requirements and you can count on us!

• Customer data protection
• 100% Plagiarism Free

Situations as such are during educational examinations where stress may help in fastening one’s thinking capacity and probably becoming more creative or when trying to meet work deadlines, making one more productive at place of work. However, many are the cases where stress causes body illnesses which leads to early deaths and sequentially affecting the nation at large when many citizens die of this chronic issue, stress. These illnesses include heart diseases, blood pressure and poor immune system amongst many more. This means that increase in stress is most likely going to increase health problems to people and may even lead to death. Research has shown that many are the people from the current generation die of problems that were initially caused by chronic stress (American Psychological Association, 2015).

Whenever the body experiences stress, some hormones are released to take care of the situation. These hormones are the reason as to why people experience blood pressure as they raise it, increase the rate at which the heart beats and raise the levels of blood sugars. These are the changes that make short term stress helpful, as they help one increase the strength and speed at which they act to overcome the issue at hand. Additionally, rapid and extended change in the above factors, may lead to dangerous illnesses. These changes are also the cause of digestive illnesses, fertility problems and a weak immune system. They may also go as far as causing viral infections such as common cold or the flu, depression, anxiety, lack of sleep and bad headaches (Natural Cancer Institute, n.d). Another main and alarming damage that stress may cause is the mental disorder. Apart from the illnesses highlighted above, stress in most cases serves responsible for mental illnesses to many patients. A mentally ill individual may not be productive as expected and is at some point of no use to the society. These are the dangers that people expose themselves to when they overwork, overthink and subject themselves to any other form of stress. At all cost therefore, human beings need to identify when they are under stress conditions and know how to deal with the situations so as to overcome them. People can choose to live long, which can be achieved by simply controlling any stress that comes their way in the course of daily activities (Fink, 2009, p. 3-5).

Research also shows that the main reason why many people suffer stress is the mental and emotional development. Many people engage their brains and emotions in issues of their daily lives, not knowing that when this is overdone, it may lead disastrous conditions that trigger stress related illnesses. Long working hours serves as the main cause of stress amongst many. This is because some of the duties many people undertake on daily basis are stressful and involve engagement of the brain. Many people therefore cause stress unto themselves, sometimes unknowingly.

Used our essay samples for inspiration ?

For more help, tap into our pool of professional writers and get expert essay editing services!

Others go ahead in overthinking on job tasks even when not in their places of work. This means they even add working hours to themselves unaware of the dangers they are exposing themselves to. People do this as they worry about the future. Everyone wants a promising future and does their best in fighting for it. They forget that they may fail to even live to see the future they fight and struggle for depending on the way they do it. It is good to express concern for the future but with limits so as to avoid chronic stress which will have to mess up with the same future.

This is all linked up by the excessive anxiety about work and is a major cause for alarm across the world. Blame at some point is also on employers as they cause stress to their employees. This makes the employee ever stressed about how to increase their productivity and to cope with upcoming issues in job affairs. It is the main reason people extend work emotions and thoughts to even outside working hours which are long already. The way the employers treat these employees also affects their emotions and may cause stress and in the end bring about stress related illnesses (National Cancer Institute, 2012). All the work pressure comes in due to competition in various fields. People are said not know how to cope with competition especially in the business field. They wrongly extend emotionally and mentally into how they will stand out as the best with competition perfection. This makes them mentally busy day and night which is harmful to their body systems.

Everyone wants to integrate work and build up their family and social lives. This aspect may bring about diseases such as blood pressure, depression and the likes (Dewe et al., 2012, p. 11-17). Another aspect of life is the struggle in relationships and marriages. Many people end up involving themselves in marriages that take away their happiness for the rest of their lives. This in many cases happens unknowingly due to haste in choosing partners which leads to settling with the wrong people at the end of it. The stress on how to find solutions has great effect as it builds mental and emotional disturbance. Continuation of such intense stress may also lead to various stress related illnesses. It is therefore good to evaluate oneself before settling down. This way one is able to realize the kind of people they can settle with. It helps in later identifying the right people and engaging themselves in marriages for better and happier lives (Griffin, n.d).

The condition of lack of sleep is brought about by stress and may be harmful as it can lead to stress related illnesses. When one spends sleepless nights, the most probable situation is that the brain is much engaged in thinking of certain issues, solutions or even making plans. If this continues for a long time therefore, it may lead to cause of long term headaches and depression (Siegel, 2008). This condition therefore must be avoided at all cost by running away from stress causing events for it proves to be much dangerous to the health of human beings. It is one of the surest symptoms of stress and it should be attended to with immediate effect to avoid developments of next stages. Obesity is also as a result of stress. When people are under stress they tend to consume a lot of junk food and eventually end up suffering from obesity.

When this is identified therefore, the victim needs to handle their stress levels carefully and strive to reduce them. These two effects of stress end up leading to heart diseases. At this stage, it becomes a hustle in getting treatment for a condition that would have simply been avoided by refraining from any stress related situation (Charleston & Nathan, 2012, p. 47-53). Another disease that may come along with the effects of stress is cancer. Not much research has been done about cancer, but it has been proven that when many people are under stress, they tend to take alcohol and smoke cigarette at a high rate. Alcohol and cigarette lead to cancer development in parts of the human body (American Psychological Association, 2015). This therefore makes cancer and heart diseases some of the illnesses that come along with stress. To fight these diseases, it begins with prevention from involving oneself with stress related situations. Otherwise, it becomes very much difficult and expensive to treat these diseases.

In conclusion, stress is identified as the worst form of injustice an individual would ever do to themselves. Stress related problems are bad news that no one would wish to be associated with. It is easier to prevent one-self from the diseases brought about by stress as compared to trying to cure them. Efforts against causes of stress are therefore worth making in everyone’s daily life. All the same, not all changes triggered by stress happen to be negative. Some changes are positive depending on how far the stress extends. Stress that is short term positively affects the victim in that it helps to improve their speed in thinking and their level of creativity. On the other hand, long term stress brings about increased blood pressure and sugars among many other conditions, which later mature up to diseases. Physical exercise is part of the recommendations from the doctors to avoid any stress related problems amongst many such as enough sleep. It is said that a normal human being should sleep for around seven to eight hours.

• American Psychological Association. 2015, Understanding Chronic Stress. [Online] Available at [Accessed 20 Apr 2015].
• Charleston, E. A. & Nathan, R. G. 2012, Stress Management: A Comprehensive Guide to Wellness. New York, Ballantine Books. Dewe, P. O’Driscoll, M. & Cooper, C. 2010, Coping with Work Stress. West Sussex, Wiley & Sons.
• Fink, G. 2009, Stress Science Neuroendocrinology. Burlington, Elsevier Science.
• Griffin, M. n.d, 10 Health Problems Related to Stress That You Can Fix. [Online] Available at [Accessed 20 Apr 2015].
• Mayo Clinic Staff. n.d, Stress Management. [Online] Available at [Accessed 20 Apr 2015].
• National Cancer Institute. 2012, Psychological Stress and Cancer. [Online] Available at [Accessed 20 Apr 2015].
• Siegel, S. 2008, Stress and Health. [Online] Available at [Accessed 20 Apr 2015].

Related Essays

Find Free Essays

We provide you with original essay samples, perfect formatting and styling

Request must contain at least 2 characters

Popular Topics

Samples by Essay Type

Cite this page

About our services

Topic Stress

Level College

This sample is NOT ORIGINAL. Get 100% unique essay written under your req

• Only $11 per page
• Free revisions included

Studyfy uses cookies to deliver the best experience possible. Read more.

Studyfy uses secured cookies. Read more.

• Undergraduate
• High School
• Architecture
• American History
• Asian History
• Antique Literature
• American Literature
• Asian Literature
• Classic English Literature
• World Literature
• Creative Writing
• Linguistics
• Criminal Justice
• Legal Issues
• Anthropology
• Archaeology
• Political Science
• World Affairs
• African-American Studies
• East European Studies
• Latin-American Studies
• Native-American Studies
• West European Studies
• Family and Consumer Science
• Social Issues
• Women and Gender Studies
• Social Work
• Natural Sciences
• Pharmacology
• Earth science
• Agriculture
• Agricultural Studies
• Computer Science
• IT Management
• Mathematics
• Investments
• Engineering and Technology
• Engineering
• Aeronautics
• Medicine and Health
• Alternative Medicine
• Communications and Media
• Advertising
• Communication Strategies
• Public Relations
• Educational Theories
• Teacher's Career
• Chicago/Turabian
• Company Analysis
• Education Theories
• Shakespeare
• Canadian Studies
• Food Safety
• Relation of Global Warming and Extreme Weather Condition
• Movie Review
• Admission Essay
• Annotated Bibliography
• Application Essay
• Article Critique
• Article Review
• Article Writing
• Book Review
• Business Plan
• Business Proposal
• Capstone Project
• Cover Letter
• Creative Essay
• Dissertation
• Dissertation - Abstract
• Dissertation - Conclusion
• Dissertation - Discussion
• Dissertation - Hypothesis
• Dissertation - Introduction
• Dissertation - Literature
• Dissertation - Methodology
• Dissertation - Results
• GCSE Coursework
• Grant Proposal
• Marketing Plan
• Multiple Choice Quiz
• Personal Statement
• Power Point Presentation
• Power Point Presentation With Speaker Notes
• Questionnaire
• Reaction Paper

Research Paper

• Research Proposal
• SWOT analysis
• Thesis Paper
• Online Quiz
• Literature Review
• Movie Analysis
• Statistics problem
• Math Problem
• All papers examples
• How It Works
• Money Back Policy
• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• We Are Hiring

Effects of Stress on Health, Essay Example

Pages: 3

Words: 746

Hire a Writer for Custom Essay

Use 10% Off Discount: "custom10" in 1 Click 👇

You are free to use it as an inspiration or a source for your own work.

The editors of the Harvard Health letter maintain that there is evidence that individuals who are chronically stressed possess an increased risk of cancer and heart disease.  Although concrete evidence may not be available to substantiate this claim, other researchers and medical professionals continue to argue that the negative effects of stress are quite harmful on the human body.  “Stress is known to significantly alter one’s health, affecting such areas as immune function, heart disease, and susceptibility to cancer” (“Effects of Stress”, 2009, p. 9).  It is clear that stress can dangerously lower the immune system and force the body to be ill equipped to defend itself against harmful disease-causing agents.  Furthermore, research also shows that “stress decreases uterine receptivity by a pathway that is independent of the ovary in infertile women, state researchers in Japan” (“Effects of Stress”, 2009, p. 9).  In other words, it has been proven that stress can make women infertile or at least make the process of conceiving a child much more difficult than in ideal circumstances.  These negative health effects caused directly or indirectly by stress are clear examples that stress does harm the health of human beings each and every day.

However, a study by Coventry et al. (2009) showed marked results that the addition of stress had no negative or positive impact in males or females upon contracting cases of depression (p. 487).  This could be a case to support the claims of author Christopher Caldwell who argues that no one including doctors, can come to an agreement on what stress is, so stress can not be blamed as the cause of disease.  On the other hand, this is a separate case study designed only to examine the impact that stress has on contracting, maintaining and advancing cases of depression.  The case does not support that stress is not a causal agent for other health defects including those mentioned above such as chronic heart disease, immune deficiency and cancer.

I believe that stress is a definite causal factor for health problems in everyday life.  We live a hectic lifestyle that forces many people to get little sleep and have heightened stressful experiences.  I have had a case on Mono and brief period of back spasms that the doctors always told me were caused directly by stress.  When stress increases, I get tired and sometimes even exhausted.  Exhaustion reduces the immune system and can allow for harmful bacteria and viruses to enter the body and cause great damage.  Sometimes people with healthier immune systems are more likely to not experience these effects rather than people with unhealthier lifestyles that reduce the immune system.  Nobody can tell for sure when someone will become ill due to stress; however, it is clear that under the right circumstances stress can cause much damage to the human body.

To avoid stress, I do whatever I can to try to have a healthy outlet for any stress that I experience in everyday life.  For instance, I try to work out at least three times a week.  I know that we are supposed to work out more than that, but with a busy lifestyle it is difficult to fit exercise in each day.  Nevertheless, exercise is a great productive outlet for stress that reduces the stress levels significantly and keeps the body healthy, which also keeps the immune system strong.  I also make it a point to resolve any issues that I experience in my life as much as possible.  When people have stressful issues in their lives that go unresolved, it can continue to increase the stress levels and be very unhealthy.  If I have arguments with friends or feel disrespected, I try to have a constructive conversation to resolve any problems and keep my stress levels low.  This is great when I do not have to constantly worry about situations and problems in my life.  We have enough to worry about; I would much rather not become a victim of stress because of a hectic lifestyle and increased stress levels due to my own inaction.

(2009). Effects of Stress. Fertility Weekly , 9. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.

(2009). Stress Adds to Overweight Worries. Tufts University Health & Nutrition Letter , 27 (8), 8. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.

Coventry, W., Medland, S., Wray, N., Thorsteinsson, E., Heath, A., & Byrne, B. (2009). Phenotypic and Discordant-Monozygotic Analyses of Stress and Perceived Social Support as Antecedents to or Sequelae of Risk for Depression. Twin Research & Human Genetics , 12 (5), 469-488. doi:10.1375/twin.12.5.469.

Stuck with your Essay?

Get in touch with one of our experts for instant help!

Juvenile Detention and Its Effectiveness, Research Paper Example

Hassles and Uplifts, Essay Example

Time is precious

don’t waste it!

Plagiarism-free guarantee

Privacy guarantee

Secure checkout

Money back guarantee

Related Essay Samples & Examples

Voting as a civic responsibility, essay example.

Pages: 1

Words: 287

Utilitarianism and Its Applications, Essay Example

Words: 356

The Age-Related Changes of the Older Person, Essay Example

Pages: 2

Words: 448

The Problems ESOL Teachers Face, Essay Example

Pages: 8

Words: 2293

Should English Be the Primary Language? Essay Example

Pages: 4

Words: 999

The Term “Social Construction of Reality”, Essay Example

Words: 371

We use cookies to enhance our website for you. Proceed if you agree to this policy or learn more about it.

• Essay Database >
• Essay Examples >
• Essays Topics >
• Essay on Blood

Stress Impact On Health Essay Example

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Blood , Workplace , Stress , Society , Leadership , Students , Pressure , Life

Published: 02/22/2020

ORDER PAPER LIKE THIS

With the high pressure and fast-paced lives that people live, it leads to many family and job responsibilities. The major causes of stress include money, work and economy. There are also stress-related habits that are unhealthy and they include eating unhealthy foods and overeating. The technological innovations and the demands from the daily life lead to stress. All people have to live with stress but if it not controlled well it has profound effects on the body and the mind. Individuals need to gain control of their lives and develop mental strength to curb stress coming from different areas of life. Stress does not arise from only unpleasant things or aggravating events. It also arises from positive happenings like being pregnant, getting married, winning an election or starting anew job. The chronic exposures to stress hormones damage the body and can lead to depression and eventually death. Stress contributes greatly to the development of blood pressure and heart disease that is why the heart programs incorporate stress management courses (Rossi et al, 148). Elevated blood pressure is a condition resulting because of stress. Too much pressure with no skills to reduce the stress makes the person’s blood pressure to increase. Stress lowers the immunity of individuals and they make people susceptible many different infections. For example, when a person has stress, he/she is prone to a headache and if it continues for a prolonged period, it leads to migraine. Stress can also alter the course of an existing disease if a person already has one. Stress causes the common headaches, stomachaches, sleep loss, diarrhea and loss of sex drive. Skin doctors have concluded that skin conditions like the eczema and hives are because of stress (Rice, 140). The stress effect moves blood away from the skin to support the muscles and heart tissues. Persistent stress may lead the patient to get involved in accidents because the mind is preoccupied with the thoughts of the event causing the stress. This is common in work place. Uncontrolled stress leads to a heightened level of dysfunction. It results to increased anxiety and depression. It makes the person prone to psychiatric disorders. When a person suffers stress for a long period without a proper way to control it, the patient may end up becoming mad. Stress has many signs, which include sleep disturbance, digestive upsets, agitated behavior, dizziness, general restlessness, sweaty palms, nervousness, fatigue, confusion, irritation, feeling overworked, lack of concentration and poor work relations at work. Stress influences the society from the homes to the work place. It is important that business management students because learn this topic because they will learn ways to cope with the stress at their workplace. The students will become managers in institutions and by learning about stress, they get equipped with skills on stress management. The students learn to focus on the positive things in life and they restructure their activities (Matta, 97). The students get knowledge on the picture of how the workplace is really like. Understanding stress and its impacts is very important in the society. The busy day and age has many stressors and the society must learn about stress. This enables them to learn ways to reduce and conquer the amounts of stress and this eventually leads to a healthy society. It also protects people in the society in many instances by allowing the body to react quickly to adverse events and situations. This fight-or-flight response helps to keep the human beings in the society alive when the environment demands quick reactions in response to the situations or events.

Works Cited

Matta, Christy. The Stress Response: How Dialectical Behavior Therapy Can Free You from Needless Anxiety, Worry, Anger & Other Symptoms of Stress. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 2012. Print. Rice, Virginia H. Handbook of Stress, Coping, and Health: Implications for Nursing Research, Theory, and Practice. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 2012. Print. Rossi, Ana M, James C. Quick, and Pamela L. Perrewe. Stress and Quality of Working Life: The Positive and the Negative. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Pub, 2009. Print.

Cite this page

Share with friends using:

Removal Request

Finished papers: 2697

This paper is created by writer with

ID 283594502

If you want your paper to be:

Well-researched, fact-checked, and accurate

Original, fresh, based on current data

Eloquently written and immaculately formatted

275 words = 1 page double-spaced

Get your papers done by pros!

Other Pages

Comparing the plague and the fall argumentative essay, outputs of a procurement process plan course work examples, free argumentative essay on american politics and presidential election, essay on american history to 1877 hist101 2, example of essay on the national incident based reporting system nibrs, can we consider the devil as a fallen hero in milton s paradise lost essay sample, free literature review on the welcome table and country lovers, example of essay on euthyphro, water supply system in helena montana research paper sample, comparing cultures economies and political systems term paper sample, free essay on education, example of essay on self assessment, administrator challenges paper research paper example, example of the strathfield health centre case study, american airlines company history and leadership report examples, essay on prelude to appreciation, essay on measuring performance, essay on adaptive bacteria, example of essay on health care, film culture of china movie review sample, nutrition policy in schools argumentative essays examples, free operational efficiency in organizational change management literature review example, two ethically and two unethically acting companies argumentative essays examples, comparission between hyper and regualar engine cars literature reviews example, good example of term paper on medicine, good nursing analysis and application of clinical practice guidelines literature review example, was john brown a terrorist book review example, good example of critical thinking on same sex intimate partner violence, paramedical essays, raphanus sativus essays, breathing apparatus essays, saltation essays, ursus maritimus essays, reading room essays, liverwort essays, lossless compression essays, triple point essays, carbon accounting essays, natural resource economics essays, stationary state essays, interplanetary essays.

Password recovery email has been sent to [email protected]

Use your new password to log in

You are not register!

By clicking Register, you agree to our Terms of Service and that you have read our Privacy Policy .

Now you can download documents directly to your device!

Check your email! An email with your password has already been sent to you! Now you can download documents directly to your device.

or Use the QR code to Save this Paper to Your Phone

The sample is NOT original!

Short on a deadline?

Don't waste time. Get help with 11% off using code - GETWOWED

No, thanks! I'm fine with missing my deadline

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2023 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support
• Signs of Burnout
• Stress and Weight Gain
• Stress Reduction Tips
• Self-Care Practices
• Mindful Living

What Is Stress?

Your Body's Response to a Situation That Requires Attention or Action

Elizabeth Scott, PhD is an author, workshop leader, educator, and award-winning blogger on stress management, positive psychology, relationships, and emotional wellbeing.

• Identifying
• Next in How Stress Impacts Your Health Guide How to Recognize Burnout Symptoms

Stress can be defined as any type of change that causes physical , emotional, or psychological strain. Stress is your body's response to anything that requires attention or action. 

Everyone experiences stress to some degree. The way you respond to stress, however, makes a big difference to your overall well-being.

Verywell / Brianna Gilmartin

Sometimes, the best way to manage your stress involves changing your situation. At other times, the best strategy involves changing the way you respond to the situation.

Developing a clear understanding of how stress impacts your physical and mental health is important. It's also important to recognize how your mental and physical health affects your stress level.

Watch Now: 5 Ways Stress Can Cause Weight Gain

Signs of stress.

Stress can be short-term or long-term. Both can lead to a variety of symptoms, but chronic stress can take a serious toll on the body over time and have long-lasting health effects.

Some common signs of stress include:

• Changes in mood
• Clammy or sweaty palms
• Decreased sex drive
• Difficulty sleeping
• Digestive problems
• Feeling anxious
• Frequent sickness
• Grinding teeth
• Muscle tension, especially in the neck and shoulders
• Physical aches and pains
• Racing heartbeat

Identifying Stress

What does stress feel like? What does stress feel like? It often contributes to irritability, fear, overwork, and frustration. You may feel physically exhausted, worn out, and unable to cope.

Stress is not always easy to recognize, but there are some ways to identify some signs that you might be experiencing too much pressure. Sometimes stress can come from an obvious source, but sometimes even small daily stresses from work, school, family, and friends can take a toll on your mind and body.

If you think stress might be affecting you, there are a few things you can watch for:

• Psychological signs such as difficulty concentrating, worrying, anxiety, and trouble remembering
• Emotional signs such as being angry, irritated, moody, or frustrated
• Physical signs such as high blood pressure, changes in weight, frequent colds or infections, and changes in the menstrual cycle and libido
• Behavioral signs such as poor self-care, not having time for the things you enjoy, or relying on drugs and alcohol to cope

Stress vs. Anxiety

Stress can sometimes be mistaken for anxiety, and experiencing a great deal of stress can contribute to feelings of anxiety. Experiencing anxiety can make it more difficult to cope with stress and may contribute to other health issues, including increased depression, susceptibility to illness, and digestive problems.

Stress and anxiety contribute to nervousness, poor sleep, high blood pressure , muscle tension, and excess worry. In most cases, stress is caused by external events, while anxiety is caused by your internal reaction to stress. Stress may go away once the threat or the situation resolves, whereas anxiety may persist even after the original stressor is gone.

Causes of Stress

There are many different things in life that can cause stress. Some of the main sources of stress include work, finances, relationships, parenting, and day-to-day inconveniences.

Stress can trigger the body’s response to a perceived threat or danger, known as the fight-or-flight response .   During this reaction, certain hormones like adrenaline and cortisol are released. This speeds the heart rate, slows digestion, shunts blood flow to major muscle groups, and changes various other autonomic nervous functions, giving the body a burst of energy and strength.

Originally named for its ability to enable us to physically fight or run away when faced with danger, the fight-or-flight response is now activated in situations where neither response is appropriate—like in traffic or during a stressful day at work.

When the perceived threat is gone, systems are designed to return to normal function via the relaxation response .   But in cases of chronic stress, the relaxation response doesn't occur often enough, and being in a near-constant state of fight-or-flight can cause damage to the body.

Stress can also lead to some unhealthy habits that have a negative impact on your health. For example, many people cope with stress by eating too much or by smoking. These unhealthy habits damage the body and create bigger problems in the long-term.  

Mental Health in the Workplace Webinar

On May 19, 2022, Verywell Mind hosted a virtual Mental Health in the Workplace webinar, hosted by Amy Morin, LCSW. If you missed it, check out  this recap  to learn ways to foster supportive work environments and helpful strategies to improve your well-being on the job.

Types of Stress

Not all types of stress are harmful or even negative. Some of the different types of stress that you might experience include:

• Acute stress : Acute stress is a very short-term type of stress that can either be positive or more distressing; this is the type of stress we most often encounter in day-to-day life.
• Chronic stress : Chronic stress is stress that seems never-ending and inescapable, like the stress of a bad marriage or an extremely taxing job; chronic stress can also stem from traumatic experiences and childhood trauma.
• Episodic acute stress : Episodic acute stress is acute stress that seems to run rampant and be a way of life, creating a life of ongoing distress.
• Eustress : Eustress is fun and exciting. It's known as a positive type of stress that can keep you energized. It's associated with surges of adrenaline, such as when you are skiing or racing to meet a deadline. 

4 Main Types of Stress:

The main harmful types of stress are acute stress, chronic stress, and episodic acute stress. Acute stress is usually brief, chronic stress is prolonged, and episodic acute stress is short-term but frequent. Positive stress, known as eustress, can be fun and exciting, but it can also take a toll.

Impact of Stress

Stress can have several effects on your health and well-being. It can make it more challenging to deal with life's daily hassles, affect your interpersonal relationships, and have detrimental effects on your health. The connection between your mind and body is apparent when you examine stress's impact on your life.

Feeling stressed over a relationship, money, or living situation can create physical health issues. The inverse is also true. Health problems, whether you're dealing with high blood pressure or diabetes , will also affect your stress level and mental health. When your brain experiences high degrees of stress , your body reacts accordingly.

Serious acute stress, like being involved in a natural disaster or getting into a verbal altercation, can trigger heart attacks, arrhythmias, and even sudden death. However, this happens mostly in individuals who already have heart disease.

Stress also takes an emotional toll. While some stress may produce feelings of mild anxiety or frustration, prolonged stress can also lead to burnout , anxiety disorders , and depression.

Chronic stress can have a serious impact on your health as well. If you experience chronic stress, your autonomic nervous system will be overactive, which is likely to damage your body.

Stress-Influenced Conditions

• Heart disease
• Hyperthyroidism
• Sexual dysfunction
• Tooth and gum disease

Treatments for Stress

Stress is not a distinct medical diagnosis and there is no single, specific treatment for it. Treatment for stress focuses on changing the situation, developing stress coping skills , implementing relaxation techniques, and treating symptoms or conditions that may have been caused by chronic stress.

Some interventions that may be helpful include therapy, medication, and complementary and alternative medicine (CAM).

Press Play for Advice On Managing Stress

Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast featuring professor Elissa Epel, shares ways to manage stress. Click below to listen now.

Follow Now : Apple Podcasts / Spotify / Google Podcasts / Amazon Music

Psychotherapy

Some forms of therapy that may be particularly helpful in addressing symptoms of stress including cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) . CBT focuses on helping people identify and change negative thinking patterns, while MBSR utilizes meditation and mindfulness to help reduce stress levels.

Medication may sometimes be prescribed to address some specific symptoms that are related to stress. Such medications may include sleep aids, antacids, antidepressants, and anti-anxiety medications.

Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Some complementary approaches that may also be helpful for reducing stress include acupuncture, aromatherapy, massage, yoga, and meditation .

Coping With Stress

Although stress is inevitable, it can be manageable. When you understand the toll it takes on you and the steps to combat stress, you can take charge of your health and reduce the impact stress has on your life.

• Learn to recognize the signs of burnout. High levels of stress may place you at a high risk of burnout. Burnout can leave you feeling exhausted and apathetic about your job.   When you start to feel symptoms of emotional exhaustion, it's a sign that you need to find a way to get a handle on your stress.
• Try to get regular exercise. Physical activity has a big impact on your brain and your body . Whether you enjoy Tai Chi or you want to begin jogging, exercise reduces stress and improves many symptoms associated with mental illness.  
• Take care of yourself. Incorporating regular self-care activities into your daily life is essential to stress management. Learn how to take care of your mind, body, and spirit and discover how to equip yourself to live your best life.  
• Practice mindfulness in your life. Mindfulness isn't just something you practice for 10 minutes each day. It can also be a way of life. Discover how to live more mindfully throughout your day so you can become more awake and conscious throughout your life.  

If you or a loved one are struggling with stress, contact the  Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helpline  at 1-800-662-4357 for information on support and treatment facilities in your area.

For more mental health resources, see our  National Helpline Database .

Cleveland Clinic. Stress .

National institute of Mental Health. I'm so stressed out! Fact sheet .

Goldstein DS. Adrenal responses to stress .  Cell Mol Neurobiol . 2010;30(8):1433–1440. doi:10.1007/s10571-010-9606-9

Stahl JE, Dossett ML, LaJoie AS, et al. Relaxation response and resiliency training and its effect on healthcare resource utilization [published correction appears in PLoS One . 2017 Feb 21;12 (2):e0172874].  PLoS One . 2015;10(10):e0140212. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0140212

American Heart Association. Stress and Heart Health.

Chi JS, Kloner RA. Stress and myocardial infarction .  Heart . 2003;89(5):475–476. doi:10.1136/heart.89.5.475

Salvagioni DAJ, Melanda FN, Mesas AE, González AD, Gabani FL, Andrade SM. Physical, psychological and occupational consequences of job burnout: A systematic review of prospective studies .  PLoS One . 2017;12(10):e0185781. Published 2017 Oct 4. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0185781

Bitonte RA, DeSanto DJ 2nd. Mandatory physical exercise for the prevention of mental illness in medical students .  Ment Illn . 2014;6(2):5549. doi:10.4081/mi.2014.5549

Ayala EE, Winseman JS, Johnsen RD, Mason HRC. U.S. medical students who engage in self-care report less stress and higher quality of life .  BMC Med Educ . 2018;18(1):189. doi:10.1186/s12909-018-1296-x

Richards KC, Campenni CE, Muse-Burke JL. Self-care and well-being in mental health professionals: The mediating effects of self-awareness and mindfulness .  J Ment Health Couns . 2010;32(3):247. doi:10.17744/mehc.32.3.0n31v88304423806.

American Psychological Association. 2015 Stress in America .

Krantz DS, Whittaker KS, Sheps DS.  Psychosocial risk factors for coronary heart disease: Pathophysiologic mechanisms .  In R. Allan & J. Fisher,  Heart and mind: The practice of cardiac psychology. American Psychological Association; 2011:91-113. doi:10.1037/13086-004

By Elizabeth Scott, PhD Elizabeth Scott, PhD is an author, workshop leader, educator, and award-winning blogger on stress management, positive psychology, relationships, and emotional wellbeing.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List

The impact of stress on body function: A review

Habib yaribeygi.

1 Neurosciences Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Yunes Panahi

2 Clinical Pharmacy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Hedayat Sahraei

Thomas p. johnston.

3 Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, USA

Amirhossein Sahebkar

4 Biotechnology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Any intrinsic or extrinsic stimulus that evokes a biological response is known as stress. The compensatory responses to these stresses are known as stress responses. Based on the type, timing and severity of the applied stimulus, stress can exert various actions on the body ranging from alterations in homeostasis to life-threatening effects and death. In many cases, the pathophysiological complications of disease arise from stress and the subjects exposed to stress, e.g. those that work or live in stressful environments, have a higher likelihood of many disorders. Stress can be either a triggering or aggravating factor for many diseases and pathological conditions. In this study, we have reviewed some of the major effects of stress on the primary physiological systems of humans.

Abbreviations

ACTH: Adrenocorticotropic hormone

CNS: Central nervous system

CRH: Corticotropin releasing hormone

GI: Gastrointestinal

LTP: Long-term potentiation

NMDA : N-methyl-D-aspartate

VTA: Ventral tegmental area

Stress and the Brain Function Complications

For a long time, researchers suggested that hormones have receptors just in the peripheral tissues and do not gain access to the central nervous system (CNS) (Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). However, observations have demonstrated the effect of anti-inflammatory drugs (which are considered synthetic hormones) on behavioral and cognitive disorders and the phenomenon called “Steroid psychosis” (Clark et al., 1952[ 16 ]). In the early sixties, neuropeptides were recognized as compounds devoid of effects on the peripheral endocrine system. However, it was determined that hormones are able to elicit biological effects on different parts of the CNS and play an important role in behavior and cognition (De Kloet, 2000[ 22 ]). In 1968, McEven suggested for the first time that the brain of rodents is capable of responding to glucocorticoid (as one of the operators in the stress cascade). This hypothesis that stress can cause functional changes in the CNS was then accepted (McEwen et al., 1968[ 74 ]). From that time on, two types of corticotropic receptors (glucocorticosteroids and mineralocorticoids) were recognized (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]). It was determined that the affinity of glucocorticosteroid receptors to cortisol and corticosterone was about one tenth of that of mineralocorticoids (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]). The hippocampus area has both types of receptors, while other points of the brain have only glucocorticosteroid receptors (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]).

The effects of stress on the nervous system have been investigated for 50 years (Thierry et al., 1968[ 115 ]). Some studies have shown that stress has many effects on the human nervous system and can cause structural changes in different parts of the brain (Lupien et al., 2009[ 65 ]). Chronic stress can lead to atrophy of the brain mass and decrease its weight (Sarahian et al., 2014[ 100 ]). These structural changes bring about differences in the response to stress, cognition and memory (Lupien et al., 2009[ 65 ]). Of course, the amount and intensity of the changes are different according to the stress level and the duration of stress (Lupien et al., 2009[ 65 ]). However, it is now obvious that stress can cause structural changes in the brain with long-term effects on the nervous system (Reznikov et al., 2007[ 89 ]). Thus, it is highly essential to investigate the effects of stress on different aspects of the nervous system (Table 1 (Tab. 1) ; References in Table 1: Lupien et al., 2001[ 63 ]; Woolley et al., 1990[ 122 ]; Sapolsky et al., 1990[ 99 ]; Gould et al., 1998[ 35 ]; Bremner, 1999[ 10 ]; Seeman et al., 1997[ 108 ]; Luine et al., 1994[ 62 ]; Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]; Scholey et al., 2014[ 101 ]; Borcel et al., 2008[ 9 ]; Lupien et al., 2002[ 66 ]).

Stress and Memory

Memory is one of the important functional aspects of the CNS and it is categorized as sensory, short term, and long-term. Short term memory is dependent on the function of the frontal and parietal lobes, while long-term memory depends on the function of large areas of the brain (Wood et al., 2000[ 121 ]). However, total function of memory and the conversion of short term memory to long-term memory are dependent on the hippocampus; an area of the brain that has the highest density of glucocorticosteroid receptors and also represents the highest level of response to stress (Scoville and Milner, 1957[ 107 ]; Asalgoo et al., 2015[ 1 ]). Therefore, during the past several decades, the relationship between the hippocampus and stress have been hotly debated (Asalgoo et al., 2015[ 1 ]; Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). In 1968, it was proven that there were cortisol receptors in the hippocampus of rats (McEwen et al., 1968[ 74 ]). Later, in 1982, by using specific agonists of glucocorticosteroid and mineralocorticoid receptors, the existence of these two receptors in the brain and hippocampus area of rats was proven (Veldhuis et al., 1982[ 119 ]). It should also be noted that the amygdala is very important to assessing the emotional experiences of memory (Roozendaal et al., 2009[ 91 ]).

The results of past studies have demonstrated the effect of stress on the process of memory (Ghodrat et al., 2014[ 32 ]). Various studies have shown that stress can cause functional and structural changes in the hippocampus section of the brain (McEwen, 1999[ 72 ]). These structural changes include atrophy and neurogenesis disorders (Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). Also, chronic stress and, consequently, an increase in plasma cortisol, leads to a reduction in the number of dendritic branches (Woolley et al., 1990[ 122 ]) and the number of neurons (Sapolsky et al., 1990[ 99 ]), as well as structural changes in synaptic terminals (Sapolsky et al., 1990[ 99 ]) and decreased neurogenesis in the hippocampus tissue (Gould et al., 1998[ 35 ]). Glucocorticosteroids can induce these changes by either effecting the cellular metabolism of neurons (Lawrence and Sapolsky, 1994[ 58 ]), or increasing the sensitivity of hippocampus cells to stimulatory amino acids (Sapolsky and Pulsinelli, 1985[ 98 ]) and/or increasing the level of extracellular glutamate (Sapolsky and Pulsinelli, 1985[ 98 ]).

High concentrations of stress hormones can cause declarative memory disorders (Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). Animal studies have shown that stress can cause a reversible reduction in spatial memory as a result of atrophy of the hippocampus (Luine et al., 1994[ 62 ]). In fact, high plasma concentrations of glucocorticosteroids for extended periods of time can cause atrophy of the hippocampus leading to memory disorders (Issa et al., 1990[ 45 ]). Additionally, people with either Cushing's syndrome (with an increased secretion of glucocorticosteroids), or people who receive high dosages of exogenous synthetic anti-inflammatory drugs, are observed to have atrophy of the hippocampus and associated memory disorders (Ling et al., 1981[ 61 ]). MRI images taken from the brains of people with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have demonstrated a reduction in the volume of the hippocampus along with neurophysiologic effects such as a weak verbal memory (Bremner, 1999[ 10 ]). Several human studies have suggested that even common therapeutic doses of glucocorticosteroids and dexamethasone can cause problems with explicit memory (Keenan et al., 1995[ 49 ]; Kirschbaum et al., 1996[ 53 ]). Thus, there is an inverse relationship between the level of cortisol and memory (Ling et al., 1981[ 61 ]), such that increasing levels of plasma cortisol following prolonged stress leads to a reduction in memory (Kirschbaum et al., 1996[ 53 ]), which improves when the level of plasma cortisol decreases (Seeman et al., 1997[ 108 ]).

Stress also has negative effects on learning. Results from hippocampus-dependent loading data demonstrate that subjects are not as familiar with a new environment after having been exposed to a new environment (Bremner, 1999[ 10 ]). Moreover, adrenal steroids lead to alteration in long-term potentiation (LTP), which is an important process in memory formation (Bliss and Lømo, 1973[ 7 ]).

Two factors are involved in the memory process during stress. The first is noradrenaline, which creates emotional aspects of memories in the basolateral amygdala area (Joëls et al., 2011[ 47 ]). Secondly, this process is facilitated by corticosteroids. However, if the release of corticosteroids occurs a few hours earlier, it causes inhibition of the amygdala and corresponding behaviors (Joëls et al., 2011[ 47 ]). Thus, there is a mutual balance between these two hormones for creating a response in the memory process (Joëls et al., 2011[ 47 ]).

Stress does not always affect memory. Sometimes, under special conditions, stress can actually improve memory (McEwen and Lupien, 2002[ 71 ]). These conditions include non-familiarity, non-predictability, and life-threatening aspects of imposed stimulation. Under these specific conditions, stress can temporarily improve the function of the brain and, therefore, memory. In fact, it has been suggested that stress can sharpen memory in some situations (Schwabe et al., 2010[ 105 ]). For example, it has been shown that having to take a written examination can improve memory for a short period of time in examination participants. Interestingly, this condition is associated with a decrease in the level of cortisol in the saliva (Vedhara et al., 2000[ 118 ]). Other studies have shown that impending stress before learning occurs can also lead to either an increase in the power of memory (Domes et al., 2002[ 27 ]; Schwabe et al., 2008[ 102 ]), or decrease in the capacity for memory (Diamond et al., 2006[ 26 ]; Kirschbaum et al., 1996[ 53 ]). This paradox results from the type of imposed stress and either the degree of emotional connection to the stressful event (Payne et al., 2007[ 83 ]; Diamond et al., 2007[ 25 ]), or the period of time between the imposing stress and the process of learning (Diamond et al., 2007[ 25 ]).

The process of strengthening memory is usually reinforced after stress (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]). Various studies on animal and human models have shown that administration of either glucocorticosteroids, or stress shortly after learning has occurred facilitates memory (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]). Also, it has been shown that glucocorticosteroids (not mineralocorticoids) are necessary to improve learning and memory (Lupien et al., 2002[ 66 ]). However, the retrieval of events in memory after exposure to stress will be decreased (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]), which may result from the competition of updated data for storage in memory in a stressful state (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]). Some investigations have shown that either exposure to stress, or injection of glucocorticosteroids before a test to assess retention, decreases the power of memory in humans and rodents (Schwabe and Wolf, 2009[ 104 ]).

In summary, it has been concluded that the effect of stress on memory is highly dependent on the time of exposure to the stressful stimulus and, in terms of the timing of the imposed stress, memory can be either better or worse (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]). Moreover, recent studies have shown that using a specific-timed schedule of exposure to stress not only affects hippocampus-dependent memory, but also striatum-dependent memory, which highlights the role of timing of the imposed stressful stimulus (Schwabe et al., 2010[ 105 ]).

Stress, Cognition and Learning

Cognition is another important feature of brain function. Cognition means reception and perception of perceived stimuli and its interpretation, which includes learning, decision making, attention, and judgment (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Stress has many effects on cognition that depend on its intensity, duration, origin, and magnitude (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Similar to memory, cognition is mainly formed in the hippocampus, amygdala, and temporal lobe (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). The net effect of stress on cognition is a reduction in cognition and thus, it is said that any behavioral steps undertaken to reduce stress leads to increase in cognition (Scholey et al., 2014[ 101 ]). In fact, stress activates some physiological systems, such as the autonomic nervous system, central neurotransmitter and neuropeptide system, and the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, which have direct effects on neural circuits in the brain involved with data processing (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Activation of stress results in the production and release of glucocorticosteroids. Because of the lipophilic properties of glucocorticosteroids, they can diffuse through the blood-brain barrier and exert long-term effects on processing and cognition (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]).

It appears that being exposed to stress can cause pathophysiologic changes in the brain, and these changes can be manifested as behavioral, cognitive, and mood disorders (Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]). In fact, studies have shown that chronic stress can cause complications such as increased IL-6 and plasma cortisol, but decreased amounts of cAMP responsive element binding protein and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is very similar to what is observed in people with depression and mood disorders that exhibit a wide range of cognitive problems (Song et al., 2006[ 114 ]). Additionally, the increased concentrations of inflammatory factors, like interleukins and TNF-α (which play an important role in creating cognitive disorders), proves a physiologic relationship between stress and mood-based cognitive disorders (Solerte et al., 2000[ 113 ]; Marsland et al., 2006[ 68 ]; Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]). Studies on animals suggest that cognitive disorders resulting from stress are created due to neuroendocrine and neuroamine factors and neurodegenerative processes (Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]). However, it should be noted that depression may not always be due to the over activation of the physiological-based stress response (Osanloo et al., 2016[ 81 ]).

Cognitive disorders following exposure to stress have been reported in past studies (Lupien and McEwen, 1997[ 64 ]). Stress has effects on cognition both acutely (through catecholamines) and chronically (through glucocorticosteroids) (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). Acute effects are mainly caused by beta-adrenergic effects, while chronic effects are induced in a long-term manner by changes in gene expression mediated by steroids (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). In general, many mechanisms modulate the effects of stress on cognition (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]; Mendl, 1999[ 75 ]). For instance, adrenal steroids affect the function of the hippocampus during cognition and memory retrieval in a biphasic manner (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). In chronic stress, these steroids can destroy neurons with other stimulatory neurotransmitters (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Exposure to stress can also cause disorders in hippocampus-related cognition; specifically, spatial memory (Borcel et al., 2008[ 9 ]; Sandi et al., 2003[ 96 ]). Additionally, stress can halt or decrease the genesis of neurons in the dentate gyrus area of the hippocampus (this area is one of the limited brain areas in which neurogenesis occurs in adults) (Gould and Tanapat, 1999[ 34 ]; Köhler et al., 2010[ 54 ]). Although age is a factor known to affect cognition, studies on animals have demonstrated that young rats exposed to high doses of adrenal steroids show the same level of decline in their cognition as older adult animals with normal plasma concentrations of glucocorticoids (Landfield et al., 1978[ 57 ]). Also, a decrease in the secretion of glucocorticosteroids causes preservation of spatial memory in adults and has also been shown to have neuroprotective effects (Montaron et al., 2006[ 78 ]). Other studies have shown that stress (or the injection of adrenal steroids) results in varied effects on cognition. For instance, injection of hydrocortisone at the time of its maximum plasma concentration (in the afternoon) leads to a decrease in reaction time and improves cognition and memory (Lupien et al., 2002[ 66 ]).

In summary, the adverse effects of stress on cognition are diverse and depend on the type, timing, intensity, and duration (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Generally, it is believed that mild stress facilitates an improvement in cognitive function, especially in the case of virtual or verbal memory. However, if the intensity of stress passes beyond a predetermined threshold (which is different in each individual), it causes cognitive disorders, especially in memory and judgment. The disruption to memory and judgment is due to the effects of stress on the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Of course, it must be realized that factors like age and gender may also play a role in some cognitive disorders (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Importantly, it should be emphasized that different people may exhibit varied responses in cognition when exposed to the very same stressful stimulus (Hatef et al., 2015[ 39 ]).

Stress and Immune System Functions

The relationship between stress and the immune system has been considered for decades (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]; Dantzer and Kelley, 1989[ 21 ]). The prevailing attitude between the association of stress and immune system response has been that people under stress are more likely to have an impaired immune system and, as a result, suffer from more frequent illness (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). Also, old anecdotes describing resistance of some people to severe disease using the power of the mind and their thought processes, has promoted this attitude (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). In about 200 AC, Aelius Galenus (Galen of Pergamon) declared that melancholic women (who have high levels of stress and, thus, impaired immune function) are more likely to have cancer than women who were more positive and exposed to less stress (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). This may be the first recorded case about the relationship between the immune system and stress. In an old study in the early 1920's, researchers found that the activity of phagocytes in tuberculosis decreased when emotional stress was induced. In fact, it was also suggested that living with stress increases the risk of tuberculosis by suppressing the immune system (Ishigami, 1919[ 44 ]). Following this study, other researchers suggested that the probability of disease appearance increases following a sudden, major, and extremely stressful life style change (Holmes and Rahe, 1967[ 41 ]; Calabrese et al., 1987[ 12 ]).

Over the past several decades, there have been many studies investigating the role of stress on immune system function (Dantzer and Kelley, 1989[ 21 ]; Segerstrom and Miller, 2004[ 109 ]). These studies have shown that stress mediators can pass through the blood-brain barrier and exert their effects on the immune system (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). Thus, the effect of stress on the immune system is now an accepted relationship or association.

Stress can affect the function of the immune system by modulating processes in the CNS and neuroendocrine system (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]; Kiecolt-Glaser and Glaser, 1991[ 51 ]). Following stress, some neuroendocrine and neural responses result in the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and other stress mediators (Carrasco and Van de Kar, 2003[ 13 ]). However, evidence suggests that the lymphatic system, which is a part of the immune system, also plays a role in releasing these mediators (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). For instance, thymus peptides, such as thymopentine, thymopoietin, and thymosin fraction-5, cause an increase in ACTH production (Goya et al., 1993[ 36 ]). Additionally, the existence of CRH in thymus has been proven (Redei, 1992[ 87 ]). It has also been proven that interleukin-1 released from phagocytes has a role in ACTH secretion (Berkenbosch et al., 1987[ 4 ]). On the other hand, natural or synthetic glucocorticosteroids (which are the final stress operators) are known as anti-inflammatory drugs and immune suppressants and their role in the inhibition of lymphocytes and macrophages has been demonstrated as well (Elenkov et al., 1999[ 28 ]; Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). Moreover, their role in inhibiting the production of cytokines and other immune mediators and decreasing their effect on target cells during exposure to stress has also been determined (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]).

In addition to adrenal steroids, other hormones are affected during stress. For example, the secretion of growth hormone will be halted during severe stress. A study showed that long-term administration of CRH into the brain ventricles leads to a cessation in the release of growth hormone (Rivier and Vale, 1985[ 90 ]). Stress also causes the release of opioid peptides to be changed during the time period over which the person is exposed to stress (McCarthy et al., 2001[ 70 ]). In fact, stress modifies the secretion of hormones that play a critical role in the function of the immune system (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). To date, it has been shown that various receptors for a variety of hormones involved in immune system function are adversely affected by stress. For example, ACTH, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), substance P, growth hormone, prolactin, and steroids all have receptors in various tissues of the immune system and can modulate its function (De la Fuente et al., 1996[ 24 ]; Gala, 1991[ 30 ]; Mantyh, 1991[ 67 ]). In addition, active immune cells are also able to secrete several hormones; thus, some researchers believe that these hormones, as mediators of immune system, play a significant role in balancing its function (Blalock et al., 1985[ 6 ]).

Severe stress can lead to malignancy by suppressing the immune system (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). In fact, stress can decrease the activity of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells and lead to growth of malignant cells, genetic instability, and tumor expansion (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). Studies have shown that the plasma concentration of norepinephrine, which increases after the induction stress, has an inverse relationship with the immune function of phagocytes and lymphocytes (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). Lastly, catecholamines and opioids that are released following stress have immune-suppressing properties (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]).

Stress and the Function of the Cardiovascular System

The existence of a positive association between stress and cardiovascular disease has been verified (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]). Stress, whether acute or chronic, has a deleterious effect on the function of the cardiovascular system (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]; Kario et al., 2003[ 48 ]; Herd, 1991[ 40 ]). The effects of stress on the cardiovascular system are not only stimulatory, but also inhibitory in nature (Engler and Engler, 1995[ 29 ]). It can be postulated that stress causes autonomic nervous system activation and indirectly affects the function of the cardiovascular system (Lazarus et al., 1963[ 59 ]; Vrijkotte et al., 2000[ 120 ]). If these effects occur upon activation of the sympathetic nervous system, then it mainly results in an increase in heart rate, strength of contraction, vasodilation in the arteries of skeletal muscles, a narrowing of the veins, contraction of the arteries in the spleen and kidneys, and decreased sodium excretion by the kidneys (Herd, 1991[ 40 ]). Sometimes, stress activates the parasympathetic nervous system (Pagani et al., 1991[ 82 ]). Specifically, if it leads to stimulation of the limbic system, it results in a decrease, or even a total stopping of the heart-beat, decreased contractility, reduction in the guidance of impulses by the heart stimulus-transmission network, peripheral vasodilatation, and a decline in blood pressure (Cohen et al., 2000[ 17 ]). Finally, stress can modulate vascular endothelial cell function and increase the risk of thrombosis and ischemia, as well as increase platelet aggregation (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]).

The initial effect of stress on heart function is usually on the heart rate (Vrijkotte et al., 2000[ 120 ]). Depending upon the direction of the shift in the sympatho-vagal response, the heart beat will either increase or decrease (Hall et al., 2004[ 38 ]). The next significant effect of stress on cardiovascular function is blood pressure (Laitinen et al., 1999[ 56 ]). Stress can stimulate the autonomic sympathetic nervous system to increase vasoconstriction, which can mediate an increase in blood pressure, an increase in blood lipids, disorders in blood clotting, vascular changes, atherogenesis; all, of which, can cause cardiac arrhythmias and subsequent myocardial infarction (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]; Vrijkotte et al., 2000[ 120 ]; Sgoifo et al., 1998[ 111 ]). These effects from stress are observed clinically with atherosclerosis and leads to an increase in coronary vasoconstriction (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]). Of course, there are individual differences in terms of the level of autonomic-based responses due to stress, which depends on the personal characteristics of a given individual (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]). Thus, training programs for stress management are aimed at reducing the consequences of stress and death resulting from heart disease (Engler and Engler, 1995[ 29 ]). In addition, there are gender-dependent differences in the cardiovascular response to stress and, accordingly, it has been estimated that women begin to exhibit heart disease ten years later that men, which has been attributed to the protective effects of the estrogen hormone (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]).

Studies have shown that psychological stress can cause alpha-adrenergic stimulation and, consequently, increase heart rate and oxygen demand (Rozanski et al., 1998[ 92 ], 1999[ 93 ]; Jiang et al., 1996[ 46 ]). As a result, coronary vasoconstriction is enhanced, which may increase the risk of myocardial infarction (Yeung et al., 1991[ 124 ]; Boltwood et al., 1993[ 8 ]; Dakak et al., 1995[ 20 ]). Several studies have demonstrated that psychological stress decreases the microcirculation in the coronary arteries by an endothelium-dependent mechanism and increases the risk of myocardial infarction (Dakak et al., 1995[ 20 ]). On the other hand, mental stress indirectly leads to potential engagement in risky behaviors for the heart, such as smoking, and directly leads to stimulation of the neuroendocrine system as part of the autonomic nervous system (Hornstein, 2004[ 43 ]). It has been suggested that severe mental stress can result in sudden death (Pignalberi et al., 2002[ 84 ]). Generally, stress-mediated risky behaviors that impact cardiovascular health can be summarized into five categories: an increase in the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, initiation and progression of myocardial ischemia, development of cardiac arrhythmias, stimulation of platelet aggregation, and endothelial dysfunction (Wu, 2001[ 123 ]).

Stress and Gastrointestinal Complications

The effects of stress on nutrition and the gastrointestinal (GI) system can be summarized with two aspects of GI function.

First, stress can affect appetite (Bagheri Nikoo et al., 2014[ 2 ]; Halataei et al., 2011[ 37 ]; Ranjbaran et al., 2013[ 86 ]). This effect is related to involvement of either the ventral tegmental area (VTA), or the amygdala via N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptors (Nasihatkon et al., 2014[ 80 ]; Sadeghi et al., 2015[ 94 ]). However, it should also be noted that nutrition patterns have effects on the response to stress (Ghanbari et al., 2015[ 31 ]), and this suggests a bilateral interaction between nutrition and stress.

Second, stress adversely affects the normal function of GI tract. There are many studies concerning the effect of stress on the function of the GI system (Söderholm and Perdue, 2001[ 112 ]; Collins, 2001[ 18 ]). For instance, studies have shown that stress affects the absorption process, intestinal permeability, mucus and stomach acid secretion, function of ion channels, and GI inflammation (Collins, 2001[ 18 ]; Nabavizadeh et al., 2011[ 79 ]). Stress also increases the response of the GI system to inflammation and may reactivate previous inflammation and accelerate the inflammation process by secretion of mediators such as substance P (Collins, 2001[ 18 ]). As a result, there is an increase in the permeability of cells and recruitment of T lymphocytes. Lymphocyte aggregation leads to the production of inflammatory markers, activates key pathways in the hypothalamus, and results in negative feedback due to CRH secretion, which ultimately results in the appearance of GI inflammatory diseases (Collins, 2001[ 18 ]). This process can reactivate previous silent colitis (Million et al., 1999[ 76 ]; Qiu et al., 1999[ 85 ]). Mast cells play a crucial role in stress-induced effects on the GI system, because they cause neurotransmitters and other chemical factors to be released that affect the function of the GI system (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]).

Stress can also alter the functional physiology of the intestine (Kiliaan et al., 1998[ 52 ]). Many inflammatory diseases, such as Crohn's disease and other ulcerative-based diseases of the GI tract, are associated with stress (Hommes et al., 2002[ 42 ]). It has been suggested that even childhood stress can lead to these diseases in adulthood (Schwartz and Schwartz, 1983[ 106 ]). Irritable bowel syndrome, which is a disease with an inflammatory origin, is highly related to stress (Gonsalkorale et al., 2003[ 33 ]). Studies on various animals suggest the existence of inflammatory GI diseases following induction of severe stress (Qiu et al., 1999[ 85 ]; Collins et al., 1996[ 19 ]). Additionally, pharmacological interventions, in an attempt to decrease the response of CRH to stress, have been shown to result in an increase in GI diseases in rats (Million et al., 1999[ 76 ]).

Altering the permeability of the mucosal membrane by perturbing the functions of mucosal mast cells may be another way that stress causes its effects on the GI system, since this is a normal process by which harmful and toxic substances are removed from the intestinal lumen (Söderholm and Perdue, 2001[ 112 ]). Also, stress can both decrease the removal of water from the lumen, as well as induce sodium and chloride secretion into the lumen. This most likely occurs by increasing the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system (Barclay and Turnberg, 1987[ 3 ]). Moreover, physical stress, such as trauma or surgery, can increase luminal permeability (Söderholm and Perdue, 2001[ 112 ]) (Table 2 (Tab. 2) ; References in Table 2: Halataei et al., 2011[ 37 ]; Ranjbaran et al., 2013[ 86 ]; Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]; Collins, 2001[ 18 ]; Nabavizadeh et al., 2011[ 79 ]; Barclay and Turnberg, 1987[ 3 ]; Million et al., 1999[ 76 ]; Gonsalkorale et al., 2003[ 33 ]).

Stress also affects movement of the GI tract. In this way, it prevents stomach emptying and accelerates colonic motility (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). In the case of irritable bowel syndrome, stress increases the movement (contractility and motility) of the large intestine (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). Previous studies have revealed that CRH increases movement in the terminal sections of the GI tract and decreases the movements in the proximal sections of the GI tract (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). A delay in stomach emptying is likely accomplished through CRH-2 receptors, while type 1 receptors affect the colon (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). The effects produced by CRH are so prominent that CRH is now considered an ideal candidate for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (Martinez and Taché, 2006[ 69 ]). When serotonin is released in response to stress (Chaouloff, 2000[ 14 ]), it leads to an increase in the motility of the colon by stimulating 5HT-3 receptors (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). Moreover, it has also been suggested that stress, especially mental and emotional types of stress, increase visceral sensitivity and activate mucosal mast cells (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). Stimulation of the CNS by stress has a direct effect on GI-specific nervous system ( i.e. , the myenteric system or plexus) and causes the above mentioned changes in the movements of the GI tract (Bhatia and Tandon, 2005[ 5 ]). In fact, stress has a direct effect on the brain-bowel axis (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]). Various clinical studies have suggested a direct effect of stress on irritable bowel syndrome, intestinal inflammation, and peptic ulcers (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]).

In conclusion, the effects of stress on the GI system can be classified into six different actions: GI tract movement disorders, increased visceral irritability, altered rate and extent of various GI secretions, modified permeability of the intestinal barrier, negative effects on blood flow to the GI tract, and increased intestinal bacteria counts (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]).

Stress and the Endocrine System

There is a broad and mutual relationship between stress and the endocrine system. On one hand, stress has many subtle and complex effects on the activity of the endocrine system (Sapolsky, 2002[ 97 ]; Charmandari et al., 2005[ 15 ]), while on the other hand, the endocrine system has many effects on the response to stress (Ulrich-Lai and Herman, 2009[ 117 ]; Selye, 1956[ 110 ]). Stress can either activate, or change the activity of, many endocrine processes associated with the hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal glands, the adrenergic system, gonads, thyroid, and the pancreas (Tilbrook et al., 2000[ 116 ]; Brown-Grant et al., 1954[ 11 ]; Thierry et al., 1968[ 115 ]; Lupien and McEwen, 1997[ 64 ]). In fact, it has been suggested that it is impossible to separate the response to stress from the functions of the endocrine system. This premise has been advanced due to the fact that even a minimal amount of stress can activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which itself is intricately involved with the activation of several different hormone secreting systems (Sapolsky, 2002[ 97 ]). In different locations throughout this article, we have already discussed the effects of stress on hormones and various endocrine factors and, thus, they will not be further addressed.

Altogether, stress may induce both beneficial and harmful effects. The beneficial effects of stress involve preserving homeostasis of cells/species, which leads to continued survival. However, in many cases, the harmful effects of stress may receive more attention or recognition by an individual due to their role in various pathological conditions and diseases. As has been discussed in this review, various factors, for example, hormones, neuroendocrine mediators, peptides, and neurotransmitters are involved in the body's response to stress. Many disorders originate from stress, especially if the stress is severe and prolonged. The medical community needs to have a greater appreciation for the significant role that stress may play in various diseases and then treat the patient accordingly using both pharmacological (medications and/or nutraceuticals) and non-pharmacological (change in lifestyle, daily exercise, healthy nutrition, and stress reduction programs) therapeutic interventions. Important for the physician providing treatment for stress is the fact that all individuals vary in their response to stress, so a particular treatment strategy or intervention appropriate for one patient may not be suitable or optimal for a different patient.

Yunes Panahi and Amirhossein Sahebkar (Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran, P.O. Box: 91779-48564, Iran; Tel: 985118002288, Fax: 985118002287, E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]) contributed equally as corresponding authors.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that have no conflict of interest in this study.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank the "Neurosciences Research Center of Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences" and the “Clinical Research Development Center of Baqiyatallah (a.s.) Hospital” for providing technical supports.

Impact of Stress on Health essay

IMPACT OF STRESS ON HEALTH 3

Impactof Stress on Health

Accordingto Taylor (2014), stress can significantly affect the human body. Ifstress is left unchecked and unmanaged, it can create a number ofhealth problems that can be costly or even impossible to treat.Stress affects a person’s behavior, thoughts and feelings. Stressmakes the muscles to tense up and if it persists for a long time, thebody remains in a constant state of guardedness. When muscles remainunder tension for a long time, it creates other reactions in the bodythat lead to stress-related disorders such as headaches and even highblood pressure in extreme cases (Taylor, 2014). Stress affects thedigestive system because it hinders nutrient absorption through theintestines creating stomach-related problems such as diarrhea andconstipation. Stress also causes other stomach disorders such asvomiting and if it becomes chronic, one can develop ulcers and severeabdominal pains.

Related essays:

• Impact of policy on community program for health promotion essay
• Public Health Impact Essay essay
• New health care technologies and their impact on communication essay
• JOB STRESS AND EMPLOYEE SATISFACTION essay

Accordingto Taylor, stress also affects the respiratory system (2014). It alsoaffects the breathing rate forcing one to breathe hard, which cancreate complications for people suffering from asthma or other lungdiseases. According toan article by the American Psychology Association (APA),long-term continued stress is hazardous for people suffering fromheart conditions because it can easily case stroke or heart attack.Moreover, stress makes the liver produce extra glucose to provide thebody with more energy to respond to emergencies. The extra glucose isno cause of alarm in healthy people but for people vulnerable to Type2 diabetes, it can worsen their health condition. Finally but not toend the least of the impacts of stress on human health, it hampersboth the male and female reproductive system. Stress causes irregularmenstruation periods and lack of sexual desire in women and can causeerectile dysfunction or impotence in men (AmericanPsychology Association).

AmericanPsychology Association (APA). TheImpact of Stress .Retrieved from: https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2011/impact.pdf

Taylor,S. E., (2014). HealthPsychology (9 th edition) .McGraw-HillEducation.

Essay on Stress In Life

Students are often asked to write an essay on Stress In Life in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Stress In Life

What is stress.

Stress is when you feel under too much pressure from something in your life. It’s like carrying a very heavy backpack that makes you tired and unhappy. Everyone, from kids to adults, can feel stressed at times.

Causes of Stress

Stress can come from many places. School work, problems with friends, and even family issues can make you feel stressed. It’s like having too many tasks to do and not enough time to do them.

Effects of Stress

When you’re stressed, you might feel sad, angry, or even get headaches. It’s like your body’s way of telling you it’s not happy with what’s going on.

Dealing with Stress

To deal with stress, you can talk to someone you trust, take breaks, or do things you enjoy. It’s like putting down the heavy backpack for a while to rest and feel better.

250 Words Essay on Stress In Life

Stress is when you feel worried or uncomfortable because of too much pressure or problems in life. Imagine you have a big test coming up, and you are scared about how well you will do. That feeling of being scared or worried is stress. Everyone, from kids to adults, experiences stress at some point in their lives.

There are many reasons why people feel stressed. For kids and teenagers, homework, exams, and busy schedules can be stressful. For adults, work, taking care of their family, or money problems might cause stress. Sometimes, even small things like losing your keys can make you feel stressed.

Stress can affect your body and your feelings. You might get headaches, feel tired, or have trouble sleeping. It can also make you feel sad, angry, or frustrated. If stress lasts for a long time, it can make it hard to concentrate or enjoy life.

The good news is that there are ways to deal with stress. Talking to someone you trust about your feelings can help a lot. Taking breaks, playing, and doing things you enjoy can also reduce stress. Learning how to manage your time and not taking on too much can prevent stress from building up.

In conclusion, stress is a normal part of life, but it’s important to learn how to handle it. By understanding what causes stress and knowing how to deal with it, you can feel better and enjoy life more.

500 Words Essay on Stress In Life

Stress and its impact on our lives.

Stress is a natural reaction of the body to challenges and demands. It can come from anything that disrupts our physical or mental balance. While stress can be helpful in some situations, such as when it motivates us to study for an exam or meet a deadline, chronic stress can have negative effects on our health and well-being.

There are many potential causes of stress, including:

1. Work and School: Work and school can be major sources of stress, especially when we feel overwhelmed by our responsibilities or have difficulty meeting expectations. 2. Relationships: Problems with family, friends, or romantic partners can be a significant source of stress. 3. Financial Problems: Money worries can be very stressful, especially when we are struggling to make ends meet. 4. Health Problems: Dealing with a serious illness or injury can be incredibly stressful, both for the person affected and for their loved ones. 5. Major Life Changes: Life transitions, such as moving, getting married, or having a baby, can be exciting but also stressful.

Chronic stress can have a wide range of negative effects on our health and well-being, including:

1. Physical Health: Stress can lead to a variety of physical health problems, such as headaches, stomach problems, heart disease, and weight gain. 2. Mental Health: Stress can also contribute to mental health problems, such as anxiety, depression, and insomnia. 3. Cognitive Function: Stress can impair our ability to concentrate, remember, and make decisions. 4. Behavior: Stress can lead to unhealthy behaviors, such as smoking, drinking alcohol, or overeating. 5. Relationships: Stress can also strain our relationships with family, friends, and colleagues.

Managing Stress

There are many things we can do to help manage stress, including:

1. Exercise: Regular physical activity can help reduce stress levels and improve our mood. 2. Relaxation Techniques: Practices such as deep breathing, meditation, and yoga can help us relax and reduce stress. 3. Healthy Diet: Eating a balanced diet can help us maintain our energy levels and cope with stress better. 4. Adequate Sleep: Getting enough sleep is essential for both physical and mental health and can help us better manage stress. 5. Time Management: Learning to manage our time effectively can help us avoid feeling overwhelmed and reduce stress. 6. Social Support: Talking to friends, family, or a therapist can help us process our feelings and cope with stress.

Stress is a normal part of life, but chronic stress can have negative effects on our health and well-being. By understanding the causes and effects of stress and learning to manage it effectively, we can improve our overall health and well-being.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

• Essay on Stress Impact On Health
• Essay on Stress During Pandemic
• Essay on Stress And Anxiety

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Happy studying!

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Stress — Narrative Essay On Stress

Narrative Essay on Stress

• Categories: Discrimination Stress

About this sample

Words: 716 |

Published: Mar 14, 2024

Words: 716 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Cite this Essay

Let us write you an essay from scratch

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Get high-quality help

Dr. Heisenberg

Verified writer

• Expert in: Social Issues Nursing & Health

+ 120 experts online

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Related Essays

2 pages / 690 words

1 pages / 430 words

6 pages / 2564 words

2 pages / 834 words

Remember! This is just a sample.

You can get your custom paper by one of our expert writers.

121 writers online

Still can’t find what you need?

Browse our vast selection of original essay samples, each expertly formatted and styled

Related Essays on Stress

In today's fast-paced and demanding world, stress has become a common experience for many college students. The pressures of academic life, maintaining social relationships, and preparing for the future can all contribute to [...]

Stress is a pervasive aspect of human existence, impacting individuals on physical, emotional, and behavioral levels. To effectively address stress, it is crucial to comprehend its origins and consequences while also considering [...]

Psychopathology refers to the study of mental disorders and the factors that contribute to their development. Understanding the causes and development of psychopathology is crucial for effective prevention and intervention [...]

Adolescence is a pivotal period in an individual's life, marked by significant physical, emotional, and psychological changes. It is a time of transition from childhood to adulthood and is often accompanied by a myriad of [...]

For many people, a low-grade amount of stress is a part of everyday life. So, they may not recognize that it has a negative impact on their overall health. Studies have shown that feeling stress or anxiety on a long-term basis [...]

Child rearing is incredibly stressful. Adding school to a mother’s busy life increases stress levels immensely. So, why add school to an already stressful life? Moms want what is best for their children, thus maybe they return [...]

Related Topics

By clicking “Send”, you agree to our Terms of service and Privacy statement . We will occasionally send you account related emails.

Where do you want us to send this sample?

By clicking “Continue”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy.

Be careful. This essay is not unique

This essay was donated by a student and is likely to have been used and submitted before

Download this Sample

Free samples may contain mistakes and not unique parts

Sorry, we could not paraphrase this essay. Our professional writers can rewrite it and get you a unique paper.

Please check your inbox.

We can write you a custom essay that will follow your exact instructions and meet the deadlines. Let's fix your grades together!

Get Your Personalized Essay in 3 Hours or Less!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

• International edition
• Australia edition
• Europe edition

‘Everybody has a breaking point’: how the climate crisis affects our brains

Are growing rates of anxiety, depression, ADHD, PTSD, Alzheimer’s and motor neurone disease related to rising temperatures and other extreme environmental changes?

I n late October 2012, a category 3 hurricane howled into New York City with a force that would etch its name into the annals of history . Superstorm Sandy transformed the city, inflicting more than $60bn in damage, killing dozens, and forcing 6,500 patients to be evacuated from hospitals and nursing homes. Yet in the case of one cognitive neuroscientist, the storm presented, darkly, an opportunity.

Yoko Nomura had found herself at the centre of a natural experiment. Prior to the hurricane’s unexpected visit, Nomura – who teaches in the psychology department at Queens College, CUNY, as well as in the psychiatry department of the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai – had meticulously assembled a research cohort of hundreds of expectant New York mothers. Her investigation, the Stress in Pregnancy study , had aimed since 2009 to explore the potential imprint of prenatal stress on the unborn. Drawing on the evolving field of epigenetics, Nomura had sought to understand the ways in which environmental stressors could spur changes in gene expression, the likes of which were already known to influence the risk of specific childhood neurobehavioural outcomes such as autism, schizophrenia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

The storm, however, lent her research a new, urgent question. A subset of Nomura’s cohort of expectant women had been pregnant during Sandy. She wanted to know if the prenatal stress of living through a hurricane – of experiencing something so uniquely catastrophic – acted differentially on the children these mothers were carrying, relative to those children who were born before or conceived after the storm.

More than a decade later, she has her answer. The conclusions reveal a startling disparity: children who were in utero during Sandy bear an inordinately high risk of psychiatric conditions today. For example, girls who were exposed to Sandy prenatally experienced a 20-fold increase in anxiety and a 30-fold increase in depression later in life compared with girls who were not exposed. Boys had 60-fold and 20-fold increased risks of ADHD and conduct disorder, respectively. Children expressed symptoms of the conditions as early as preschool.

“Our findings are extremely alarming,” the researchers wrote in a 2022 study summarising their initial results. It is not the type of sentence one usually finds in the otherwise measured discussion sections of academic papers.

Yet Nomura and her colleagues’ research also offers a representative page in a new story of the climate crisis: a story that says a changing climate doesn’t just shape the environment in which we live. Rather, the climate crisis spurs visceral and tangible transformations in our very brains. As the world undergoes dramatic environmental shifts, so too does our neurological landscape. Fossil-fuel-induced changes – from rising temperatures to extreme weather to heightened levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide – are altering our brain health, influencing everything from memory and executive function to language, the formation of identity, and even the structure of the brain. The weight of nature is heavy, and it presses inward.

Evidence comes from a variety of fields. Psychologists and behavioural economists have illustrated the ways in which temperature spikes drive surges in everything from domestic violence to online hate speech . Cognitive neuroscientists have charted the routes by which extreme heat and surging CO 2 levels impair decision-making , diminish problem-solving abilities , and short-circuit our capacity to learn . Vectors of brain disease, such as ticks and mosquitoes, are seeing their habitable ranges expand as the world warms. And as researchers like Nomura have shown, you don’t need to go to war to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder: the violence of a hurricane or wildfire is enough. It appears that, due to epigenetic inheritance, you don’t even need to have been born yet.

When it comes to the health effects of the climate crisis, says Burcin Ikiz, a neuroscientist at the mental-health philanthropy organisation the Baszucki Group , “we know what happens in the cardiovascular system; we know what happens in the respiratory system; we know what happens in the immune system. But there’s almost nothing on neurology and brain health.” Ikiz, like Nomura, is one of a growing cadre of neuroscientists seeking to connect the dots between environmental and neurological wellness.

As a cohesive effort, the field – which we might call climatological neuroepidemiology – is in its infancy. But many of the effects catalogued by such researchers feel intuitive.

Perhaps you’ve noticed that when the weather gets a bit muggier, your thinking does the same. That’s no coincidence; it’s a nearly universal phenomenon. During a summer 2016 heatwave in Boston, Harvard epidemiologists showed that college students living in dorms without air conditioning performed standard cognitive tests more slowly than those living with it. In January of this year, Chinese economists noted that students who took mathematics tests on days above 32C looked as if they had lost the equivalent of a quarter of a year of education, relative to test days in the range 22–24C. Researchers estimate that the disparate effects of hot school days – disproportionately felt in poorer school districts without access to air conditioning and home to higher concentrations of non-white students – account for something on the order of 5% of the racial achievement gap in the US.

Cognitive performance is the tip of the melting iceberg. You may have also noticed, for example, your own feelings of aggression on hotter days. You and everyone else – and animals, too. Black widow spiders tend more quickly toward sibling cannibalism in the heat . Rhesus monkeys start more fights with one another. Baseball pitchers are more likely to intentionally hit batters with their pitches as temperatures rise. US Postal Service workers experience roughly 5% more incidents of harassment and discrimination on days above 32C, relative to temperate days.

Neuroscientists point to a variety of routes through which extreme heat can act on behaviour. In 2015, for example, Korean researchers found that heat stress triggers inflammation in the hippocampus of mice, a brain region essential for memory storage. Extreme heat also diminishes neuronal communication in zebrafish, a model organism regularly studied by scientists interested in brain function. In human beings, functional connections between brain areas appear more randomised at higher temperatures. In other words, heat limits the degree to which brain activity appears coordinated. On the aggression front, Finnish researchers noted in 2017 that high temperatures appear to suppress serotonin function, more so among people who had committed violent crimes. For these people, blood levels of a serotonin transporter protein, highly correlated with outside temperatures, could account for nearly 40% of the fluctuations in the country’s rate of violent crime.

“We’re not thinking about any of this,” says Ikiz. “We’re not getting our healthcare systems ready. We’re not doing anything in terms of prevention or protections.”

Ikiz is particularly concerned with the neurodegenerative effects of the climate crisis. In part, that’s because prolonged exposure to heat in its own right – including an increase of a single degree centigrade – can activate a multitude of biochemical pathways associated with neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. Air pollution does the same thing . (In rats, such effects are seen after exposure to extreme heat for a mere 15 minutes a day for one week.) Thus, with continued burning of fossil fuels, whether through direct or indirect effects, comes more dementia. Researchers have already illustrated the manners in which dementia-related hospitalisations rise with temperature. Warmer weather worsens the symptoms of neurodegeneration as well.

Prior to her move to philanthropy, Ikiz’s neuroscience research largely focused on the mechanisms underlying the neurodegenerative disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease or motor neurone disease). Today, she points to research suggesting that blue-green algae, blooming with ever-increasing frequency under a changing global climate, releases a potent neurotoxin that offers one of the most compelling causal explanations for the incidence of non-genetic ALS. Epidemiologists have, for example, identified clusters of ALS cases downwind of freshwater lakes prone to blue-green algae blooms.

It’s this flavour of research that worries her the most. Children constitute one of the populations most vulnerable to these risk factors, since such exposures appear to compound cumulatively over one’s life, and neurodegenerative diseases tend to manifest in the later years. “It doesn’t happen acutely,” says Ikiz. “Years pass, and then people get these diseases. That’s actually what really scares me about this whole thing. We are seeing air pollution exposure from wildfires. We’re seeing extreme heat. We’re seeing neurotoxin exposure. We’re in an experiment ourselves, with the brain chronically exposed to multiple toxins.”

Other scientists who have taken note of these chronic exposures resort to similarly dramatic language as that of Nomura and Ikiz. “Hallmarks of Alzheimer disease are evolving relentlessly in metropolitan Mexico City infants, children and young adults,” is part of the title of a recent paper spearheaded by Dr Lilian Calderón-Garcidueñas, a toxicologist who directs the University of Montana’s environmental neuroprevention laboratory. The researchers investigated the contributions of urban air pollution and ozone to biomarkers of neurodegeneration and found physical hallmarks of Alzheimer’s in 202 of the 203 brains they examined, from residents aged 11 months to 40 years old. “Alzheimer’s disease starting in the brainstem of young children and affecting 99.5% of young urbanites is a serious health crisis,” Calderón-Garcidueñas and her colleagues wrote. Indeed.

Such neurodevelopmental challenges – the effects of environmental degradation on the developing and infant brain – are particularly large, given the climate prognosis. Rat pups exposed in utero to 40C heat miss brain developmental milestones. Heat exposure during neurodevelopment in zebrafish magnifies the toxic effects of lead exposure. In people, early pregnancy exposure to extreme heat is associated with a higher risk of children developing neuropsychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia and anorexia. It is also probable that the ALS-causing neurotoxin can travel in the air .

Of course, these exposures only matter if you make it to an age in which neural rot has a chance to manifest. Neurodegenerative disease mostly makes itself known in middle-aged and elderly people. But, on the other hand, the brain-eating amoeba likely to spread as a result of the climate crisis – which is 97% fatal and will kill someone in a week – mostly infects children who swim in lakes. As children do.

A coordinated effort to fully understand and appreciate the neurological costs of the climate crisis does not yet exist. Ikiz is seeking to rectify this. In spring 2024, she will convene the first meeting of a team of neurologists, neuroscientists and planetary scientists, under the banner of the International Neuro Climate Working Group.

The goal of the working group (which, full disclosure, I have been invited to join) is to wrap a collective head around the problem and seek to recommend treatment practices and policy recommendations accordingly, before society finds itself in the midst of overlapping epidemics. The number of people living with Alzheimer’s is expected to triple by 2050, says Ikiz – and that’s without taking the climate crisis into account. “That scares me,” she says. “Because in 2050, we’ll be like: ‘Ah, this is awful. Let’s try to do something.’ But it will be too late for a lot of people.

“I think that’s why it’s really important right now, as evidence is building, as we’re understanding more, to be speaking and raising awareness on these issues,” she says. “Because we don’t want to come to that point of irreversible damage.”

For neuroscientists considering the climate problem, avoiding that point of no return implies investing in resilience research today. But this is not a story of climate anxiety and mental fortitude. “I’m not talking about psychological resilience,” says Nomura. “I’m talking about biological resilience.”

A research agenda for climatological neuroepidemiology would probably bridge multiple fields and scales of analysis. It would merge insights from neurology, neurochemistry, environmental science, cognitive neuroscience and behavioural economics – from molecular dynamics to the individual brain to whole ecosystems. Nomura, for example, wants to understand how external environmental pressures influence brain health and cognitive development; who is most vulnerable to these pressures and when; and which preventive strategies might bolster neurological resilience against climate-induced stressors. Others want to price these stressors, so policymakers can readily integrate them into climate-action cost-benefit analyses.

For Nomura, it all comes back to stress. Under the right conditions, prenatal exposure to stress can be protective, she says. “It’s like an inoculation, right? You’re artificially exposed to something in utero and you become better at handling it – as long as it is not overwhelmingly toxic.” Stress in pregnancy, in moderation, can perhaps help immunise the foetus against the most deleterious effects of stress later in life. “But everybody has a breaking point,” she says.

Identifying these breaking points is a core challenge of Nomura’s work. And it’s a particularly thorny challenge, in that as a matter of both research ethics and atmospheric physics, she and her colleagues can’t just gin up a hurricane and selectively expose expecting mothers to it. “Human research in this field is limited in a way. We cannot run the gold standard of randomised clinical trials,” she says. “We cannot do it. So we have to take advantage of this horrible natural disaster.”

Recently, Nomura and her colleagues have begun to turn their attention to the developmental effects of heat. They will apply similar methods to those they applied to understanding the effects of Hurricane Sandy – establishing natural cohorts and charting the developmental trajectories in which they’re interested.

The work necessarily proceeds slowly, in part because human research is further complicated by the fact that it takes people longer than animals to develop. Rats zoom through infancy and are sexually mature by about six weeks, whereas for humans it takes more than a decade. “That’s a reason this longitudinal study is really important – and a reason why we cannot just get started on the question right now,” says Nomura. “You cannot buy 10 years’ time. You cannot buy 12 years’ time.” You must wait. And so she waits, and she measures, as the waves continue to crash.

• Climate crisis
• Extreme heat
• Neuroscience
• Alzheimer's
• Motor neurone disease

Most viewed

How stress can harm your health — and what to do about it

There’s no doubt that stress is a part of everyday life, but too much can have detrimental impacts on people’s physical and mental health.

I wanted to delve more into depth about the health impacts of stress during National Stress Awareness Month. What does stress do to the body? When does it become a problem, and what are some ways to cope with it? And what can people do with stressors such as a hard job or caregiving responsibilities that can’t just go away?

To help us answer these questions, I had a conversation with CNN wellness expert Dr. Leana Wen. Wen is an emergency physician and adjunct associate professor at George Washington University. She previously served as Baltimore’s health commissioner.

• Download the CTV News App for breaking news alerts and video on all the top stories

CNN: What does stress do to a person’s body?

Dr. Leana Wen : When people experience a perceived threat, a variety of hormones are released that make the heart beat faster and increase blood pressure and blood sugar. These hormones also divert energy away from other parts of the body, such as the immune system and digestive system. These are evolutionary adaptations that once helped people to respond to situations such as predators chasing after them. Such “fight or flight” responses are normal and may be helpful in modern-day life. For instance, they could help an athlete with a faster performance or a student with staying up to study for an exam.

The problem arises when the body’s stress response is continuous. A perpetual state of “fight or flight” could lead to many chronic problems. Individuals could experience anxiety and depression, and other mental health ailments. They could also have headaches, muscle tension, abdominal pain, sleep disturbances, decreased immunity to infections, and problems with memory and concentration. Chronic stress has also been linked to increased likelihoods of high blood pressure, diabetes, heart attack and stroke.

CNN: Everyone experiences stress, so when does it become a problem?

Wen : It’s natural for people to experience stress to discrete stressful events (those that have a clear onset such as the birth of a child, starting of a new job, a divorce or the death of a loved one) that happen in their lives. The problem is when stress becomes a chronic state of being.

Warning signs to look out for include signs or symptoms of mental health concerns or physical manifestations of stress—for instance, if someone starts having new heart palpitations, abdominal pain or headaches. In addition, some people may attempt to cope with stress by using alcohol or drugs. A change in substance use could be a red flag to look for underlying stressors.

People should also ask themselves if stress is negatively affecting their function at home, at work and with their friends. Someone who finds themselves unusually irritable and is lashing out at loved ones and colleagues may also be doing so because of excessive stress.

• Top health headlines, all in one place

CNN: Why should we be aware of excessive stress and try to reduce it as a health priority?

Wen : We can think of stress as something in our lives that is modifiable, just like high blood pressure or high blood sugar. The stressor itself may not be able to be changed, just as we cannot change our genetic predisposition to hypertension or diabetes. However, our reaction to it is within our control. And it’s our reaction to the stressor that determines our health outcomes. If stress has detrimental effects on our health, just as high blood pressure and diabetes do, then we can and should look for ways to reduce these effects.

CNN: What are some ways we can cope with stress?

Wen : First, it’s important to clarify that there are good and bad ways to cope with stress. Some people may turn to these not-so-good ways because it may help them feel better in the short-term, but there are real risks. I mentioned drinking alcohol and using drugs—obviously, these are not healthy coping strategies. Neither are binge-eating or smoking.

I think it’s really important to be self-aware. Be honest with yourself: When you have faced stressful situations in the past, have you turned to these unhealthy ways to cope? If so, be on the lookout and work to prevent these behaviors during stressful times.

Also, try to anticipate when there will be stressful situations. Is there a big deadline at work coming up? A family gathering that is likely to elicit negative emotions? A difficult conversation with a loved one? Knowing that a stressful event may occur can help you anticipate your reaction and plan accordingly.

I advise, too, that people make a list of stress relief techniques that have worked for them in the past. And try new techniques. Deep breathing exercises are something everyone can try and help both in the moment of the stressful encounter and after, for example, as is mindfulness meditation.

I’m also a big fan of exercise. There is excellent scientific evidence that exercise is very effective at managing stress. Exercise reduces stress hormones and increases endorphins, which are “feel-good” neurotransmitters that can relax the body and improve mood.

CNN: What is your advice for people who have stressors in their lives—such as a hard job or caregiving responsibilities—that can’t easily go away?

Wen : This is really hard, because of course it would be ideal to address the stressors themselves. But many people have stressful situations that they can’t change.

It helps to be up front about that and acknowledge that changing the situation is not in your control. What is in your control, though, is your reaction to the situation.

Here is where self-awareness and self-care are so important. Learn to recognize when you are feeling especially stressed. Perhaps you feel tension in your neck and back muscles, or you have abdominal cramps or jitters. These are the times to practice deep breathing, meditation and other exercises that help you in the short-term.

For both short- and long-term benefit, it’s essential to make time for self-care. By that, I mean activities that you enjoy and that can take your mind off the stressful life situations. These could include taking a walk with a good friend, working in the garden, playing with your pets, reading a good book or otherwise participating in activities you enjoy. Think of the time you are putting aside for yourself as a kind of therapy; stress can make you unhealthy, so this is your way of giving yourself “treatment” to offset that stress.

Along those lines, knowing that stress is one factor that can impact your well-being, work to maximize the other aspects that contribute to overall health. Try to get adequate, restful sleep. Aim to eat healthy, whole foods and reduce your consumption of ultra-processed products. Make sure other chronic medical conditions, such as high blood pressure, are being treated. And do not wait to seek help from your mental health or primary care provider if the stress you are experiencing is leading to continuing mental health or physical distress.

CTVNews.ca Top Stories

B.C. man collapsed, was diagnosed with cancer, then got a $3,700 bill

When Andy was diagnosed with aggressive lung cancer, he was shocked, but it was the handling of his medical coverage that left him stunned and deeply upset.

Budget to include $1.5B rental protection fund meant to preserve rent prices

The federal government will be launching a $1.5-billion 'Canada Rental Protection Fund' to preserve affordable rent prices across the country. 'People are being priced out of their communities, and that's not OK, so we have to help,' Prime Minister Justin Trudeau said Thursday in Winnipeg.

Disney to start cracking down on password-sharing from June, CEO Iger says

Walt Disney's streaming service will start cracking down on password-sharing from June, CEO Bob Iger said on Thursday, as the entertainment conglomerate looks to boost subscriber growth and make the business profitable.

Spread of bird flu spread raises concern for humans, animal health body says

The spread of bird flu to an increasing number of species and its widening geographic reach have raised the risks of humans being infected by the virus, the head of the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) said on Thursday.

Home prices could hit peak levels by next year, set new highs in 2026: CMHC report

The Canada Mortgage and Housing Corp. is forecasting home prices could match peak levels seen in early 2022 by next year and reach new highs by 2026.

DEVELOPING | 30 cm of snow, heavy rain, damaging winds: What to expect in the paths of the latest spring storms

Heavy rain and snowfall are expected in much of Eastern and Western Canada, according to the latest forecasts.

No criminal probes into foreign meddling during last two general elections: RCMP boss

The head of the RCMP says the police force did not open any foreign interference-related criminal investigations during the last two general elections.

Merlin the Macaw leaving Halifax for Ontario due to depression and stress

According to a news release from the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic, Merlin the Macaw, a resident mascot for the facility, is flying off to Safari Niagara in Fort Erie, Ontario.

'I'm upset, I'm mad': Boy killed by dogs was visiting Edmonton for spring break, grandmother says

An 11-year-old boy who was killed by two large dogs in southeast Edmonton on Monday has been identified as a Grade 5 student from B.C. named Kache.

Draft of Saskatchewan's pronoun policy gave teachers discretion for at-risk students

Emails show an early draft of Saskatchewan's school pronoun policy would have allowed teachers to use a child's preferred identification if there was concern the student faced danger when parents were notified.

More than 220,000 customers without power in Quebec as spring storm dumps heavy snow

Just under a quarter of a million customers remain without power across Quebec as snow continues to blanket the province.

Vancouver real estate: Prospects of buying a home at 'full-blown crisis levels,' report says

Those hoping to buy a home in Vancouver are facing a more challenging time than ever before, a new report from the Royal Bank of Canada suggests.

Ground-breaking Canadian giraffe researcher Anne Innis Dagg dies at 91

Pioneering Canadian giraffe researcher and feminist activist Anne Innis Dagg has died at the age of 91.

Second water main break reported at QEII Halifax Infirmary site

Nova Scotia Health says another water break has happened at the QEII Halifax Infirmary site.

Cruise ship stuck in Spain will resume sailing after Bolivian passengers with visa problems removed

A cruise ship stuck in the northeastern Spanish port of Barcelona will be able to resume its route after a group of Bolivian passengers with visa problems were taken off the vessel on Thursday, authorities said.

European police seize Lamborghinis and Rolexes over alleged US$650M COVID-19 fraud

Police have arrested 22 people and seized assets worth more than US$650 million in connection with alleged fraud linked to the European Union’s post-pandemic recovery fund.

Macron says he has no doubt Russia will target Paris Olympics

French President Emmanuel Macron said on Thursday that he had no doubt Russia would malevolently target the Paris Olympics this summer, in comments that underline the fraught geopolitical backdrop to the games.

Rescuers in Taiwan search for those missing or stranded after major earthquake kills 10

Rescuers searched Thursday for missing people and worked to reach hundreds stranded when Taiwan's strongest earthquake in 25 years sent boulders and mud tumbling down mountainsides, blocking roads. Ten people died and more than 1,000 were injured.

China reopens Mount Everest access to foreigners

For the first time since the pandemic, China is allowing foreign climbers to access Mount Everest via Tibet.

Human rights group says Israeli strike on Gaza building killed 106 in apparent war crime

Human Rights Watch says an Israeli attack on a Gaza apartment building in October killed at least 106 civilians, including 54 children.

Airstrikes on aid workers don't 'just happen,' Trudeau says after Netanyahu comments

Attacks on aid workers are not just something that happens in war, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau said Thursday, slamming Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's defence of a deadly airstrike on aid workers in central Gaza on April 1.

Cultural long-term care admissions drying up in Ontario due to new priority rules

In an Italian long-term care home in Toronto, about three new non-Italian residents are admitted each month due to government changes to priority rules, leaving them confused and isolated in a setting where they do not speak the language.

Apple services restored after brief outages globally

Issues with Apple services including its App Store, video and music streaming platforms Apple TV+ and Apple Music, were resolved after outages that affected users across multiple regions, the company's website showed.

'Bodily autonomy is being invaded': Students appear nude in AI-altered photos at London, Ont. high school

Students and parents at St. Thomas Aquinas Catholic Secondary School learned Tuesday evening of an incident that happened at the school recently through a letter sent by school administrators.

Entertainment

Gillian Anderson says she would be up for returning as Scully for 'X-Files' reboot if Ryan Coogler is involved

Gillian Anderson sounds like she’s thawing to the idea of another return as Dana Scully.

A fifth 'Matrix' movie is in the works and, no, this is not a simulation

The beloved 'Matrix' movie franchise is expanding with an upcoming fifth installment, with the film’s original co-writer and co-director Lana Wachowski leading the charge as executive producer.

Joe Flaherty was the 'only guy' who could get Eugene Levy to break character

Eugene Levy says his 'SCTV' castmate Joe Flaherty was the only comedian who could get him to break character on stage.

NEW | 'It's just so dangerous': The travellers who will, and won't, fly on a Boeing 737 Max

With Boeing under increased scrutiny thanks to a string of issues with its 737 Max airliners, some travellers say they're taking steps to avoid flying in the company's jets wherever possible.

Boeing pays Alaska Airlines US$160 million in compensation for the blowout of a panel during flight

Alaska Airlines says Boeing has paid US$160 million in initial compensation for losses that the airline suffered after a panel blew off one of its Boeing 737 Max 9 jetliners in January.

McDonald's buys all of its Israeli franchise restaurants amid damage from Middle East turmoil

McDonald's will buy every one of its 225 franchise restaurants in Israel, it announced Thursday, just weeks after saying that the Israel-Hamas war was hurting its business.

Italian island overrun by goats is offering them free to anyone who can catch them

The tiny, remote Italian island of Alicudi is home to only around 100 residents and, ideally, about 100 wild goats.

Quebec photographer wins World Press Photo award

For the first time in 25 years, a Quebecer has won the prestigious World Press Photo photography competition. Documentary photographer Charles-Frédérick Ouellet is one of the winners in the North and Central America region, in the 'single images' category.

Did your life change after a recent trip abroad? We want to hear your story

Share your story by emailing us at [email protected] with your name, general location and phone number in case we want to follow up. Your comments may be used in a CTVNews.ca story.

It'll cost more to see a Caitlin Clark game than the men's Final Four

Caitlin Clark’s popularity is jacking up ticket prices for the women’s NCAA basketball Final Four on Friday, making them even more expensive than the men’s.

Yordan Alvarez homers twice, Astros shut out Blue Jays again in 8-0 victory

Yordan Alvarez homered twice amd matched his career high with four hits, Cristian Javier and four relievers combined on a one-hitter and the Houston Astros beat the Toronto Blue Jays 8-0 on Wednesday night.

Timberwolves beat Raptors 133-85 to push Toronto's losing streak to 15

Anthony Edwards scored 28 points, Naz Reid added 23 and the Minnesota Timberwolves routed the short-handed Toronto Raptors 133-85 on Wednesday night to move into a tie for first-place in the Western Conference.

Lamborghini written off after 13-year-old takes it for a joyride: West Vancouver police

A 13-year-old is facing several charges after crashing a Lamborghini on a West Vancouver highway, local police say.

Manitoba extending fuel tax holiday

The Manitoba government is extending the fuel tax holiday.

Tesla sales fall nearly 9% to start the year as competition heats up and demand for EVs slows

Tesla posted its first year-over-year drop in sales since the first year of the pandemic, as increased electric vehicle competition from Chinese and Western automakers ate into demand.

Local Spotlight

Ontario family's car stolen from parking lot of Montreal hotel

A family from Ontario says their SUV was stolen from a hotel parking lot in Montreal while the family was on a March break vacation down south.

Ottawa snowbirds embark on epic bicycle journey back to Canada

Two adventurous snowbirds have embarked on an amazing journey back to Canada, and they're inviting the world to join in on their adventure.

'I'm indebted to these guys': First responder, former cop save N.S. man's life in hockey rink

A first responder and a former police officer saved a Nova Scotia man's life as he suffered a heart attack on ice in March.

'Pretty remarkable': Alberta distillery beats out Ireland, Scotland at international whisky competition

A distillery in Parkland County is being internationally recognized for outstanding whisky production – and one bottle in particular is getting all the attention.

This historical tavern in Toronto is closing after nearly 200 years

An historic downtown Toronto bar is closing its doors next week after nearly 200 years in business.

Tipping is off the table at this Toronto restaurant

A Toronto restaurant introduced a surprising new rule that reduced the cost of a meal and raised the salaries of staff.

Where is the worst place for allergy sufferers in Canada?

The spring allergy season has started early in many parts of Canada, with high levels of pollen in some cities already. Experts weigh in on which areas have it worse so far this season.

Video of motorcyclist speeding 234 km/h on Vancouver bridge under investigation

'difficult to see': b.c. teen arrested for attempted murder after liquor store robbery.

A 16-year-old boy was arrested for attempted murder and robbery Sunday after a stabbing at a liquor store in Port Alberni, B.C.

Ontario woman shocked by $2,500 vacant home tax bill for condo she lives in

An Ontario resident said she got a 'bit of shock' when she opened up a piece of mail from the City of Toronto last month, informing her that she owed more than $2,500 in taxes for the 'vacant' Scarborough condo where she currently resides.

Youth charged in Hamilton high school peanut butter assault

A young person is facing several charges after allegedly slapping a severely allergic youth in the face at a Hamilton school with a hand covered in peanut butter.

Blue Jays show off final phase of Rogers Centre renovations ahead of home opener

The Toronto Blue Jays have unveiled the final phase of multi-year renovations at Rogers Centre ahead of next week’s home opener.

Calgary under a snowfall warning as heavy, wet snow blankets the city

A snowfall warning issued for the foothills Wednesday was expanded to include the City of Calgary and areas north.

Gunshots in Evergreen leave vehicle with bullet hole, Calgary police investigating

Calgary police are investigating a shooting in the community of Evergreen on Thursday.

Human remains found near Tsuut'ina Nation, police say

RCMP have confirmed to CTV News they are investigating the discovery of human remains near the Tsuut'ina First Nation on Wednesday night.

SNOWFALL WARNING | Spring snowstorm brings 13 cm of snow to Ottawa, knocks out power across eastern Ontario

Ottawa received 10.8 cm of snow from a spring snowstorm that has moved through the region. Environment Canada's forecast calls for another 5 cm of snow on Thursday, with another 2 to 4 cm of snow Thursday night.

SOLAR ECLIPSE | What happens to your eyes if you look at the sun without protection during the solar eclipse?

The moon’s orbit is set to position it directly between the Earth and the sun, causing a solar eclipse on April 8.

Stopped train slows down O-Train service for 3 hours on Thursday

Rideau Transit Maintenance believes the wet snow overnight may have impacted an LRT vehicle's train control system" and caused it to stop along the Confederation Line, causing disruptions on the western end of the O-Train line for three hours.

Aeroports de Montreal plans to invest $4B by 2028

Aeroports de Montreal says it plans to invest nearly $4 billion between now and 2028 to improve access to the Montreal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport.

Car set on fire in Montreal's east end

Montreal police are investigating after a car was set on fire in the Mercier-Hochelaga-Maisonneuve borough.

$166,000 in unrecovered costs for City of Grande Prairie from helping evacuees

About $166,000 toward helping emergency evacuees may not be recovered by the City of Grande Prairie.

'I just wanted to see if the boy was OK': Teen who witnessed deadly assault testifies at manslaughter trial

Four witnesses were called to testify during day two of a teen's manslaughter trial in Edmonton.

Snowfall warnings issued in parts of the Maritimes before weather ramps up Thursday night

Snow in southwestern New Brunswick and western Nova Scotia created some slushy roads in some areas through the day Thursday. As it moves eastward Thursday night, it is expected to intensify for a few areas, leading to higher snow amounts on Friday.

N.S. increasing reward for information on missing teen

The province of Nova Scotia is increasing its reward for information in the case of a teenager missing since 2022.

LIVE NOW | Federal government to launch $1.5B fund to protect affordable rentals

Prime Minister Justin Trudeau says a new $1.5-billion housing fund will help non-profit organizations acquire more rental units across Canada and make sure they remain affordable.

Winnipeg running low on mosquito fogging chemical, will have to look for alternatives

The City of Winnipeg will be out of the chemical it uses for mosquito fogging in two to four years unless a change is made, according to a recent report.

City slams brakes on Osborne Village pedestrian scramble

A proposed pedestrian scramble at a busy Osborne Village intersection has been rejected.

'Jim changed the course of my life': Riders' CEO Craig Reynolds reflects on Jim Hopson's impact

After the news former Saskatchewan Roughriders President and CEO Jim Hopson passed away earlier this week – current President and CEO Craig Reynolds is reflecting on the impact Hopson left on not only him – but the entire CFL family.

'Pretty rare stuff': Regina's Secondhand Wonderland a place to find hidden gems

A Regina second hand shop that specializes in buying, selling and trading has a growing following built on nostalgia.

Illegal gambling spots raided in Kitchener and Guelph

Police have raided two businesses allegedly involved in illegal gambling in Kitchener and Guelph.

Regional chair breaks silence on Wilmot Township farmland expropriation

Karen Redman has addressed Waterloo Region’s controversial plan to acquire farm land in Wilmot Township in an email to concerned citizens.

Prince Albert teens charged after person attacked with metal ball on rope

Prince Albert police say two teenagers have been charged after a person was attacked with a metal ball on a rope and robbed of his belongings early Thursday morning.

Saskatoon police seek tips after vacant home fire

The Saskatoon Fire Department (SFD) says a single-family home was set on fire on Wednesday morning, causing an estimated $10,000 in damage.

Northern Ontario

Drug, weapons charges follow investigation of fatal hwy. 17 crash in northern ont..

Five people from southern Ontario have been charged after the investigation of a fatal collision last week led to the discovery of illicit drugs, weapons and cash.

Months-long investigation leads to human-trafficking related charges

A London man is facing several charges in relation to a months-long human trafficking investigation by London police.

Dream Lottery officially launches spring draw to support local hospitals

Representatives from Children’s Health Foundation, London Health Sciences Foundation (LHSF) and St. Joseph’s Health Care were on hand for the ribbon-cutting ceremony inside a house built by Bridlewood Homes in the north end of London, Ont.

Sarnia police looking for pharmacy robbery suspect

Police in Sarnia are hoping the public can help identify a person wanted in relation to a pharmacy robbery. The incident happened on March 13 at Northgate Pharmacy in Northgate Plaza on Exmouth Street.

Criminal investigation underway in downtown Barrie

There was a heavy police presence in downtown Barrie during the early morning hours on Thursday for an ongoing criminal investigation.

Suspect wanted in connection with criminal investigation could be in Barrie

Police are on the hunt for a suspect wanted in connection with several criminal allegations who could be in the Barrie area.

Missing man's death deemed a homicide after his body is found roadside & his home burned

Provincial police have deemed the death of a missing man whose body was found on the side of the road in Caledon a homicide.

Drop in home sales in Windsor-Essex: WECAR

The Windsor-Essex County Association of Realtors reports there were fewer homes sold in the region in March.

New Offender Management Unit aims to monitor dangerous offenders

Windsor and LaSalle Police Service are teaming up with a new unit to keep track of dangerous offenders.

Windsor police officer penalized for Freedom Convoy donation launching a new appeal

Const. Michael Brisco has now asked the Ontario Divisional Court to review his penalty for giving $50 to the Ottawa protest in February 2022.

Vancouver Island

Local non-profit raising funds to support mobile dental units on Ukraine's frontlines

Myrolslav Solon’ko is a Ukrainian dentist who has spent the last two years volunteering on one of several mobile dental vans that travel to the frontlines of the war.

'Like an underwater puppy': B.C. woman forms lasting friendship with octopus

When Catherine Dobrowolski began doing daily walks by the water, she never expected to make an eight-legged friend.

2 men injured after 'road rage' incident with Dodge Ram driver, Kelowna RCMP say

Mounties are investigating a reported "road rage" incident in Kelowna, B.C., that left two men injured last week.

Unstable nearby construction site forces evacuation of apartment in Kelowna, B.C.

More than 80 residents of a low-income apartment building in Kelowna, B.C., have been told they need to leave over a 'significant' risk to life and safety.

Kelowna man shot dead inside his auto shop, family says

A man was fatally shot in Kelowna on Wednesday, according to his sister, during an incident Mounties had been tight-lipped about.

Alberta announces funding for rural medical training

The Government of Alberta has come up with a new plan to attract doctors to rural communities.

Mischief trial begins for three men charged in Alberta COVID-19 border blockade

A Crown prosecutor said Wednesday that the trial for three men charged over their roles in an Alberta border blockade two years ago has nothing to do with their beliefs or right to protest.

Castle Mountain Marie spreads a little love by handing out hugs to skiers

An employee at a southern Alberta ski resort is making visitors smile, one hug at a time.

Sault Ste. Marie

Latest big winners in four northern Ont. hospital lotteries

Meet the March winners of the monthly 50/50 hospital lotteries in Sudbury, Timmins, Sault Ste. Marie and North Bay, who together won more than $700,000.

Transportation officials investigating ‘hard landing’ at Sault airport

The Transportation Safety Board is looking into the circumstances surrounding a “hard landing” at the Sault Ste. Marie Airport.

Mysterious Newfoundland shipwreck finally out of the water

It took a few cuts with a chainsaw and the full strength of a 30-ton excavator, but a mysterious Newfoundland shipwreck has finally been pulled out of the water near the small community of Cape Ray.

Premiers making 'political hay' out of carbon pricing increase, Trudeau says

Prime Minister Justin Trudeau says premiers would rather complain and 'make political hay' out of his federal carbon pricing program than present an alternative to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Woman in Northern Ireland finds people who can understand her -- in Newfoundland

Whitney McCullough says she has always felt like people outside her home of Banbridge, Northern Ireland, need subtitles to decipher her accent and slang. So it has been strange and delightful to discover through her TikTok videos that in Newfoundland and Labrador, people understand her just fine.

Shopping Trends

The Shopping Trends team is independent of the journalists at CTV News. We may earn a commission when you use our links to shop.  Read about us.

Editor's Picks

There's a total solar eclipse in canada next week, and here’s how to prepare, 14 of the best interactive dog toys to stimulate your dog's mind, our guide to the best air purifiers in canada in 2024 (and where to get them), if you love cooking, feast your eyes on these 18 aesthetically pleasing kitchen products, 19 amazon canada products that'll solve a bunch of your little problems, our guide to the best office chairs in canada in 2024 (and where to get them), 19 of the best mother's day gifts under $50, 19 foolproof mother's day gifts to order if you want to get your shopping done early, 15 awesome presents to give if you're tired of gift cards, 16 eye creams that people with mature skin swear by, rosemary oil and 11 other products that reviewers swear by for hair growth, athena club has officially launched in canada, stay connected.

Infant gut microbes have their own circadian rhythm, and diet has little impact on how the microbiome assembles

Infant gut microbiomes oscillate with a circadian rhythm, even when they are cultivated outside of the body. Researchers report April 2 in the journal Cell Host & Microbe that the rhythm is detectable as early as 2 weeks after birth but becomes more pronounced with age. The finding comes from a randomized controlled trial that also showed that diet has less impact on the development and composition of the infant microbiome than previously thought.

"We found that even at very early ages of colonization, the microbial ecosystem develops this circadian rhythmicity," says senior author and microbiome expert Dirk Haller of the Technical University of Munich. "We have shown these rhythms before in adults, but we were not sure when these mechanisms first appear."

While diet had only a marginal impact on infant microbiome development, the researchers showed that age plays a more important role.

"Diet matters, but less than aging of the gut," says Haller. "When we compared breastfed and formula-fed infants, the differences in microbiome colonization were marginal. Our intestinal system is probably a little bit more flexible in adapting to what the environment has to offer."

The researchers used a randomized controlled trial to compare microbiome development in infants that were exclusively breastfed with infants who received different types of formula -- un-supplemented formula; formula containing breast-milk-derived bacteria ( Bifidobacteria ); formula containing breast-milk-mimicking sugars (galacto-oligosaccharides, GOSs); or formula containing both Bifidobacteria and GOSs. Altogether, the trial included 210 infants.

To longitudinally track the infants' microbiomes, the team sampled the infants' stools when they were 0.5 months, 1 month, 3 months, 7 months, and 12 months of age as well as at 24 months for a subset of the infants. They also kept note of the time of day that the stool sample was collected.

The researchers found that diet had little impact on infant growth or the differences in the infants' microbiomes. Though there was a lot of variation, all of the infants showed a gradual increase in gut microbe diversity, and at 24 months there was no observable difference between the groups. When they compared the different types of formula, they found that GOS-supplemented infant formula was more effective at promoting sustained levels of Bifidobacteria compared to formula containing Bifidobacteria .

However, there was a significant difference in the gut metabolite profile between exclusively breastfed and formula-fed infants. "The metabolite environment in the gut is dramatically different between a baby that is exclusively breastfed and babies that receive infant formula, which could have a fundamental impact on metabolic priming and many downstream effects," says Haller. "We can conclude that breast milk does something completely different in the metabolism in in the infant's intestine."

The researchers also observed rhythmic 24-hour fluctuations in the abundance of different microbiome species. When they took infant microbes and grew them in continuous culture in the lab, the bacteria settled into the same circadian rhythm -- even in the absence of external light or host cues. Though circadian rhythms have been previously observed in adult microbiomes, this is the first evidence that bacteria maintain these rhythms independently.

"When we take them out, they maintain these daytime-related diurnal oscillations," Haller says. "This is fairly surprising because it suggests that the bacteria have some intrinsic mechanism that provides some sort of adaptation to a day and night cycle, which could potentially give them an advantage in colonizing the human intestine."

The researchers plan to further investigate microbiome circadian rhythms in future studies. Specifically, they want to examine whether individual bacterial species maintain rhythms when grown in isolation rather than in complex communities and to search for the genes that control these rhythms.

"For us, the next question is can we identify mechanisms in bacteria that control their circadian behavior," says Haller.

• Breastfeeding
• Infant's Health
• Insomnia Research
• Gastrointestinal Problems
• Microbes and More
• Extreme Survival
• Circadian rhythm sleep disorder
• Circadian rhythm
• Sudden infant death syndrome

Story Source:

Materials provided by Cell Press . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Nina Heppner, Sandra Reitmeier, Marjolein Heddes, Michael Vig Merino, Leon Schwartz, Alexander Dietrich, Markus List, Michael Gigl, Chen Meng, Daan R. van der Veen, Melanie Schirmer, Karin Kleigrewe, Hélène Omer, Silke Kiessling, Dirk Haller. Diurnal rhythmicity of infant fecal microbiota and metabolites: A randomized controlled interventional trial with infant formula . Cell Host & Microbe , 2024; DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2024.02.015

Cite This Page :

Explore More

• 100 Kilometers of Quantum-Encrypted Transfer
• Intelligent Liquid
• New Approach to Searching for Dark Matter
• We've Had Bird Evolution All Wrong
• Physical Activity Protects Against Chronic Pain
• Australia On Track for Decades-Long Megadroughts
• Speed of Visual Perception Ranges Widely
• 3D Printed Replica of an Adult Human Ear
• Extremely Fast Wound Healing: New Treatment
• Micro-Lisa! Novel Nano-Scale Laser Writing

Trending Topics

Strange & offbeat.