essay on the effect of alcohol to human physiology

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Effects of Alcohol Consumption on Various Systems of the Human Body: A Systematic Review

Jerin varghese.

1 Medical School, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences, Wardha, IND

Sarika Dakhode

2 Community Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences, Wardha, IND

Prolonged alcohol intake for many years has been known to cause serious ailments in human beings since time memorial. Even after knowing that this dangerous addiction paves the way to one’s own grave, there isn’t much difference in the way the community sees this deadly habit. Time and again history has proven that this fatal addiction could make the life of those who consume it terrible. Also, the lives of the dear ones of alcoholic people are affected as alcohol not only affects those who consume them but also kin and friends. Various research studies conducted over many years clearly show the association of prolonged alcohol intake in the causation, aggravation, worsening, and deterioration of the health of its consumers. Moreover, chronic alcohol intake single-handedly is one of the major etiological factors in various serious diseases.

Introduction and background

Through the ages, alcoholism has been undisputedly maintaining its position in the list of risk factors for preventable diseases in the world. According to a WHO report, 5.3% of all deaths that occurred worldwide in the year 2016 were because of harmful alcohol use [ 1 ]. It is the main culprit behind the advancing nature of many chronic diseases. It drastically increases the severity of diseases and also makes the treatments less effective. Alcohol not only affects the person physiologically, but it has many adverse effects psychologically and socially too. Also, the habit of alcoholism leads to huge expenses [ 2 ]. Apart from systemic involvement, which causes various clinical manifestations, there are certain signs and symptoms that are most of the times non-specific and that as such don’t point out or say lead to a particular diagnosis, such as nausea, agitation, vomiting, anxiety, diaphoresis, tremors, headache, visual hallucinations, tachycardia, seizures, delirium, temperature elevation, etc. It is not always necessary that these mentioned signs and symptoms are compulsorily linked with disease conditions.

Alcohol clearly plays a very important role in making many other diseases progress to their advanced stages. It has been also noted that alcohol intake and its related disorders are often associated with many other manifestations; for example, patients with alcoholic neuropathy often have associated nutritional deficiencies. Recent studies have clearly proved that alcoholism is associated with many types of cancers too and this understanding of alcoholism has spurred research minds all over the globe to find out the exact pathophysiology behind the same. Alcohol is a very easily available source of addiction, which is one of the main reasons why it remains a serious threat to the community. There is a huge variety that is available as far as alcoholic drinks are concerned. Alcohol is also one of the cheaply accessible means of addiction; this explains why alcoholism is so prevalent. A person may initially start consuming alcohol in very low amounts most probably with just a desire to try it, but once he or she gets addicted, then getting rid of the habit becomes extremely difficult. Even if a person is mentally resolute enough to quit alcoholism, his or her body, which has been modified because of the chronic use of alcohol, won’t be up to the challenge anytime soon; he or she has to overcome many hurdles put forward by the body, which could in an umbrella term be referred to as alcohol withdrawal syndrome.

There are many social stigmas associated with alcohol intake. Most people get into this addiction by getting inspired by the people whom they admire, like actors, celebrities, role models, etc. Also, exposure to the sight of family members, relatives and friends drinking alcohol has a huge impact on one’s mindset as he or she may take it to be something that is normal. In the long run, most of the time, even without their realization, people get pathetically trapped in this dangerous fatal habit of alcoholism, which eventually makes their lives pitiful in almost all aspects. Studies have shown that alcohol is also a key player in many other domains too like accidents, suicide, depression, hallucinations, violence, memory disturbances, etc.

The main purpose of this review article is to enable any person reading this article to get a comprehensive insight into the effects of alcohol on the various systems of the human body, and for the same, many recognized research articles published in numerous well-acknowledged journals across the globe are reviewed. The article is written using very basic and simple terminologies so that even a layperson who reads it would be able to understand it. For the easy acceptability and understanding of the reader, the discussion is written in such a way that almost every major system is reviewed one by one and the effect of alcohol on these systems put forward in very simple language. The strategies used for the establishment of this review article are summarised in Figure ​ Figure1; 1 ; these include considering research articles that have been published in journals with are indexed in reputed platforms, segregating articles according to the different systems, framing the review like a discussion section of an article where details are explained in simple and straight forward sentences, etc.

Impact of alcohol on the central nervous system (CNS)

Alcohol exerts various effects on our CNS in various ways, the common ones being depression of the CNS, destruction of the brain cells, contraction of the tissues of the brain, suppression of the excitatory nerve pathway activity, neuronal injury, etc [ 3 ]. Alcohol’s impact on the functioning of the brain ranges from mild and anxiolytic disinhibitory effects, motor incoordination, sedation, emesis, amnesia, hypnosis and ultimately unconsciousness [ 4 ]. The synaptic transmission is heavily disturbed and altered by ethanol, and the intrinsic excitability in various areas of the brain is also compromised. The effects of ethanol may be pre-synaptic, post-synaptic, and at times, non-synaptic too. Alcohol being a psychotropic depressant of the CNS exerts a deeply profound impact on the neurons, which alters the biological and behavioural well-being of the one who consumes it by the promotion of interference in various neuronal pathways [ 5 ]. The treatments of many disorders of the CNS are shown to be affected by the consumption of alcohol, and thus, it is generally advised to keep oneself away from alcohol if one is undergoing treatment for any CNS manifestations, like anxiety or mood disorders [ 6 ].

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is chronic in nature and is characterized by uncontrolled drinking and also a preoccupation with alcohol. The severity of AUD is a crucial factor in how it is going to affect the human body. AUD can be mild, moderate, or severe according to the symptoms a person experiences. The clinical manifestations of AUD include signs and symptoms such as inability to control the amount of alcohol intake, spending a lot of time drinking, feeling an uncontrollable craving for alcohol, loss of interest in social activities, failure to fulfil tasks within the time provided, etc. Most of the time, along with the person who consumes alcohol, several other factors are also to be taken care of in order to effectively manage alcohol-related health conditions. These factors can be social, environmental, genetic, psychological, etc, which make a considerable impact on how alcohol affects the behaviour and body of those consuming it. Binge drinking, i.e., drinking to such an extent on a single occasion that the blood alcohol concentration level becomes 0.08% or more, is a very relevant aspect of alcohol intake, which has to be dealt with, with utmost urgency. Certain research studies suggest that mild to moderate alcohol intake provides a certain sort of protection against a few CNS disorders like dementia, ischemia of neurons, etc, but this in no way should encourage the community in promoting alcohol intake as in reality, it is very difficult to remain within the limits of mild to moderate alcohol intake, and thus, eventually, people do end up as full-time severe alcohol abusers. Epilepsy, a seizure disorder caused by disturbed nerve cell activity in the brain, aggravates on excessive alcohol intake as alcohol increases the frequency of seizures in patients of epilepsy [ 7 ]. The issue becomes more severe in those epileptic patients who have refractory forms of epilepsy. As far as comorbidities are concerned, a valid history of abuse of substances or alcohol dependence is believed to be strongly associated with a high risk of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) [ 8 ]. Heavy alcohol drinking over a long period of time has been found to have an intensely negative undesirable effect on the autonomic nervous system too.

Impact of alcohol on the cardiovascular system (CVS)

Chronic alcohol intake is undoubtedly a very important risk factor as far as cardiovascular diseases are concerned and several clinical trials do point out this fact. The results of several research studies conducted in various settings clearly indicate that increased intake of alcohol has increased adverse effects on our heart and its vasculature. Alcohol exerts its action on the cardiovascular system both directly and indirectly. Blood pressure, a very vital player in the domain of cardiovascular diseases, is in turn itself affected by increased alcohol consumption. Blood pressure gets increased on regular consumption of alcohol in a manner which is dose-dependent, which in turn increases the risk of hypertension and eventually leads to various cardiovascular complications. How exactly alcohol causes hypertension is still unclear with many pathophysiological theories out there. Atrial fibrillation, one of the most common causes of arrhythmia, is associated with the high-volume chronic intake of alcohol and above 14 g alcohol/day, the relative risk dramatically increases by 10% for each extra standard drink (14 g ethanol) [ 9 ].

Cerebrovascular accidents are increased to a great extent at almost all levels of alcohol intake [ 10 ]. Alcohol intake leads to both acute (depresses the cardiac function and also alters the blood flow of the involved region) and chronic cardiovascular manifestations [ 11 ]. Alcohol abuse along with other associated factors is one of the leading causes of secondary cardiomyopathy [ 12 ]. Cardiac arrhythmias get precipitated by alcohol consumption, be it acute or chronic. Heavy alcohol drinking is shown to impact the cardiovascular system in many ways, one of the most important among them being rebound hypertension [ 13 ]. Apart from congenital disorders of the cardiovascular system, it indeed is a very well-evident fact, which could be understood from the history of most of the patients diagnosed with cardiovascular disorders, that they used to consume a lot of alcohol for many years.

Impact of alcohol on the digestive system

Chronic alcoholism is found to have a very strong relationship with both acute pancreatitis and chronic pancreatitis. Chronic alcohol intake impairs the repair ability of the structures of the exocrine pancreas, thereby leading to pancreatic dysfunctioning [ 14 ]. Most of the patients diagnosed with pancreatitis have a strong history of chronic intake of alcohol. Liver diseases related to alcohol intake are known to humankind from the very beginning and probably are one of the oldest known forms of injury to the liver [ 15 ]. In liver diseases linked with alcohol, liver cirrhosis is a major concern. Statistics show that liver cirrhosis is one of the top 10 causes of death worldwide and this in itself indicates the severity of the same [ 16 ]. The changing lifestyle and also many people turning to prolonged alcohol intake for many years are contributing to the increased number of liver cirrhosis patients in the modern world. In liver cirrhosis patients, there occurs an increased severity of fibrosis due to the loss of parenchyma and fibrous scar proliferation [ 17 ]. Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is an umbrella term which incorporates a wide range of injuries of the liver, spanning from simple steatosis to cirrhosis, and this also includes alcohol-related fatty liver disease (AFLD) and also alcoholic hepatitis [ 18 ]. Advancements in the diagnostic modalities have helped to diagnose ALD at an early phase and there is no doubt that newer and better investigations that have helped to detect more cases have led to a surge in the number of ALD patients on whole. Alcohol intake has a prominently bigger impact on the mortality of liver cirrhosis when compared with the morbidity [ 19 ]. A systemic review and meta-analysis suggests that women might be at a higher risk as far as developing liver cirrhosis is concerned even with little consumption of alcohol, as compared to men [ 20 ].

Impact of alcohol on the causation of cancer

Alcohol has much to do with cancers too and continuous research studies are conducted in order to find out the relationship between the two in detail. In a meta-analysis, it was found that women consuming alcohol had a later menopause onset, which is found to be associated with reduced cardiovascular disease risk and also all-cause mortality, but unfortunately, the happiness of this advantage gets compromised by the ironic fact that it has an increased risk of cancer (including ovarian and breast cancers) [ 21 , 22 ]. Large cohort studies, many meta-analyses, experimental research studies, etc are suggestive of the fact that the chronic intake of alcohol clearly increases colon and gastric cancer risk [ 23 ]. A causal association is also found between alcohol intake and cancers of the rectum, colon, liver, oesophagus, larynx, pharynx and oral cavity [ 24 ]. There are various theories put forward so as to understand the role of the consumption of alcohol in the development of cancer; there is suspicion that the rise in the number of alcohol users worldwide may be one of the reasons why the number of cancer patients is increasing at a global level. Chronic intake of alcohol may promote the genesis of cancer in many ways, some of the most notable ones being acetaldehyde (weak mutagen and carcinogen) production, cytochrome P450 2E1 induction associated oxidative stress, S-adenosylmethionine depletion/ which leads to global DNA hypomethylation induction, iron induction associated oxidative stress, retinoic acid metabolism impairment, etc [ 25 ].

Impact of alcohol on other systems

Apart from the systemic manifestations which do affect a particular system of the body, there are various disorders in which alcohol indirectly provides its crucial contribution. It is a common finding that one could perceive that alcohol is most of the time in the list of risk factors for various diseases. Alcohol has been found to adversely affect our immune system and the matter of concern as far as this issue is concerned is that immune responses are influenced by even moderate amounts of alcohol intake [ 26 ]. Alcohol affects innate immunity and also interferes with almost all the various aspects of the adaptive immune response. Alcohol is a key player in impairing anti-inflammatory cytokines and also promotes proinflammatory immune responses. The gastrointestinal biome is severely manipulated by the use of alcohol over a long period of time, which in turn is found to have a link with the establishment of various complications [ 27 ]. Alcohol and its metabolites are found to promote inflammation in the intestines and they do so through varied pathways [ 28 ]. Alcohol being a teratogen is documented to cause abnormalities of the brain, limbs, etc [ 29 ]. Multiple studies have been conducted across the globe to understand the effect of alcohol on humans; implications from certain such studies are put forth in Table ​ Table1 1 . 

Conclusions

Alcohol seldom leaves any system untouched as far as leaving its impression is concerned, spanning from single tissue involvement to complex organ system manifestations. Almost all the major organs that make up a human’s physiological being are dramatically affected by the overconsumption of alcohol. There is an enormous overall economic cost that is paid for alcohol abuse all over the world.

The content published in Cureus is the result of clinical experience and/or research by independent individuals or organizations. Cureus is not responsible for the scientific accuracy or reliability of data or conclusions published herein. All content published within Cureus is intended only for educational, research and reference purposes. Additionally, articles published within Cureus should not be deemed a suitable substitute for the advice of a qualified health care professional. Do not disregard or avoid professional medical advice due to content published within Cureus.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Why People Drink; How People Change pp 25–38 Cite as

Alcohol and Its Effects on the Body

• W. Miles Cox 3 &
• Eric Klinger 4  
• First Online: 22 February 2022

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When a person drinks alcohol, it enters the stomach and small intestine, where it is absorbed into the bloodstream. The rate of absorption, which is affected by various factors (such as the concentration of alcohol in the drink and characteristics of the drinker and how he or she drinks the alcohol), determines how intoxicated the person becomes. After entering the bloodstream, alcohol reaches the brain, where it stimulates the release of neurotransmitters such as dopamine. This causes the person to be disinhibited and to feel relaxed and elated. Alcohol in the blood is slowly metabolized in the liver, and the metabolites leave the body. There can be various negative aftereffects, such as alcohol-induced blackout (the inability to recall events that happened while the person was intoxicated) and a hangover. There also are long-term detrimental effects of heavy drinking, including liver and cardiovascular disease and brain damage. Consequently, there are considerable medical, psychological, social, and economic costs associated with excessive drinking. Changes in the brain from excessive drinking might cause the person to continue wanting alcohol without liking it.

• Acetaldehyde
• Alcohol-induced blackout
• Cardiovascular disease
• Fetal alcohol syndrome
• French paradox
• Liver disease
• Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome

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Cox, W.M., Klinger, E. (2022). Alcohol and Its Effects on the Body. In: Why People Drink; How People Change. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93928-1_3

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Pathophysiology of the Effects of Alcohol Abuse on the Endocrine System

Affiliation.

• 1 Nadia Rachdaoui, Ph.D., is an Assistant Research Professor, and Dipak K. Sarkar, Ph.D., D.Phil., is Board of Governors Distinguished Professor, in the Rutgers Endocrine Research Program, Department of Animal Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
• PMID: 28988577
• PMCID: PMC5513689

Alcohol can permeate virtually every organ and tissue in the body, resulting in tissue injury and organ dysfunction. Considerable evidence indicates that alcohol abuse results in clinical abnormalities of one of the body's most important systems, the endocrine system. This system ensures proper communication between various organs, also interfacing with the immune and nervous systems, and is essential for maintaining a constant internal environment. The endocrine system includes the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis, the hypothalamic-pituitary-growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor-1 axis, and the hypothalamic-posterior pituitary axis, as well as other sources of hormones, such as the endocrine pancreas and endocrine adipose tissue. Alcohol abuse disrupts all of these systems and causes hormonal disturbances that may result in various disorders, such as stress intolerance, reproductive dysfunction, thyroid problems, immune abnormalities, and psychological and behavioral disorders. Studies in both humans and animal models have helped shed light on alcohol's effects on various components of the endocrine system and their consequences.

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• Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural
• Alcoholism / complications*
• Alcoholism / metabolism
• Endocrine System / drug effects*
• Endocrine System / metabolism
• Ethanol / adverse effects*
• Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System / drug effects*
• Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System / metabolism
• Immune System / drug effects*
• Immune System / metabolism
• Pituitary-Adrenal System / drug effects*
• Pituitary-Adrenal System / metabolism

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