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14.2: Introduction to the Skeletal System

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• Suzanne Wakim & Mandeep Grewal
• Butte College

Skull and Cross-Bones

The skull and cross-bones symbol has been used for a very long time to represent death, perhaps because after death and decomposition, bones are all that remain. Many people think of bones as being dead, dry, and brittle. These adjectives may correctly describe the bones of a preserved skeleton, but the bones of a living human being are very much alive. Living bones are also strong and flexible. Bones are the major organs of the skeletal system.

The skeletal system is the organ system that provides an internal framework for the human body. Why do you need a skeletal system? Try to imagine what you would look like without it. You would be a soft, wobbly pile of skin containing muscles and internal organs but no bones. You might look something like a very large slug. Not that you would be able to see yourself — folds of skin would droop down over your eyes and block your vision because of your lack of skull bones. You could push the skin out of the way if you could only move your arms, but you need bones for that as well!

Components of the Skeletal System

In adults, the skeletal system includes 206 bones, many of which are shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). Bones are organs made of dense connective tissues, mainly the tough protein collagen. Bones contain blood vessels, nerves, and other tissues. Bones are hard and rigid due to deposits of calcium and other mineral salts within their living tissues. Locations, where two or more bones meet, are called joints. Many joints allow bones to move like levers. For example, your elbow is a joint that allows you to bend and straighten your arm.

Besides bones, the skeletal system includes cartilage and ligaments.

• Cartilage is a type of dense connective tissue, made of tough protein fibers. It is strong but flexible and very smooth. It covers the ends of bones at joints, providing a smooth surface for bones to move over.
• Ligaments are bands of fibrous connective tissue that hold bones together. They keep the bones of the skeleton in place.

Axial and Appendicular Skeletons

The skeleton is traditionally divided into two major parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton, both of which are pictured in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\).

• The axial skeleton forms the axis of the body. It includes the skull, vertebral column (spine), and rib cage. The bones of the axial skeleton, along with ligaments and muscles, allow the human body to maintain its upright posture. The axial skeleton also transmits weight from the head, trunk, and upper extremities down the back to the lower extremities. In addition, the bones protect the brain and organs in the chest.
• The appendicular skeleton forms the appendages and their attachments to the axial skeleton. It includes the bones of the arms and legs, hands and feet, and shoulder and pelvic girdles. The bones of the appendicular skeleton make possible locomotion and other movements of the appendages. They also protect the major organs of digestion, excretion, and reproduction.

Functions of the Skeletal System

The skeletal system has many different functions that are necessary for human survival. Some of the functions, such as supporting the body, are relatively obvious. Other functions are less obvious but no less important. For example, three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) inside the middle ear transfer sound waves into the inner ear.

Support, Shape, and Protection

The skeleton supports the body and gives it shape. Without the rigid bones of the skeletal system, the human body would be just a bag of soft tissues, as described above. The bones of the skeleton are very hard and provide protection to the delicate tissues of internal organs. For example, the skull encloses and protects the soft tissues of the brain, and the vertebral column protects the nervous tissues of the spinal cord. The vertebral column, ribs, and sternum (breast bone) protect the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels. Providing protection to these latter internal organs requires the bones to be able to expand and contract. The ribs and the cartilage that connects them to the sternum and vertebrae are capable of small shifts that allow breathing and other internal organ movements.

The bones of the skeleton provide attachment surfaces for skeletal muscles. When the muscles contract, they pull on and move the bones. The figure below, for example, shows the muscles attached to the bones at the knee. They help stabilize the joint and allow the leg to bend at the knee. The bones at joints act like levers moving at a fulcrum point, and the muscles attached to the bones apply the force needed for movement.

Hematopoiesis

Hematopoiesis is the process in which blood cells are produced. This process occurs in a tissue called red marrow, which is found inside some bones, including the pelvis, ribs, and vertebrae. Red marrow synthesizes red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Billions of these blood cells are produced inside the bones every day.

Mineral Storage and Homeostasis

Another function of the skeletal system is storing minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus. This storage function is related to the role of bones in maintaining mineral homeostasis. Just the right levels of calcium and other minerals are needed in the blood for the normal functioning of the body. When mineral levels in the blood are too high, bones absorb some of the minerals and store them as mineral salts, which is why bones are so hard. When blood levels of minerals are too low, bones release some of the minerals back into the blood. Bone minerals are alkaline (basic), so their release into the blood buffers the blood against excessive acidity (low pH), whereas their absorption back into bones buffers the blood against excessive alkalinity (high pH). In this way, bones help maintain acid-base homeostasis in the blood.

Another way bones help to maintain homeostasis is by acting as an endocrine organ. One endocrine hormone secreted by bone cells is osteocalcin, which helps regulate blood glucose and fat deposition. It increases insulin secretion and also the sensitivity of cells to insulin. In addition, it boosts the number of insulin-producing cells and reduces fat stores.

• What is the skeletal system? How many bones are there in the adult skeleton?
• Describe the composition of bones.
• Besides bones, what other organs are included in the skeletal system?
• Identify the two major divisions of the skeleton.
• List several functions of the skeletal system.
• Discuss sexual dimorphism in the human skeleton.
• Bones, cartilage, and ligaments are all made of types of ____________ tissue.
• True or False. Bones contain living tissue and can affect processes in other parts of the body.
• True or False. Bone cells contract to pull on muscles in order to initiate a movement.
• If a person has a problem with blood cell production, what type of bone tissue is most likely involved? Explain your answer.
• Are the pelvic girdles part of the axial or appendicular skeleton?
• What are three forms of homeostasis that the skeletal system regulates? Briefly explain how each one is regulated by the skeletal system.
• What do you think would happen to us if we did not have ligaments? Explain your answer.

b. How is cartilage related to joints?

c. Identify one joint in the human body and describe its function.

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Attributions.

• Fighter squadron 84 by US Navy , public domain via Wikimedia Commons
• Human skeleton front by LadyofHats Mariana Ruiz Villarreal, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
• Axial skeleton by LadyofHats Mariana Ruiz Villarreal, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
• Appendicular skeleton by LadyofHats Mariana Ruiz Villarreal, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
• Knee anatomy by Blausen.com staff (2014). " Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014 ". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI : 10.15347/wjm/2014.010 . ISSN 2002-4436 . CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
• Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0

6.1 The Functions of the Skeletal System

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

List and describe the functions of the skeletal system

• Attribute specific functions of the skeletal system to specific components or structures

The skeletal system is the body system composed of bones, cartilages, ligaments and other tissues that perform essential functions for the human body. Bone tissue, or osseous tissue , is a hard, dense connective tissue that forms most of the adult skeleton, the internal support structure of the body. In the areas of the skeleton where whole bones move against each other (for example, joints like the shoulder or between the bones of the spine), cartilages, a semi-rigid form of connective tissue, provide flexibility and smooth surfaces for movement. Additionally, ligaments composed of dense connective tissue surround these joints, tying skeletal elements together (a ligament is the dense connective tissue that connect bones to other bones). Together, they perform the following functions:

Support, Movement, and Protection

Some functions of the skeletal system are more readily observable than others. When you move you can feel how your bones support you, facilitate your movement, and protect the soft organs of your body. Just as the steel beams of a building provide a scaffold to support its weight, the bones and cartilages of your skeletal system compose the scaffold that supports the rest of your body. Without the skeletal system, you would be a limp mass of organs, muscle, and skin. Bones facilitate movement by serving as points of attachment for your muscles. Bones also protect internal organs from injury by covering or surrounding them. For example, your ribs protect your lungs and heart, the bones of your vertebral column (spine) protect your spinal cord, and the bones of your cranium (skull) protect your brain (see Figure 6.1.1 ).

Mineral and Fat Storage, Blood Cell Formation

On a metabolic level, bone tissue performs several critical functions. For one, the bone tissue acts as a reservoir for a number of minerals important to the functioning of the body, especially calcium, and phosphorus. These minerals, incorporated into bone tissue, can be released back into the bloodstream to maintain levels needed to support physiological processes. Calcium ions, for example, are essential for muscle contractions and are involved in the transmission of nerve impulses.

Bones also serve as a site for fat storage and blood cell production. The unique connective tissue that fills the interior of most bones is referred to as bone marrow . There are two types of bone marrow: yellow bone marrow and red bone marrow. Yellow bone marrow contains adipose tissue, and the triglycerides stored in the adipocytes of this tissue can be released to serve as a source of energy for other tissues of the body. Red bone marrow is where the production of blood cells (named hematopoiesis, hemato- = “blood”, -poiesis = “to make”) takes place. Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are all produced in the red bone marrow. As we age, the distribution of red and yellow bone marrow changes as seen in the figure ( Figure 6.1.2 ).

Career Connection – Orthopedist

An orthopedist is a doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders and injuries related to the musculoskeletal system. Some orthopedic problems can be treated with medications, exercises, braces, and other devices, but others may be best treated with surgery ( Figure 6.1.3 ).

While the origin of the word “orthopedics” (ortho- = “straight”; paed- = “child”), literally means “straightening of the child,” orthopedists can have patients who range from pediatric to geriatric. In recent years, orthopedists have even performed prenatal surgery to correct spina bifida, a congenital defect in which the neural canal in the spine of the fetus fails to close completely during embryologic development.

Orthopedists commonly treat bone and joint injuries but they also treat other bone conditions including curvature of the spine. Lateral curvatures (scoliosis) can be severe enough to slip under the shoulder blade (scapula) forcing it up as a hump. Spinal curvatures can also be excessive dorsoventrally (kyphosis) causing a hunch back and thoracic compression. These curvatures often appear in preteens as the result of poor posture, abnormal growth, or indeterminate causes. Mostly, they are readily treated by orthopedists. As people age, accumulated spinal column injuries and diseases like osteoporosis can also lead to curvatures of the spine, hence the stooping you sometimes see in the elderly.

Some orthopedists sub-specialize in sports medicine, which addresses both simple injuries, such as a sprained ankle, and complex injuries, such as a torn rotator cuff in the shoulder. Treatment can range from exercise to surgery.

Section Review

The major functions of the skeletal system are body support, facilitation of movement, protection of internal organs, storage of minerals and fat, and blood cell formation.

Review Questions

Critical thinking questions.

• Suppose your red bone marrow could not be formed. What functions would your body not be able to perform?
• Suppose your osseous tissue could not store calcium. What functions would your body not be able to perform?

Answers for Critical Thinking Questions

• Without red bone marrow, you would not be able to produce blood cells. The red bone marrow is responsible for forming red and white blood cells as well as platelets. Red blood cells transport oxygen to tissues, and remove carbon dioxide. Without red blood cells, your tissues would not be able to produce ATP using oxygen. White blood cells play a role in the immune system fighting off foreign invaders in our body – without white blood cells you would not be able to recover from infection. Platelets are responsible for clotting your blood when a vessel ruptures. Without platelets you would bleed to death and die.
•  The calcium in osseous tissue provides mineral support to bones. Without this calcium, the bones are not rigid and cannot be supportive. The calcium in osseous tissue is also an important storage site, that can release calcium when needed. Other organ systems rely on this calcium for action (specifically, muscle contraction and neural signaling). Without calcium storage, blood calcium levels change dramatically and affect muscle contraction and neural signaling.

This work, Anatomy & Physiology, is adapted from Anatomy & Physiology by OpenStax , licensed under CC BY . This edition, with revised content and artwork, is licensed under CC BY-SA except where otherwise noted.

Images, from Anatomy & Physiology by OpenStax , are licensed under CC BY except where otherwise noted.

Access the original for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-introduction .

Anatomy & Physiology Copyright © 2019 by Lindsay M. Biga, Staci Bronson, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Kristen Oja, Devon Quick, Jon Runyeon, OSU OERU, and OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

The Skeletal System Essay

Introduction, axial portion of the skeleton, appendicular portion of the skeleton, functions of the skeleton, relationship between the skeletal system and the muscular system, sexual differences in skeletons, clinical conditions and disorders that affect the skeleton, works cited.

Movement is vital for all of you because it provides you with the opportunity to live your lives to the full. Just as other human beings, you fall and stand up to continue moving forward. But what provides you with this opportunity? It is your skeletal system. It does not only facilitate your physical activity but also supports and protects your bodies. This system consists of hundreds of bones that are full of calcium, which makes them strong enough to carry your weight. Bones are connected with the help of joints that facilitate motion. The majority of you were born with about 300 bones that fuse with the course of time so that now you have only 206 bones. They all are divided into two parts: axial and appendicular skeletons.

Your axial portion of skeleton is composed of “the skull, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage” ( Skeletal System: Bones and Joints 120). Due to its location, it manages to protect your brain and spinal cord from injuries. In addition to that, it supports the organs in the ventral body cavity so that you do not need to carry them in your hands.

Twenty-two bones that are separated into two parts form the skull. You have 8 bones of the cranial cavity that are known as braincase. They surround your brain so that you do not hurt it when fall or receive a headnut. The rest of the bones (there are 14 of them) form your face. They are tightly connected to one another so that your nose is always in the right place. The only exception is the mandible that makes chewing possible. Otherwise, how would you eat? Minimal movement can also be observed within the middle ears. Each of them includes 3 auditory ossicles that are hidden deep in your head.

The vertebral column, or backbone, usually consists of “7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar vertebrae, 1 sacral bone, and 1 coccyx bone” ( Skeletal System: Bones and Joints 125). It is the central axis of the skeleton that has four major curvatures. Normally, the cervical and the lumbar regions curve anteriorly. The thoracic, as well as the sacral and coccygeal regions, curves posteriorly. However, considering the way you sit, abnormal curvatures are widespread.

The thoracic or the rib cage protects your organs and supports them. All in all, human beings have 24 ribs that are divided into 12 pairs, but you can recount them to make sure. They are categorized according to their attachment to the sternum. Thus, a direct attachment by costal cartilages is true (1-7); an attachment by a common cartilage is false (8-12); and the absence of attachment resorts to floating ribs (11-12). The sternum, or breastbone, consists of three parts: “the manubrium, the body, and the xiphoid process” ( Skeletal System: Bones and Joints 129).

Your appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of limbs and girdles so that you have:

• “4 bones in the shoulder girdle (clavicle and scapula each side).
• 6 bones in the arm and forearm (humerus, ulna, and radius).
• 58 bones in the hands (carpals 16, metacarpals 10, phalanges 28, and sesamoid 4).
• 2 pelvis bones.
• 8 bones in the legs (femur, tibia, patella, and fibula).
• 56 bones in the feet (tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges, and sesamoid)” (“The Axial & Appendicular Skeleton” par. 4).

What would you be without this part of skeleton? Imagine that it is a big 3D puzzle, gathering all these bones together in a right order, you will build your arms and legs with all details. These are all movable parts that allow you to run, dance, write, and even hug your nearest and dearest. Even though the axial skeleton seems to be more important because it is connected with your brain, the appendicular portion of the skeleton contains about 60% of all your bones, which means that its importance should not be undervalued.

As you have already understood, your skeleton maintains a lot of different functions. Some of them, such as movement and support, were already mentioned. But let us discuss them all in detail.

• Support. Your bodies are supported by the skeleton so that you can change your position to vertical one and stand strait. Without it, you would be able only to lie because of the gravitation. This function is provided by many bones but the long ones seem to be the leaders in this competition. For instance, those that are in legs, support the trunk. Similarly, vertebras support one another so that eventually the firs one provides support to the skull. In addition to that, they support the organs and ensure that they do not change their positions.
• Protection. The skeleton also protects you. For example, the skull prevents fatal brain injuries. The rib cage protects such vital organs as the heart and lungs. It also takes care of your abdominal organs ensuring that they develop normally.
• Movement. The function of bodily motion allowed you to come here today. However, it is critical to remember that it is maintained not only due to the bones but also with the help of the muscular system.
• Mineral and energy storage. From the outer side of your bones, there is a tissue that serves as a storage. It gathers calcium and phosphorus and withdraws them to maintain appropriate blood levels. In addition to that, mature bones store yellow marrow. It consists of fat almost totally and provides you with energy for various activities.
• Blood-cell formation. The inner core of your bones takes part in the formation of blood cell and platelet. It is known as bone marrow or red marrow. Platelet is vital for you because it ensures your ability to heal wounds while blood cells spread oxygen and destroy infectious cells (CAERT 3).

Have you ever thought of the way our movement are maintained? Even a simple nod of the head requires the cooperation between the skeletal and muscular systems. Muscles ensure movement of our body through the attachment to the bones. All in all, there are about 700 of them, which is an enormous amount that comprises about 50% of your weight.

So what happens in your body when you moves? When you want to move, your brain sends a message for the body to release energy. In medical terms, it is called adenosine triphosphate. Affecting your muscles, it makes them contract or shorten. Shortened muscles pulls bones at their insertion point. Thus, the angle between the bones connected by a joint shortens. Relaxation is maintained when the opposing muscle extends and pulls a bone to its initial position.

Human skeletons seem to be similar, as they contain the same bones. However, you should remember that their characteristics differ depending on the gender. For example, women have lighter pelvis bones that form a shorter cavity with less dimensions. It has less prominent marking for muscles and more circular pelvic brim. The sacral bones of men are longer and narrower, which makes them more massive. Their femur is also longer and heavier. Its texture is rough unlike women’s smooth.

Muscle marking is more developed and shaft is less oblique. The head of men’s femur is larger and trochanters are more prominent. The femoral neck angle in males is more than 125 and in females is less than 125. Women’s sternum is less than twice the length of manubrium and larger in men. Differences in skull include greater capacity, thicker walls, more marked muscular ridges, prominent air sinuses, smoother upper margin of orbit, less vertical forehead, and heavier cheekbones in males.

Hopefully, it will never affect any of you but the skeleton may be affected by tumours that cause bone defects. People may have skeletal developmental disorders including gigantism, dwarfism, osteogenesis imperfecta, and rickets lead to abnormal body sizes, brittle bones, and growth retardation. Bacterial infections cause inflammation and lead to bone destruction.

Decalcification, including the known to you osteoporosis, reduces bone tissue and softens bones. Joint disorders often deal with inflammation. For instance, arthritis. They are often influenced by age and physical activity. In this way, degradation of joints is observed in the elderly but can be delayed due to regular exercises. The abnormal curvatures of the spine may also cause health issues. That is why you should pay attention to your back posture and avoid kyphosis (a hunchback condition), lordosis (a swayback condition), and scoliosis (an abnormal lateral curvature).

CAERT. Structures and Functions of the Skeletal System . 2014. Web.

Skeletal System: Bones and Joints. 2012. Web.

“ The Axial & Appendicular Skeleton. ” TeachPE , 2017. Web.

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The Musculoskeletal System

Musculoskeletal system anatomy.

The musculoskeletal system provides humans with the ability to move and perform different tasks using their skeletal and muscular systems. Therefore, the body gets its form, movement capability, and overall stability from the strength of its muscular and skeletal formations. The musculoskeletal system (also known as the locomotor system) consists of the skeleton, muscles, and numerous connective tissues, joints, tendons, and ligaments (Boros and Freemont 205). In this way, vital human organs are protected and the body is recurrently supported. The skeleton serves as a reinforcement mechanism that ensures the stability of the body and also guarantees that muscles may keep bones in place. The motion becomes possible owing to the joints and cartilage that prevent bones from touching and destroying one another.

Speaking of the skeletal system in detail, it may be important to mention that it serves as the key “reservoir” for phosphorus and calcium. The bloodstream is regulated by this storage, as excessive amounts of minerals are not fluctuating across the body but rather get stored in bones. The skeleton is also important because it is associated with the hematopoietic system that is responsible for blood production (Boros and Freemont 208). There are two types of bone marrow that are known to humans: red and yellow. The red marrow can be found only in some of the human bones, as it helps replace blood cells that are destroyed by the liver. Therefore, healthy blood circulation would not be possible without red marrow. As for its yellow counterpart, it is mostly addressed in times of starvation due to the fatty connective tissue that can be used by the organism to generate energy.

The muscular system includes all muscles that have the possibility to contract and move the respective bone that is attached to a certain joint. Each of the skeletal muscles is attached to a specific bone, with joints serving as a divider between the opposing groups of muscles (for example, biceps and triceps). Each of the muscles features nerves, as the latter conduct electrical currents that force muscles to contract when necessary (Boros and Freemont 209). Muscle tissue can be of three essential types: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Yet, the musculoskeletal system only includes the first two, as the cardiac muscles are not under conscious human control.

The last part of the human musculoskeletal system is a mix of ligaments, tendons, and joints. The main task of ligaments (bands of white elastic tissue) is to connect the ends of bones and ensure that joints are formed in an accurate manner. Joints, on the other hand, make human movement possible owing to bone articulations. A tendon is another flexible tissue required to connect bones and muscles (Boros and Freemont 211). All these issues are necessary for the musculoskeletal system to prevent hyperextension and limit joint dislocation. An additional type of connective tissue is bursae. The latter is necessary to establish “cushions” between parts of the musculoskeletal system and prevent excessive adhesive friction.

Musculoskeletal System Physiology

From the point of physiology, the main purpose of the muscular system is to establish human movement and help the person in question perform all required tasks in the smoothest way possible. Given the fact that muscles are the only part of the human body that can contract, it means that they are moving all body parts. The second vital function of the muscular system is to maintain a specific body position and create a posture for the person that would keep the organism healthy. Most often, muscle contractions are aimed at causing movement or keeping the body still. As the literature on the subject suggests, the muscles that are responsible for posture are the most enduring and powerful in the entire human body, as they have to maintain an individual’s posture throughout the day with no interruptions (Griffith 324). One more specific function that has to be completed by the muscular system is to move various substances inside the human body. Muscles transport blood from one body part to another while also ensuring that a decent amount of body heat has been generated.

Another physiological point that has to be taken into consideration is the lever-like structure of skeletal muscles that work together with joints and bones. The bone is the lever, the joint is the pivot, and the muscle stands for the effort force. The majority of human body levers relate to third-class levers, meaning that the pivot may only be located at the end of the lever (Griffith 325). The idea behind the third-class levers is that the distance of muscle contraction is always smaller than the distance progressed by the load. The only tradeoff, in this case, is that the force applied to the load should be higher than the mass of the load itself.

The last physiological point related to the human musculoskeletal system is the presence of motor units. A motor unit is a group of muscle cells controlled by nerve cells that are also known as motor neurons. At the moment when a motor neuron accepts a signal from the brain, all muscle cells get stimulated at the same time, allowing the human to perform physical tasks. The variety of motor unit sizes depends on the list of functions that a muscle fulfills. For example, high-precision muscles such as finger- or eye-bound do not contain many muscle fibers in order to help the brain have stronger control of fine movements (Griffith 326). As for the muscles that require more strength, each motor unit contains much more muscle cells to ensure that there is enough power in the legs and arms to perform resource-intensive tasks. This is why the human body controls motor units and limits their activation depending on the complexity of the task (for instance, the same muscles may be used to pick up a 50 lbs. bag and a pen).

Musculoskeletal System Disorders

Carpal tunnel syndrome.

The main issue that causes carpal tunnel syndrome is the pressure applied to the median nerve that causes the latter to compress. The nerve can be found on the palm side of the hand, and it is in control of sensations located in the index finger, thumb, long finger, and a fragment of the ring finger. The syndrome causes an individual’s wrist to swell and affects the carpal tunnel, causing the nerve to compress (Padua et al. 1274). When exposed to carpal tunnel syndrome, a person may feel weakness and numbness near the thumb. One of the main causes for the development of carpal tunnel syndrome is the presence of excessive pressure applied to the wrist and the median nerve in particular. The issue of carpal tunnel syndrome may lead to the obstruction of blood flow as well. There are several frequent conditions that may be associated with the syndrome such as high blood pressure, diabetes, wrist traumas, and autoimmune disorders.

In the case where the wrist gets overextended from time to time, carpal tunnel syndrome may get even worse. The median nerve gets even more compressed, and repeated motions generate even more swelling. One of the most common reasons for the development of carpal tunnel syndrome is incorrect hand positioning during the utilization of computer keyboard and mouse. Nevertheless, piano players may also be exposed to the risk of carpal tunnel syndrome due to constant wrist overextension. It is important to mention that women are at least 30% more likely to suffer from carpal tunnel syndrome, with lifestyle factors having the biggest influence on the potential outcomes of the condition (Padua et al. 1276). People employed as construction workers or those who take on keyboarding occupations are at a much higher risk of exposing themselves to carpal tunnel syndrome.

Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis is a chronic joint condition that affects the cartilage and forces bones to rub together. Even though this condition is most likely to affect the elderly, it may also be found in adults of any age. Another name for osteoarthritis is the degenerative joint disease, and it is known as one of the leading causes of disability (da Costa et al. 23). Joint damage that forces the development of osteoarthritis may be a result of accumulated injuries. If a person had dislocated joints or torn cartilage in the past, they are at risk for the development of osteoarthritis as well. There are additional hazards that include obesity and poor posture.

Speaking of the association between osteoarthritis and cartilage, the breakdown of the latter may easily cause bones to rub against each other, making bones rougher and bumpier. Broken cartilage generates enormous pain within joints and cannot restore itself. The problem is that there are no blood vessels in cartilage, forcing bone-on-bone contact over time (da Costa et al. 27). Most commonly, osteoarthritis affects the knees, hands, fingertips, and lower back. Advanced osteoarthritis causes even more acute pain that may also be accompanied by swelling in the nearby joints and surrounding body parts.

When tendons get damaged by inflammation or irritation, it ultimately causes the condition called tendinitis. Tendons become tender and the individual starts feeling acute pain that averts them from moving affected joints. The most common body parts at risk of development of tendinitis are wrists, knees, elbows, and shoulders (Verstraelen et al. 425). The main cause of this condition is the presence of a specific repetitive action that puts a strain on a certain tendon that gets worn down quicker, especially in the case where the motion is performed the wrong way. Frequently, individuals develop tendinitis while working or playing sports. The highest level of risk is characteristic of professional basketball, tennis, and golf athletes.

There are numerous symptoms that could be investigated by any given person and help them prevent further development of tendinitis. Firstly, there will be a dull ache around the affected area. The pain is going to increase during movements involving the injured body part (Verstraelen et al. 425). The damaged zone will become tender and limit the person’s movements due to increased tightness. Swelling is also an important sign of tendinitis, and it may be recommended to visit the doctor if the symptoms did not go away after reasonable rest and application of ice.

Musculoskeletal System Disorder Treatments

Carpal tunnel syndrome should be treated during the earlier stages in order for the treatments to be most effective. The most common recommendations include taking more breaks during work and avoiding activities that cause damage to the wrists. As for the medical approach to carpal tunnel syndrome, there are three general ways to treat it: medications, surgery, and wrist splinting. The latter is most likely to help in the case where symptoms did not exceed either mild or moderate. If a person has numbness in their hands, this is a serious reason to see the doctor. Wrist splinting is one of the most popular nonsurgical methods of dealing with carpal tunnel syndrome, as it may be used to fix a patient’s wrists during the night and relieve the sensations of numbness and tingling (Kleopa 3). Even though carpal tunnel syndrome splints are only worn during the nighttime, they could also serve as a preventive mechanism for daytime symptoms. For pregnant patients, nighttime splinting is the best option because it does not involve any medications but still tends to be effective.

The pain from carpal tunnel syndrome may be effectively relieved by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen, for example (Motrin IB or Advil). There is no practical evidence in the literature that these drugs may improve carpal tunnel syndrome, but there are also corticosteroids that could be injected to relieve pain with the help of cortisone. After the inoculation, the contents may be guided with an ultrasound. The main benefit of corticosteroids within the framework of carpal tunnel syndrome consists in the ability to decrease swelling and reduce the pressure applied to the median nerve (Kleopa 6). There are also oral corticosteroids, but they are not as effective as their injected counterparts. If carpal tunnel syndrome is a comorbid condition for rheumatoid arthritis, for example, it would be reasonable to treat arthritis first to relieve the symptoms of the syndrome.

Surgery is another viable option in the case of carpal tunnel syndrome but it is only appropriate when other treatments do not help. The main objective of surgery with carpal tunnel syndrome is to cut the ligament that compresses the median nerve. There are two essential techniques used to perform surgery on carpal tunnel syndrome: endoscopic and open. Throughout endoscopic surgery, the surgeon tries to look inside the patient’s carpal tunnel with the help of a tiny camera attached to a stick. Instead of the endoscope, some surgeons may use ultrasound to guide the process of cutting the ligament (Kleopa 7). Open surgery, on the other hand, suggests that the surgeon is going to cut open the patient’s palm to free the nerve by cutting the pressing ligament.

Even though the effects of osteoarthritis cannot be overturned, there are several methods of reducing pain in the patients and relieving some of the symptoms (with pain being the leading cause for applying any particular treatments). The first type of required medication is acetaminophen (for instance, Tylenol) that is expected to help those patients who only display mild to moderate symptoms of osteoarthritis. The doctor should carefully monitor the intake of acetaminophen, as improper dosage could lead to liver damage. Other types of medications are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs that may be gained over the counter. These include ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB) or naproxen sodium (Aleve) (Bruyere et al. 182). Recommended dosages could easily relieve the symptoms of osteoarthritis and reduce pain. Nevertheless, patients should be careful with this type of medication as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs could cause kidney damage and generate cardiovascular problems. The last type of medication expected to relieve the symptoms of osteoarthritis is an antidepressant such as duloxetine (Cymbalta), for example, which may be helpful when dealing with chronic conditions.

Another conservative type of treatment for osteoarthritis is physical therapy that may be used to strengthen the patient’s muscles and reduce pain by increasing muscle flexibility. Regular exercises could lead to positive results, as the patient would gently increase their strength (Bruyere et al. 183). Another type of therapy is named occupational due to the ability of the patient to find ways to cause less damage to their joints when performing everyday tasks.

In the case where conformist treatments are not helpful, it may be recommended to perform special injections. The first type is cortisone injection that may be used to reduce joint pain and reduce swelling in the area. As the area around the joint is numbed by the doctor, medication is injected within the joint. There is a limited number of injections that may be performed annually (usually not more than four) due to the increased risk of damaging the joint (Bruyere et al. 184). Another type of injection involves lubricants such as hyaluronic acid that may be used to develop a cushion in the patient’s knee and alleviate the effects of osteoarthritis. While the existing research suggests that lubrication injections could be a placebo, hyaluronic acid is still deemed to be a helpful component in treating osteoarthritis.

The main objective of tendinitis treatment is to make sure that inflammation is reduced together with the amount of pain. Even though rest and application of ice may be enough for certain patients to treat tendinitis in home conditions, there may be cases that require more specific attention and additional medications. The first category of medications is pain relievers that may include (but not be limited to) aspirin, ibuprofen (Motrin IB or Advil), and naproxen sodium (Aleve) (Krey et al. 82). All of these might be expected to dismiss the feeling of discomfort and help patients restore their regular condition. Another potentially effective method is to apply anti-inflammatory topical creams that are currently becoming much more popular across the United States due to their success in terms of relieving pain and the lack of potential side effects.

One more treatment method may be the application of corticosteroid medications that would be used to ease the pain and reduce inflammation in the damaged areas. Corticosteroid injections around the necessary tendons could only be helpful if the condition was not lasting for more than three months. In the case where the patient suffers from chronic tendinitis, repetitive injections could deteriorate the tendon and create premises for tendon rupture (Krey et al. 84). The ultimate tendonitis treatment is the application of platelet-rich plasma that is expected to help the organism separate healing factors and the platelets. The solution is inoculated into the area of irritation to reduce the symptoms of chronic tendonitis. Even though there is not enough evidence regarding the methods of optimal use of platelet-rich plasma, there is a tendency in tendonitis treatment to reduce chronic irritation with the help of platelet injections.

Works Cited

Boros, Katalin, and Tony Freemont. “Physiology of Ageing of the Musculoskeletal System.” Best Practice & Research Clinical Rheumatology , vol. 31, no. 2, 2017, pp. 203-217.

Bruyere, Olivier, et al. “Can We Identify Patients with High Risk of Osteoarthritis Progression Who Will Respond to Treatment? A Focus on Epidemiology and Phenotype of Osteoarthritis.” Drugs & Aging , vol. 32, no. 3, 2015, pp. 179-187.

da Costa, Bruno R., et al. “Effectiveness of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs for the Treatment of Pain in Knee and Hip Osteoarthritis: A Network Meta-Analysis.” The Lancet , vol. 390, no. 10090, 2017, pp. 21-33.

Griffith, James F. “Functional Imaging of the Musculoskeletal System.” Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery , vol. 5, no. 3, 2015, pp. 323-331.

Kleopa, Kleopas A. “Carpal Tunnel Syndrome.” Annals of Internal Medicine , vol. 163, no. 5, 2015, pp. 1-16.

Krey, David, et al. “Tendon Needling for Treatment of Tendinopathy: A Systematic Review.” The Physician and Sportsmedicine , vol. 43, no. 1, 2015, pp. 80-86.

Padua, Luca, et al. “Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: Clinical Features, Diagnosis, and Management.” The Lancet Neurology , vol. 15, no. 12, 2016, pp. 1273-1284.

Verstraelen, Freek U., et al. “Surgery for Calcifying Tendinitis of the Shoulder: A Systematic Review.” World Journal of Orthopedics , vol. 8, no. 5, 2017, pp. 424-430.

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Critical Thinking Questions

Explain how the enteric nervous system supports the digestive system. What might occur that could result in the autonomic nervous system having a negative impact on digestion?

What layer of the alimentary canal tissue is capable of helping to protect the body against disease, and through what mechanism?

Offer a theory to explain why segmentation occurs and peristalsis slows in the small intestine.

It has been several hours since you last ate. Walking past a bakery, you catch a whiff of freshly baked bread. What type of reflex is triggered, and what is the result?

The composition of saliva varies from gland to gland. Discuss how saliva produced by the parotid gland differs in action from saliva produced by the sublingual gland.

During a hockey game, the puck hits a player in the mouth, knocking out all eight of his most anterior teeth. Which teeth did the player lose and how does this loss affect food ingestion?

What prevents swallowed food from entering the airways?

Explain the mechanism responsible for gastroesophageal reflux.

Describe the three processes involved in the esophageal phase of deglutition.

Explain how the stomach is protected from self-digestion and why this is necessary.

Describe unique anatomical features that enable the stomach to perform digestive functions.

Explain how nutrients absorbed in the small intestine pass into the general circulation.

Why is it important that chyme from the stomach is delivered to the small intestine slowly and in small amounts?

Describe three of the differences between the walls of the large and small intestines.

Why does the pancreas secrete some enzymes in their inactive forms, and where are these enzymes activated?

Describe the location of hepatocytes in the liver and how this arrangement enhances their function.

Explain the role of bile salts and lecithin in the emulsification of lipids (fats).

How is vitamin B 12 absorbed?

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