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Philosophical Papers and Review

• Abbreviation: Philos. Papers Rev
• Language: English
• ISSN: 2141-663X
• DOI: 10.5897/PPR
• Start Year: 2009
• Published Articles: 44
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• Articles In Press

Sri Aurobindo’s Yogic Vision of ‘Electron’ as a Form of Consciousness and the ‘Probability Wave’ of the Quantum Theory

July-December 2023 - Vol 11 Num. 2

On a very high plane of yogic consciousness, Sri Aurobindo has discovered consciousness to be the ‘fundamental thing in existence’. It is the consciousness which arranges itself to come into the forms of ‘electron, atom, and material existence’. Such yogic discovery comes into the vision of the...

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July-December 2023

Nikhil Kumar

• https://doi.org/10.5897/PPR2023.0242
• Article Number: 3D36B3D71387

Purism: Desire as the Ultimate Value, Part Two – An Appeal to Intuition

• https://doi.org/10.5897/PPR2022.0222
• Article Number: 743AFDF71308

Purism: Desire as the Ultimate Value, Part One – An Appeal to Logical Reason

January-June 2023

• https://doi.org/10.5897/PPR2022.0221
• Article Number: C53B7FA70356

As History Beckons: Expectations from Fiji’s upcoming Budget and Election- 2022

July-December 2022

Gosai Sharnit S. 

• https://doi.org/10.5897/PPR2022.0209
• Article Number: 94E52F670150

Multiple spatialities, temporalities, and gender identities

January-June 2022

Zaouga Amel 

• https://doi.org/10.5897/PPR2022.0206
• Article Number: A1EB3F969331

September 2013

Determining the determined state: A sizing of size from aside/the amassing of mass by a mass

Marvin E. Kirsh

• https://doi.org/10.5897/PPR12.026
• Article Number: 51B4FE541410

August 2013

Krishna – the catalyst for emancipation

Bibhu Prasad Rath

• https://doi.org/10.5897/PPR2013.100
• Article Number: 7ACC4DD562

The structure of scientific revolutions (Thomas S. Kuhn, 1970, 2nd ed. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press Ltd. 210 pages)

Solomon Melesse

• https://doi.org/10.5897/PPR2013.0102
• Article Number: 4C50D4341409

Ethical views of Ibn miskawayh and Aquinas

Hamid Reza Alavi

• https://doi.org/10.5897/PPR.9000004
• Article Number: E3D5CF4262

Disquieting tendencies towards the pulverization of social reality-The Venezuelan case

Francisco Rodríguez

• https://doi.org/10.5897/PPR10.015
• Article Number: 5BFFDAB564

November 2009

The being of culture: beyond representation

Alec McHoul

• https://doi.org/10.5897/PPR.9000012
• Article Number: 0D85CE5308

The philosophy behind some Adinkra symbols and their communicative values in Akan

J. E. T. Kuwornu-Adjaottor, George Appiah and Melvin Nartey

• https://doi.org/10.5897/PPR2015.0117
• Article Number: A5A4C6E58407

Does submission to a deity relieve depression? Illustrations from the book of Job and the Bhagavad Gita

J. S. Price and R. Gardner, Jr

• https://doi.org/10.5897/PPR.9000003
• Article Number: 228CB82281

Varieties of representationalism and their approach to sensory experience

Kevin Kimble

• https://doi.org/10.5897/PPR12.025
• Article Number: 62F17B843664
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• Philosophical Papers: Volumes 1 & 2

Philosophical Papers: Volumes 1 & 2

Peter Unger, Philosophical Papers: Volumes 1 & 2 , Oxford University Press, 2006, 317 + 367pp., $55.00 + $55.00 (hbk), ISBN 0195155521 (vol 1), 0195301587 (vol 2).

Reviewed by Neil E. Williams, University at Buffalo

Peter Unger's Philosophical Papers brings together essays spanning the full extent of Unger's illustrious career of nearly 40 years (so far). Famous for his radical views, these are the collected papers of a philosophical cowboy: Unger is the furthest thing from conventional, bucking tradition at every turn and carving out his own wild path. This collection traces that path, from the early claims that for every human being there is hardly anything (if anything at all) she knows, to the nihilistic rejection of ordinary objects, through to Unger's denial of his own existence (as well as that of you and me), onto doubts about philosophical method and examples, past (mild) disapproval of our ethical choices, into worries about our presently dominant scientific metaphysic, all ending up with the suggestion that perhaps the only way to be genuinely free is to adopt Cartesian-style substantial dualism. All this, and more, presented in a highly accessible non-technical style that is incredibly insightful and imaginative, and yet humorous and light-hearted throughout.

Though not all of Unger's essays appear in the collection, the two volumes contain 20 essays and 2 book symposia. Nothing substantial has been newly written for the collection, and even the introduction makes no attempt to be "intellectually ambitious". (Unger amusingly suggests that his introduction might just as well have been a James Carville inspired statement: "It's the papers, stupid!".) The essays are arranged thematically: each volume is divided into 4 parts using Unger's book-length works as a rough guide to their grouping. For instance, in the first part of volume 1 the reader is presented with five essays concerning scepticism and knowledge, four that predate and one that follows Unger's defence of scepticism in Ignorance . The parts are then titled accordingly, so that the reader is aware of how the essays in the relevant section are most clearly connected to the topics of the connected books in question. Unger has major works on ethics, language, mind, metaphysics and epistemology; here we find the shorter works that lead up to, into, beneath, and beyond, those longer works.

By arranging things in this way, the reader gets an excellent sense of how the Ungerian corpus is neatly interwoven, a feature of the collection I very much like. Consequently these volumes might be best read alongside Unger's full length works (Unger somewhat shamelessly notes in the introduction that those who find all or some of the essays in Philosophical Papers of interest are welcomed to seek out the associated books, all available -- we are told -- with aesthetically pleasing matched covers), but there's certainly no need to read those other books to understand, or enjoy, the essays in this collection. Unger also includes a chronological list of the papers in the collection, allowing for a sense of transition and development along with the connections.

By way of a simple breakdown of the two volumes, the first volume tends to include essays on epistemology, relativism and ethics, whereas the second is almost exclusively metaphysics. I'll proceed now with a more detailed breakdown and synopsis. That said, I'll mention most of the essays, but I can only discuss a few of them more critically.

Vol. 1 Part i. Skepticism, Nihilism and Scepticism: Before and Beyond Ignorance

The first part of volume one consists of the aforementioned five epistemological essays on knowledge and scepticism. Four of the five essays have as their conclusion some form of global scepticism. Though each takes a different path to that conclusion, Unger consistently treats knowledge as having very high standards, making it very hard (or even impossible) to attain. Though treatments that put a very high standard on knowledge are not currently popular (if ever they were), Unger's sceptical essays are required reading for anyone interested in epistemology.

Vol. 1 Part ii. Comprehending and Transcending Stultifying Common Sense

Two of the three essays in this section are so tightly connected one might think of them as two halves of a much larger essay. "The Causal Theory of Reference" and "Toward a Psychology of Common Sense" both concern our responses to philosophical examples and how any semantic theory ought to be part of a larger more general psychological theory. The first essay starts out as an attack on the causal theory of reference as it applies to ordinary terms like 'cat' or 'gold', but moves into a more general discussion of examples, intuitions and philosophical practice. The second essay starts with a similar discussion of philosophical practice, but moves onto a preliminary sketch of Unger's "Psychological Approach" according to which philosophical examples do not aid in supporting one view or another (of our semantics, say), but rather are treated as little experiments for determining our relative strength of powerful beliefs.

Vol 1. Part iii. Knowledge, Ethics, Contexts: Shades of a Philosophical Relativity

"The Cone Model of Knowledge" and "Contextual Analysis in Ethics" each promotes roughly contextualist positions in the areas of epistemology and ethics, respectively. Neither, however, is offered as a solution to any sort of problem. In the first essay, Unger gives an incredibly complex 'model' of knowledge. It is not, he insists, to be taken as an analysis, as analyses tend to give lists of necessary and sufficient conditions. Though Unger includes certain aspects required for knowledge, they are part of a geographical structure for knowledge and can be satisfied to lesser or greater degrees. Instances of knowledge are situated at different locations on the cone according to the relative strength of the aspects (themselves considered in terms of context); under the high context or standards required to counter global scepticism, all aspects must be as high as they can be (such instances are located at the top of the cone).

Vol 1. Part iv. Defending and Transcending Living High and Letting Die

The final part of volume 1 is a 1999 book symposium on Unger's incredibly popular Living High and Letting Die: Our Illusion of Innocence . Along with a précis of the book, Unger responds to criticism from Brad Hooker, Peter Singer, Thomas Pogge and Fred Feldman. As it turns out, Unger's replies are no more responses to the objections raised than they are attempts to extend some of the main arguments of the book into areas not considered in the book, making them vehicles for the expression of new ideas, and not just restatements of old ones.

That said, I find this symposium to be the least satisfying part of the collection. To my mind, the point of publishing books like Philosophical Papers is to have a group of essays, that are otherwise strewn about the literature, neatly and conveniently collected in one place (or two in this case). For the most part, that's what these volumes do. However, with the symposia we get only half the picture. Unger's writings are presented in full, but the writings of the other contributors (that is, the criticisms Unger is responding to), are omitted. Hence if you're genuinely interested in the exchange, you're going to have to go elsewhere to find the other half of the story, not at all neat or convenient. Nor can those criticisms be reconstructed from Unger's replies: typical of such symposia, limited space demands brevity, so the replies mostly cut to the chase. Perhaps worse still is that Unger's précis leans heavily on his commentators: he indicates that they've done such a good job clearly presenting the central content of the book that he doesn't have to, leaving the present collection with just the thinnest description of the book.

Vol 2. Part i. Three Studies for a Book that Wasn't

Within metaphysical circles, Unger is famous for his nihilism. Few are those philosophers before him who have been so brave as to affirm that much of the world did not exist; none have gone as far as Unger, claiming that even he does not exist. The three essays that make up this section are all directed at very similar conclusions, and are all developed in similar ways. In fact, though each has an ever so slightly different conclusion, and each offers slightly different (and quite interesting) tangential discussion, I think there is too much repetition in these essays to warrant reproducing them all in the present collection. In spite of the overall importance to contemporary metaphysics, we could have made do with just one or two of them, and used the space for some other of Unger's interesting work. It is no help to the charge of redundancy that all three appeared in print in the same year (1979), so it's not as if we're getting different thoughts from different times with changing influences or goals.

Nevertheless, redundancy aside, these are some of the best essays in the collection. The central idea is a simple piece of sorites reasoning: no physical object (a table, or rock, or swizzle stick) is such that the net removal from it of one or two atoms (or molecules, or specks) is such that this should mean the difference between its existing or not. However, as that same (table, rock, swizzle stick) is made of finitely many such atoms, the innocuous step-wise removal of one or two atoms will eventually leave us with nothing at all. One or two atoms, or none at all, are not a (table, rock, swizzle stick). But the thought that there is any stage at which removing one or two atoms makes something no longer be a (table, rock, swizzle stick) is incredible and completely unbelievable, so we have no choice but to give up our belief that there are (tables, rocks, swizzle sticks). With a little more massaging we can add 'person' to that list -- then it follows that neither you, nor I, nor Peter Unger, exists.

Vol 2. Part ii. Many Material Mysteries: Without All the Power in the World

Perhaps as famous as Unger's sorites-based nihilism are the nihilistic conclusions of his "The Problem of the Many." Using the example of a cloud, Unger argues that if the rough collection of droplets that make up a cloud counts as an instance of a cloud, then so should the quadrillion or so other entities that are roughly co-located and differ only by a droplet or two. If there is one cloud, there are numerous -- and this, thinks Unger, means we should give up on there being clouds. As rocks and tables are rather like clouds of atoms, they are out too.

In the final essay in this section, "The Mystery of the Physical and the Matter of Qualities," we get Unger's first foray into 'Scientificalism' -- Unger's name for the presently dominant largely scientific metaphysic. A number of Unger's most recent essays in the collection concern Scientificalism in one way or another; sometimes he is doing his best to flesh out the view, most of the time he poses problems for the compatibility of Scientificalism with freedom or survival. Unger's aim in this essay is to give an account of physical reality, arguing that something like (but not much like) our experience of phenomenal colour must be present in the matter that makes up the world. Unger takes basic physical objects to have three sorts of property: the aforementioned Qualities , Propensities (which are effectively intrinsic causal powers) and Spatials (which are properties as to locations within time and space). According to Unger, without the Qualities , matter simply wouldn't be apt for the occupation of space.

Unger's treatment of physical reality is quite intriguing (if not ingenious), and though I find myself sympathetic to the kinds of properties he argues for, I can find no good reason to support what he calls the "Principle of Contingency (of Relation among the Basic Properties)." The principle is that there can be no necessary connections between which Quality , Propensity , or Spatial properties an object might have. His argument is a conceivability argument: even with similar masses, quantity of matter, and propensities, a physical object might have any of the Qualities : red, blue, grey, gold, silver.

I think we should be generally suspect of conceivability arguments, but even on Unger's own terms I can't see this principle holding. For starters, it has a deeply Humean feel to it, an odd thing to couple with a very anti-Humean metaphysic. It gets worse when we include more of Unger's own view. In supporting the existence of the Qualities , he provides them with a more central role by claiming that some Propensities might be directed towards them. For instance, a 'blue' object might have the propensity to spin 'yellow' objects. He also argues (albeit in a later essay, but as part of the same metaphysic) that the Propensities are reciprocal in nature: if 'blue' objects have the propensity to spin 'yellow' objects, then 'yellow' objects must have the propensity to be spun by 'blue' objects. Finally, Unger claims that having a Propensity does not require that the reciprocal interaction partners (a 'blue' spinner if you are a 'yellow') ever actually interact. Taken together, this seems to demand a necessary relation between the properties, for how can something be a 'yellow' object, and not have the Propensity to be spun by the 'blue' spinners?

Vol 2. Part iii. Defending and Transcending Identity, Consciousness and Value

Here we find the second book symposium, this time for Identity, Consciousness, and Value , and though it too offers some new insights, it has (almost) all the same failings of the previous symposium. The major difference is that this time the précis is more complete. The commentaries, however, are still missing. Located with the second book symposium is "The Survival of the Sentient," a sort of follow up to the book in light of some more forceful 'Biological' approaches to personal identity that seek to counter Unger's 'Psychological' account.

Vol 2. Part iv. True Causes and Real Choices: Still Without All the Power in the World

In the collection's final essay, "Free Will and Scientificalism", Unger argues that the dominant 'Scientifical' metaphysic leaves no room whatsoever for freedom. After further fleshing out the Scientifical account, Unger argues that its incompatibility with freedom is a major blow to the account. Claiming that we'd be hard pressed to give up entirely on either free will or Scientificalism, Unger speculates on ways that Scientificalism might be adjusted to make way for real choosing. His solution is that we might need to endorse some form of radical emergentism of the mental, if not a full blown Cartesian substantial dualism.

Trump special counsel fires back at Cannon order that could disrupt case

Prosecutor says judge’s legal premise on presidential records act ‘is wrong,’ urges her to rule in classified documents case so he can appeal.

Special counsel Jack Smith warned the judge overseeing Donald Trump ’s classified documents case that she is pursuing a legal premise that “is wrong” and said he would probably appeal to a higher court if she rules that a federal records law can protect the former president from prosecution.

In a late-night legal filing Tuesday, Smith’s office pushed back hard against an unusual instruction from U.S. District Judge Aileen M. Cannon — one that veteran national security lawyers and former judges have said badly misinterprets the Presidential Records Act and laws related to classified documents.

Smith’s filing represents the most stark and high-stakes confrontation yet between the judge and the prosecutor, illustrating the extent to which a ruling by Cannon that legitimizes the PRA as a defense could eviscerate the historic case, one of four Trump is facing as he again runs for president. The special counsel repeatedly said that he probably would appeal such a ruling, potentially delaying the classified documents trial well beyond November’s presidential election.

Last month, Cannon ordered defense lawyers and prosecutors in the case to submit hypothetical jury instructions based on two different, and very much contested, readings of the PRA.

In response, Smith said Cannon was pursuing a “fundamentally flawed legal premise” that the law somehow overrides Section 793 of the Espionage Act, which Trump is accused of violating by stashing hundreds of classified documents at Mar-a-Lago, his Florida home and private club, after his presidency ended.

“That legal premise is wrong, and a jury instruction for Section 793 that reflects that premise would distort the trial,” Smith wrote. The Presidential Records Act, he said, “should not play any role at trial at all.”

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Smith’s filing was unusual in that prosecutors rarely seek direct confrontations with judges overseeing their case; it makes clear he sees significant potential danger for his prosecution from Cannon’s approach to the PRA issue. How Cannon, a Trump nominee who has been on the bench since late 2020, responds will be critical.

If she rules against Smith, he could appeal. If she retreats from the disputed legal premise, the issue could fade into the background as she decides a pretrial hearing schedule and sets a trial date.

Cannon has been slow to make a number of decisions, even as prosecutors have urged her to move quickly, and it’s possible that on this issue too, she simply takes her time. In the meantime, Trump is scheduled to stand trial starting April 15 in a New York state case accusing him of falsifying business records to cover up a hush money payment during the 2016 election. Two other criminal cases , related to Trump’s alleged efforts to block Joe Biden’s 2020 election victory, are mired in pretrial proceedings and appeals.

Tuesday night’s filing urged Cannon to rule quickly on whether the Presidential Records Act is relevant to the case, so that prosecutors can appeal any such determination to a higher court before the Florida trial, which is delayed from its original late May start date but has not yet been rescheduled.

Smith has said the records act has nothing to do with the national security crimes Trump is accused of committing — a view backed by many legal experts, who have said a ruling in Trump’s favor would open the door for future presidents to claim personal ownership of national defense secrets. Waiting until the trial is underway to rule on the issue, Smith warned, could doom the prosecution’s case before it ever gets to a jury.

“If the Court were to defer a decision on that fundamental legal question it would inject substantial delay into the trial and, worse, prevent the government from seeking review before jeopardy attaches,” he wrote.

Even as he questioned the premise of Cannon’s order, Smith complied, offering proposed jury instructions for the two legal scenarios she outlined. Smith’s proffered language, however, was couched in a kind of lawyerly attack on Cannon’s legal analysis.

“[E]ven if an individual holds a security clearance and has a need to know classified information, the individual’s possession of the classified information is unauthorized if the individual removes the classified information from a secure facility or possesses the information outside of a secure facility,” Smith wrote in the proposed jury instruction.

“I instruct you, however, that, as to a former President, even if he lacks a security clearance, lacks a need to know classified information, and stores information outside of a secure facility, he is authorized to do so if the classified information is contained within a ‘personal record,’ within the meaning of the Presidential Records Act (PRA).”

Trump has pleaded not guilty to 32 charges of violating the Espionage Act, with each count corresponding to a specific classified document that he is alleged to have retained after leaving office, as well as eight additional charges of obstructing government efforts to retrieve the materials. His lawyers argue that the former president had the authority under the PRA to declare even highly classified documents to be his personal records and property.

Prosecutors and legal experts have said such claims badly misstate the law, which says that presidential records belong to the public and are to be turned over to the National Archives and Records Administration at the end of a presidency. Legal experts say Cannon’s focus on jury instructions seems odd at this stage of the process because a trial is not imminent and the judge still has a number of decisions to make in the pretrial proceedings before the instructions are relevant. They also say the premise of Cannon’s orders indulged some mangled interpretations of laws that have been pushed by Trump’s lawyers and supporters.

Trump’s team said in its own late-night filing that Cannon’s assignment is consistent with Trump’s position that the “prosecution is based on official acts” he took as president — not illegal retention of materials.

The judge told lawyers to write jury instructions for two legal interpretations. Legal experts said she could use those instructions to help inform her eventual ruling on a request that Trump made to dismiss the case because the PRA allowed him to designate any presidential record as personal.

In one scenario, Cannon asked them to craft jury instructions that assume the PRA allows presidents to designate any documents as personal at the end of a presidency — which is what Trump’s legal team has argued he had the authority to do. She then said they should also write separate jury instructions predicated on the idea that jurors would be able to determine which of the documents Trump is accused of illegally retaining are personal and which are presidential.

The government has said it is the Espionage Act — not the PRA — that guards classified materials. Trump is not charged with violating the PRA, and prosecutors said throughout their filing that the PRA should not be in those instructions.

“The PRA’s distinction between personal and presidential records has no bearing on whether a former President’s possession of documents containing national defense information is authorized under the Espionage Act, and the PRA should play no role in the jury instructions,” Smith wrote. “Indeed, based on the current record, the PRA should not play any role at trial at all.”

In their proposed jury instructions, Trump’s attorneys leaned into their argument that the former president had the ultimate authority to determine the designation of the documents that he is accused of illegally retaining.

“You heard evidence during the trial that President Trump exercised that authority, at times verbally and at times without using formal procedures, while he was President,” Trump’s legal team wrote in the hypothetical jury instructions . “I instruct you that those declassification decisions are examples of valid and legally appropriate uses of President Trump’s declassification authority while he was President of the United States.”

Cannon held a hearing over a month ago to determine a new date for the classified documents trial. Prosecutors sought a date in early July, while Trump’s lawyers asked to wait until after the election or to start in August at the earliest. The judge has not yet ruled.

She issued her jury instruction order a few days after a different hearing, held March 14, at which she heard arguments on two of Trump’s motions to toss out the case.

One motion said the case should be dismissed because the PRA meant that Trump could simply declare highly classified documents to be his personal property and keep them at Mar-a-Lago. Cannon has not yet ruled on that motion.

Hours after the hearing, she rejected Trump’s other motion to dismiss. It argued that the Espionage Act , which has been used for decades to convict others of improperly possessing classified documents, was too vaguely worded to be used in his indictment.

More on the Trump classified documents indictment

The latest: Federal prosecutors have asked a judge to push back Donald Trump’s classified documents trial in Florida to July 8, probably after the Supreme Court rules on his claim of presidential immunity, while Trump’s lawyers are trying again to delay the trial until after the presidential election.

The case: The criminal investigation looks into whether Trump took government secrets with him after he left the White House and obstructed a subsequent investigation. Trump has pleaded not guilty . Here’s what to know about the classified documents case .

The charges: Trump faces 40 separate charges in the documents case. Read the full text of the superseding indictment against Trump and our top takeaways from the indictmen t .

Can Trump still run for president? While it has never been attempted by a candidate from a major party before, Trump is allowed to run for president while under indictment in four cases — or even if he is convicted of a crime. Here’s how Trump’s indictment could affect the election .

• Judge Cannon shoots down Trump’s presidential records act claim 17 minutes ago Judge Cannon shoots down Trump’s presidential records act claim 17 minutes ago
• Jack Smith puts Judge Aileen Cannon on notice April 3, 2024 Jack Smith puts Judge Aileen Cannon on notice April 3, 2024
• Trump special counsel fires back at Cannon order that could disrupt case April 3, 2024 Trump special counsel fires back at Cannon order that could disrupt case April 3, 2024

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