essay about water in nepali

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पानी को बारेमा निबन्ध(essay on water in nepali) pani ko barema nibandha

सबै विद्यार्थीहरुको लागि पानी को बारेमा निबन्ध( essay on water in nepali ) pani ko barema nibandha 150, 200, 250, 300, 500 शब्दमा दिएको छ।

पानी को बारेमा निबन्ध( essay on water in nepali ) pani ko barema nibandha

निबन्ध 1

पानी को बारेमा निबन्ध 150 शब्दमा | essay on water in nepali 150 words | pani ko barema nibandha 150 shabdama

पानी भनेको के हो भन्नाले जीवन बचाउने विश्वव्यापी विलायक पृथ्वीमा जीवित प्राणीहरूको अस्तित्वको लागि सबैभन्दा महत्त्वपूर्ण तत्व हो। नेपाल जल स्रोतमा दोस्रो स्थानमा रहेको छ। पानी प्राय: पदार्थको तीन अवस्थामा पाइन्छ, अर्थात् तरल, ठोस र ग्यास। पानीका सबै तीन प्रकारहरू मानव जातिको अस्तित्वको लागि महत्त्वपूर्ण छ। पानी, एक गैर-नवीकरणीय स्रोत भएकोले पुनःपूर्तिको कुनै स्रोत बिना नै द्रुत दरमा खस्कँदैछ। पिउने पानीलाई पुनः भरिपूर्ण गर्न र पुन: उत्पन्न गर्न सकिन्छ भन्ने एक मात्र तरिका वातावरणमा स्वस्थ पानी चक्र मार्फत हो। यो जलचक्र राम्रोसँग कायम राख्न मानव जातिले प्राकृतिक चक्र जंगल, कोइला र प्राकृतिक ग्यासको उपयोग गरी जीवनको चक्रलाई कुनै हानि नगरी उपयोग गर्न सिक्नु पर्छ। पानीले सतही जनावरहरू, बोटबिरुवाहरु , जलीय बोट र जनावरहरूका सम्पुर्ण जीवनका सबै रूपहरूलाई समर्थन गर्दछ। जल स्रोत यस बोटमा भएका सबै प्राणीहरूको स्वामित्वमा छ र मानिसहरू पानीको लोभमा स्वार्थी हुनु हुँदैन। ठुला बाध र मानव निर्मित जलाशयहरूको अनियोजित निर्माणले प्राकृतिक जीवनशैलीमा सबैलाई पानीको वास्तविक चक्रलाई असर गरेको छ। यसले विश्वको विभिन्न भागहरुमा व्यापक खडेरी र बाढी ल्याएको छ। पानीको कुशलतापूर्वक प्रयोग गर्न सबै मानिसहरु एकसाथ आउनुपर्दछ र जीवनको प्राकृतिक चक्रमा आफूलाई डुबाउनु हुँदैन र प्रकृति आफैंमा सफल हुन दिनुहोस्। निबन्ध 2

पानी को बारेमा निबन्ध 200 शब्दमा | essay on water in nepali 200 words | pani ko barema nibandha 200 shabdama

पानी पृथ्वीमा सबै जीवित प्राणीहरूको लागि आवश्यक छ। कुनै पशु बोटबिना पानी बिना बाँच्न सक्दैन। मरुभूमिमा बस्ने जनावरहरूलाई पनि शरीरको शारीरिक प्रक्रिया गर्न पानीको आवश्यकता पर्छ। त्यसैले हामी भन्न सक्छौं पानी हामीले सास फेर्ने हावा जत्तिकै महत्त्वपूर्ण छ। त्यस्तो अवस्थामा हामीले आफूलाई वास्तवमै भाग्यशाली मान्नु पर्छ किनकि हामी त्यस्तो देशको नागरिक हौं जुनसँग यसको सिमाना भित्र हजार भन्दा बढी नदी र प्रवाह छ। यद्यपि, वास्तविकताले हामीलाई त्यसका बारे उत्साहित हुन सुझाव दिँदैन किनकि पानीको अभाव एकै समयमा हामीले भोगिरहेको एक जल समस्या हो। यो धेरै विडम्बनापूर्ण छ कि हामीले त्यस तरिकाले बाँच्नु पर्छ। यस समस्याको मुख्य पीडितहरू राजधानी शहरमा बसोबास गर्ने मानिसहरू हुन् जुन सबैभन्दा ठूलो र सब भन्दा बढी जनसंख्या भएको नेपाल हो। सबै धारा र प्राकृतिक स्रोत को अगाडि बाल्टिनको लामो लाइन देख्न सकिन्छ। मानिसहरू कहिलेकाँही पानीको लागि संघर्ष गर्छन् र यो एउटा डरलाग्दो त्रासदी हो कि जब मानिसहरू जलस्रोतमा धनी देशहरूमध्ये एक हुन् तब मानिसहरू यस अवस्थाबाट गुज्रनु पर्छ। समस्या पहिले नै खतरनाक उचाइमा पुगेको छ। जब उनीहरूको नलहरूमा पानी आउँछन् तब मान्छेहरू जसरी उनीहरूको जन्मदिन वा तिनीहरूको पदोन्नति दिन मनाउँछन्। यो एक अवसर हो। सायद नियमित रूपमा नुहाउन वा लुगा धुने क्षमता कसैलाई छैन। यो उच्च समय हो हामीले हाम्रो पक्षबाट केहि गर्न प्रयास गर्न सुरु गर्यौं र समस्याको लागि सरकारलाई दोष नदिनु हो। हामी प्रत्येकले गर्न सक्ने सबैभन्दा पहिले र महत्त्वपूर्ण कामहरू भनेको पानीको दुरुपयोग रोक्नु हो र जनतालाई कम सिर्जना गर्ने प्रयास गर्नु हो। यश संसारमा सिमित मात्रामा शुद्ध पानी छ्न। पृथ्वीको सतहको ७० प्रतिशत पानी पानीबाट बनेको छ जसबाट ३ प्रतिशत मात्र ताजा पानी मानव उपभोगका लागि हो। मानव शरीरको ६० प्रतिशत भन्दा बढी पानीले बनेको छ। निष्कर्षमा पानी जीवनको आधार हो। हामी सबैले पानीको संरक्षण र उचित सदुपयोग गर्न आवश्यक छ। यस सम्बन्धि कुरालाई हामी सबै र सरकार मिलि पानीको दुरुपयोग हुनबाट बचाउन जनचेतना फैलाउनु पर्छ। निबन्ध 3

पानी को बारेमा निबन्ध 250 शब्दमा | W ater essay in nepali 250 words | pani ko barema nibandha 250 shabdama

परिचय पानी जीवनको सबैभन्दा आधारभूत आवश्यकताहरू मध्ये एक हो र यो बिना बाँच्न असम्भव छ। पृथ्वीमा रहेका प्रत्येक जीवित मानिसहरुलाई आफ्नो शरीरको उचित कामका लागि पानीको आवश्यकता छ। यसले हामीलाई बाँच्न मात्र मद्दत गर्दैन बरु हाम्रो दैनिक क्रियाकलापमा पनि महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिका खेल्छ। हाम्रो पृथ्वी नै ७० प्रतिशत पानीले बनेको छ र बाकी भागमा सम्पुर्ण निर्जीव र  सजीव प्राणीहरु छन। तर सबै पानी उपभोगका लागि सुरक्षित छैनन्। त्यसोभए हामीले यसको महत्त्व बुझ्नुपर्दछ र यसलाई बुद्धिमानीपूर्वक प्रयोग गर्नु पर्छ। पानी बिनाको जीवन बंजर भुमि जस्तै हुन्छ। हामी विश्वको विभिन्न भागहरुमा पानीको अभाव देख्न सक्छौं, त्यसैले यो पानी संरक्षण को लागी उच्च समय हो।

कृषिमा पानी प्रयोग

पानी नेपालको मुख्य व्यवसाय भएकोले कृषि क्षेत्रमा व्यापक रूपमा प्रयोग गरिन्छ। सिँचाइ र गाईवस्तुहरूको पोषण प्रक्रियाको लागि ठूलो पानी चाहिन्छ। त्यसकारण किसानहरूले बढी पानी प्रयोग गर्छन् र ठूलो रूपमा यसमा निर्भर छन्।

उद्योगमा पानी प्रयोग

उद्योगहरूलाई विभिन्न उद्देश्यहरूको लागि पानीको आवश्यक पर्दछ, जस्तै केहि चीजहरूको प्रशोधन, चिसो र निर्माण। थप रूपमा, थर्मल पावर प्लान्टले ठूलो मात्रामा पानी प्रयोग गर्दछ।

घरको उद्देश्यका लागि पानीको प्रयोग

यी सबै बाहेक, पानी पनि घरेलु उद्देश्यहरू जस्तै पिउने, लुगा धुने, सफा गर्ने, बगैंचामा प्रयोग गरिन्छ। यसप्रकार, हामीलाई जीवनको केही आधारभूत कार्यहरू सञ्चालन गर्न पानी चाहिन्छ। जीवनको लागि पानी आवश्यक छ बिरूवाहरू र जनावरहरूलाई बाँच्नको निम्ति पानी चाहिन्छ। पानी जीवनको एक अनिवार्य घटक हो जसले एकलाई बाँच्न र राम्रोसँग कार्य गर्न मद्दत गर्दछ। यद्यपि मानिसहरू पानीको अभावका बारे अनजान छन् र यसका नतिजाहरूको बारेमा सोच्दै पनि यस प्राकृतिक स्रोतको शोषण गर्न जारी राख्छन्। निष्कर्ष तसर्थ एक घण्टाको आवश्यकता भनेको सरकारसँग एक हुनु र हाम्रा भावी पुस्ताहरूका लागि पानी संरक्षणका लागि उपचारात्मक उपायहरू गर्नु र ढिलो हुनु अघि यसलाई बुद्धिमानीपूर्वक प्रयोग गर्नु हो। सरकारले पानीको बचत गर्न दिइएका निर्देशनहरू पालना गर्नुपर्दछ र ती मध्ये एउटा वर्षा पानी संकलन हो - पानी बचाउने र यसलाई विभिन्न उद्देश्यका लागि प्रयोग गर्ने उत्तम तरिका हो। निबन्ध 4

पानी को बारेमा निबन्ध 300 शब्दमा | E ssay about water in nepali 300 words | pani ko barema nibandha 300 shabdama

पानी, जीवनको सारमा निर्णायक घटक, हाम्रो ग्रहमा जीवनको लागि र फस्टाउनको लागि अक्सिजन बाहेक, सबैभन्दा महत्त्वपूर्ण अपर अक्षय स्रोत हो। पानी जसले ग्रहको अनुहारको लगभग एक तिहाई हिस्सा बनाउँदछ केवल १ प्रतिशत देखि २.७५ प्रतिशत ताजा छ जुन वास्तवमा मानव, जनावर र बोटबिरुवाले प्रयोग गर्न सक्दछ। यो सानो प्रतिशतको ताजा पानी सबै जीवित प्राणीहरूले उनीहरूको विकास र अस्तित्वका लागि प्रयोग गर्छन्। बोटबिरुवा र रूखहरूले प्रकाश संश्लेषण बढ्नको लागि यसलाई प्रयोग गर्दछ। जनावर र मानिसहरु पानी पिउन र नुहाउन दिन प्रयोग गर्छन्। त्यसकारण, पछिको विवेकी प्रयोगलाई अनुसरण गर्नुपर्नेछ किनकि पानी अपर्याप्त हुने र लगातार बृद्धि हुने दरमा घट्ने हो। यस दरमा, पानी भावी पुस्ताहरूका लागि अनावश्यक हुनेछ, जसको मतलब पृथ्वीमा जीवन अस्तित्वमा हुनेछ। समुद्रमा रहेको पानी, जुन नुनिलो पानी हो, मानिस र जमिन जनावरहरूले खानु हुँदैन। तर यो पानी केहि जलीय जीवन को लागि एक जीवन रेखा को रूप मा कार्य गर्दछ। पिउने र गैर पिउने दुबै किसिमका पानीका स्रोतहरू छन्, संसारमा सतह पानी, वर्षा पानी, भूजल, कुवा पानी, ताल ताल, नदीको पानी, हिमनदी, हिउँ आदि। यी सबै निकायहरु मुख्य पानीको स्रोतहरु छन्। यी जलधारालाई सँधै भरि रहनको लागि स्वस्थ जल चक्रलाई हाम्रो इकोसिस्टममा कायम राख्नु पर्दछ। पानी चक्रमा थोरै गडबडीले विश्व तापक्रम, बाढी र खडेरी निम्त्याउन सक्छ।

पानीको उपयोग

मानिसहरुले पानी नुहाउन, खाना पकाउन, धुन, पिउन आदि प्रयोग गर्छन्, उद्योग र कारखानाले पानीलाई निर्माण कार्यको लागि प्रयोग गर्दछन्, जनावरहरूले पिउन र नुहाउन पानी प्रयोग गर्छन्, बोटबिरुवा र रूखहरूले पानी हुर्काउन र खाना उत्पादन गर्न प्रयोग गर्छन्, किसानहरू जमिन खेती गर्न र जनसंख्याको भोक मेटाउन पानी प्रयोग गर्छन्, पावर प्लान्ट र आणविक बोटहरूले पानी र उर्जा उत्पादन गर्न प्रयोग गर्छन्।

पानी मानव शरीरको लागि किन महत्त्वपूर्ण छ?

हाम्रो शरीरको ६०% भन्दा बढी पानीले बनेको छ।  यो बिना, मानव जाति बाँच्ने छैन, हाम्रो शरीरको पानीले शरीरको तापक्रमलाई नियमित गर्न मद्दत गर्दछ, यसले हाम्रो अङग र टिश्युलाई ओसिलो र कार्यशील राख्छ, यसले हाम्रो शरीर भित्र लिने खानालाई पचाउन र भत्काउन मद्दत गर्दछ, यसले हाम्रो छाला स्वस्थ र पौष्टिक राख्छ। अर्को विश्व युद्ध पानीको लागि लडिनेछ। भारत र पाकिस्तानले सिन्धु नदी, टर्की, सिरिया र इराकमा टिग्रीस-युफ्रेटिस नदीको पानी, कर्नाटक र तमिलनाडुमा काभेरी नदीको बिरूद्ध लडाई गर्दै भारतमा लडाई जस्ता उदाहरणका साथ आजका विश्वमा यसको लक्षणहरू पहिलेदेखि नै देख्न सकिन्छ। यदि अब आफैंलाई ध्यान दिएन भने, सजीलै विश्वयुद्धमा मानवजातिका लागि विनाशकारी प्रभाव निम्त्याउँछ। यी सबै कुराले मानिसजातिको लोप हुन जान अघि विभिन्न देशका सबै सरकार, मानिस, व्यवसाय र संगठनले भेला हुनुपर्दछ र भविष्यमा पानीको उत्तरदायी उपयोगका लागि उचित नीति र कानून बनाउनुपर्नेछ। निबन्ध 5

पानी को बारेमा निबन्ध 500 शब्दमा | essay about water in nepali 500words | pani ko barema nibandha 500 shabdama

पानी बिना जीवनको कल्पना गर्न सकिदैन। यो वैज्ञानिक तथ्य हो कि यस पृथ्वीमा जीवनको मूल पानीमा छ। प्रकृतिले जीवन रोपेको छ र त्यहाँबाट पृथ्वीको भण्डारमा जन्तुहरू फैलिएको छ। जसरी हामी प्राण बिना बाँच्न सक्दैनौं, त्यस्तै पानीको अभावमा जीवनका सबै लक्षणहरू हराउनु प्राकृतिक कुरा हो। पानी सबै वनस्पति र जीव जन्तुहरूको लागि अत्यावश्यक तत्व हो, तर मानव समुदायको लागि यसको उपयोगिता धेरै गुणा छ। दैनिक जीवनका कार्यहरूदेखि सामुदायिक कार्यहरू, वैज्ञानिक कार्यहरू र विभिन्न क्रियाकलापहरू पानीको स्रोत हो, त्यसैले यो भनिन्छ कि पानी जीवन हो। सफा पिउने पानी प्रकृति मानव कालदेखि नै मान्छेको साथी भएको छ।  प्रकृतिका पाँच तत्वहरूमध्ये जुनबाट मानिस विकास र फस्टाउँदछ, पानीको आफ्नै ठाउँ छ। तर द्रुत वैज्ञानिक र प्राविधिक उपलब्धिहरूले पानीको उपलब्धता र स्वच्छतालाई ग्रहण गरिसकेका छन। २० औं शताब्दीमा, भूमिगतमा लुकाइएको नयाँ आविष्कारले पानीको पनि शोषण हुन थाल्यो। यसै कारणले जमिनमा पानीको सतहमा गडबड हुन थाल्यो र जमिनबाट पानीको मात्रा घट्दै गयो। भूमिगत पानीको अन्धाधुन्ध दोहनको लागि विश्व मञ्चमा धेरै वार्ताहरू आयोजना गरिएको छ तर २१ औं शताब्दीको पहिलो दशकमा पनि कुनै समाधान भेटिएन। सफा पिउने पानीको लागि अनिकाल जताततै देखिन्छ, पुरानो समयमा त्यहाँ पानीको अपशिष्ट थिएन। मानिसहरु आवश्यकता अनुसार श्रम शक्ति द्वारा इनार, कुवा, पोखरी, रहट र अन्य विधिहरु प्रयोग गरेर भूमिबाट पानीको शोषण गर्थे। तर मेकानिकल युगमा पानी विद्युतीय शक्ति प्रयोग गरेर नष्ट हुँदै गइरहेको छ र सबै मेट्रिक टन पानी यस प्रकारले समुद्रको नुन पानीमा जान्छ। समुद्रको नुनिलो पानीको कारणले, यो हाम्रो पिउने र अन्य क्रियाकलापहरूको लागि बेकार साबित हुन्छ। पानी संरक्षण मानवहरूको लागि उपयोगी पानीलाई व्यर्थ नराख्न भन्ने क्रममा मानवहरूको लागि उपयुक्त पानीको संरक्षण गर्नुपर्दछ भन्ने कुरामा ध्यान दिइयो, यसका लागि वैज्ञानिकहरूले धेरै प्रकारका विधिहरू अपनाउने कुरामा जोड दिएका छन्। धेरै देशहरूमा वर्षाको पानी संरक्षण गर्ने उपायहरू पनि पत्ता लागेको छ। घरको छत यसरी बनाइएको छ कि यसले वर्षाको पानी संकलन गर्न सक्दछ, जस पछि यो पानी नल पाइपबाट चाहिएको गन्तव्यमा पुर्‍याइन्छ र यसैले वर्षाको पानी सुरक्षित हुन्छ। त्यस्तै जमिनमा रूखहरू र बोटबिरुवाहरू बढाउँदा पानीको अनावश्यक बृद्धिलाई पनि रोक्न सकिन्छ। यस जग्गाबाट आउने पानीको यथोचित दुरूपयोग गर्नुपर्छ। धाराबाट पानीको अनावश्यक बृद्धिलाई पनि रोकिनु पर्छ। यदि प्राकृतिक पानीको मात्रा कम वा थकित छ भने, यसलाई पुन: प्राप्ति गर्न असम्भव हुनेछ। त्यसकारण यसको संरक्षणमा ध्यान दिइनु पर्दछ र पानीलाई व्यर्थबाट बचाउनुपर्दछ। पानी प्रदूषण रोक्न एकातिर मानिस वैज्ञानिक उपलब्धिहरु हासिल गरेर आफूलाई गर्व तुल्याएको छ भने अर्कोतर्फ उसले प्रकृतिसँग खेल्दै आफूलाई प्रकृतिको क्रोध बनाएको छ।  प्राविधिक प्रगति संग, प्रदूषण को समस्या पनि एक भयानक रूप मा ग्रहण गरेको छ। जसरी सुरसाको अनुहार हनुमान जीलाई निगल्न बढेको थियो, त्यसरी नै प्रदूषण ले भयंकर रूप लिइरहेको छ। वास्तवमा हावा, पानी, माटो, बोटबिरुवा र जनावरहरू मिलेर वातावरण बनाउँछन्। जब मानवले उनीहरूको विकासको खोजीमा तिनीहरूको सीमितता बाहिर प्रयोग गर्दछन्, तब प्रकृतिका यी घटकहरू प्रदूषित हुन्छन् र प्रकृतिको प्राकृतिक सन्तुलन गडबडी हुन्छ। गंगा र यमुना जस्ता पवित्र नदीहरूको पानी आज पनि धेरै ठाउँमा पिउन योग्य छैन। प्रदूषित पानी मानव शरीरमा पुग्छ र हड्डीको क्यान्सर जस्ता भयानक रोगहरूलाई जन्म दिन्छ। यी सबै प्रदूषण रोक्नका लागि उपायहरू सुनिश्चित गर्न सन १९७२ मा स्टकहोल्ममा 'विश्व वातावरण संरक्षण सम्मेलन' आयोजना गरिएको थियो, त्यसैले 'विनाश विनाको विकास' भन्ने नारा दिइन्छ। हामीले पानीलाई प्रदूषणबाट जोगाउनुपर्नेछ र यस जल संरक्षण र यसको सफाईले महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका खेल्नेछ।पानी हाम्रो जीवनको एक महत्त्वपूर्ण इकाई हो। आउँदै गरेको समयमा हामीले पानीलाई धेरै मात्रामा जोगाउनु पर्नेछ किनकि पृथ्वीमा शुद्ध पानी एकदम थोरै मात्रामा बाँकी छ र जुन पानी शुद्ध छ त्यो मानव वैज्ञानिक क्रियाकलापहरूले प्रदूषित गर्दैछ। हामीले पानी संरक्षण गर्नुपर्दछ ताकि हाम्रो भविष्यका महान् पुस्ताहरूले सुरक्षित जीवन बिताउन सक्दछन्। पानीको महत्व पृथ्वीमा हामी सबैले बुझ्नु पर्छ।

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Drinking Water Resource, Important, Use, Problems, Conservation in Nepal

Find here some facts and information about drinking water resource in Nepal. We have posted here some facts and information about water resource, the importance of water resource, uses of water resource, problems of water resource, conservation of water resource and management of water resources. Get information and facts about drinking water in Nepal.

Drinking Water Resource, Source, Important, Use, Problems, Conservation  in Nepal

Facts about water in nepal.

Water is one of the most important basic needs for all the living being. About 70% of the human body is made up of water. Human beings can live without food for some time but not without water. Water is used for various purposes, such as for cooking food, washing clothes, bathing, growing crops, construction work and for generating hydro-electricity. Water plays a vital role in the development of a country. Clean drinking water is necessary for good health. -“the citizens are healthy, development of a country will be rapid. Thus, the government should make all the efforts to supply pure drinking water to its citizens.

We get water from different sources. About 71% of the earth is covered with water and Nepal boasts herself to be very rich in water resources. However, about 20- 25 % of our people are still deprived of safe drinking water. The sources of water aren’t properly utilized. Water supply situation both in rural and urban areas is worsening day by day.

Due to rapid population growth, industrialization and urbanization, the demand for drinking water are increasing whereas water sources are drying up due to deforestation and environmental degradation. We often see long lines of women and children waiting their turn to collect little water in towns and cities. Villagers in rural areas need to walk hours to fetch a jarful of water.

Water Resource  in Nepal

Nepal calls to mind images of the Himalaya, peace, tranquility, and voluminous flowing water, which when harnessed to produce hydropower for export, provides the comfort of easy revenue.  Water in Nepal remains a seminal contribution to comprehensive thinking about the complexity of Himalayan waters. Water is most important for the life of living organisms such as plants, animal and man.

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It is also essential for agriculture, industries, drinking, and many other purposes. The water of atmosphere reaches the earth surface through precipitation and form earth surface it reaches the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration. Therefore, the continuous circulation of water from the earth to the atmosphere and vice-versa in maintained by nature. This is called the water cycle. Conventional water discourses are immune to the interdisciplinary perspective.

It has been calculated that total water on earth is 1.46 x 10 9 cubic kilometers. About 90% of water is found in the ocean, 4.1% on earth, 2.0% in the glacier, 0.052% in lake, river.

Water is a most important component of our ecosystem. It is raw material for photosynthesis and numerous other processes. Our body contains 100 pounds of water. It promotes chemical activity.

In recent years Nepal’s water wealth has begun to attract international attention as a resource of world-class proportions. Indeed, with a theoretical hydroelectric potential billed at 83,000 MW (Shrestha 1966) and an established inventory of feasible sites totaling about one-third of the above figure (MWR 1981), Nepal’s rivers hold the promise of abundant energy that very few places in the world can match.

When one adds to this electricity bonanza the prospect of irrigating one of the world’s most fertile areas -the northern Gangetic plains – for second and third crops, the vision of an overflowing cornucopia, seen from the vantage point of pure engineering, can be overpowering.

Initial expectations from Nepal’s water resources were based on an analysis that viewed falling water from a physicist’s perspective, which then fuelled both publicity and political hopes regarding the nation’s future. 1 Subsequently, the evolution of complex problems involved in harnessing the cascading waters of the Himalaya began to cast doubts on the viability of quick development. There were physical uncertainties regarding the quantity and nature of Nepal’s water.

Very little was known about the riverbeds and hills upon which gigantic engineering structures were to be built, and what became known was generally unfavorable to large structures. There were also incongruities between the vision of full-scale water resources development and larger social realities. These difficulties have taken the romantic euphoria out of Nepal’s water, and have left an uncomfortable hiatus in public debates regarding this physical asset.

This monograph is an attempt to step back and re-scan the horizon. It is an interdisciplinary effort at slicing anew the whole that is Nepal and her water resources and synthesizing the various strands of social and physical concerns that bear upon Nepali water (Gyawali 1983c). It does not propose a deep analysis of any individual element pertaining to water, although the need and scope exist for very specialized studies of the many manifestations of water. Indeed, for the specialist in the different disciplines, the treatment of their favorite subject in this monograph may seem to be hopelessly brief and almost callous. It is because the task set forth is to pick out only the essence of the various elements and to see how it weaves into the fabric.

Drinking Water in Nepal in the Past

In the past, people used to drink water directly from the source. The first piped water for drinking purpose was launched in Kathmandu during the time of Bir Shumsher. Water was brought through pipes from Shivapuri area and stored in a reservoir in Bansbari, Maharajgung. From the reservoir, water was supplied to different parts in the valley.

Similarly, during the time of Bhim Shumsher, water was brought through pipes from Sangle Khola and stored in the reservoir at Balaju and distributed to different places in Kathmandu.

In the context of Nepal, during the ruling period of Bir Shumsher, the first piped water was launched in Kathmandu for the drinking purpose. It was brought from Shivapuri area in Bansbari, Maharajgung. This water was supplied in the Kathmandu Valley. Similarly, during the time of Bhim Shumsher, water was brought through pipes from Sangle Khola and stored in the reservoir at Balaju and distributed to different places in Kathmandu.

However, it is only since the First Five Year Plan (1956-6 IAD) that the water supply became somewhat organized and systematic.

Drinking water in Nepal

“Water, water everywhere, but not a drop to drink”. In most of the remote and rural areas, people drink directly from the sources like rivers, spring, ponds etc. These open sources of water are polluted and contaminated. Many of these water sources dry up in winter. Such polluted water is the main cause for water-borne diseases like dysentery, typhoid, and cholera. Every year many infants, children, and adults become victims of these diseases.

There is an acute problem of rapid population growth in urban areas. The demand for drinking water is very high but difficult to fulfill. Most of the water-pipes laid down during the time of Ranas have little or no maintenances. Due to the carelessness of the people, water goes wasted as taps are let open event after use. People have to wake up early in the morning and have to stand in the queue for a long time just to get a bucket of water. Often people have to fulfill their needs by buying water from the private sector.

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Water in Nepal : an interdisciplinary look at resource uncertainties, evolving problems, and future prospects

Related Papers

Prakash Gaudel

Despite the 'immense' water resources available, Nepal has not been able to transform this abundance of water resources into desired economic growth and societal welfare. This paper attempts to analyze the reasons for such incessant challenges that loom over water resources development in Nepal. This paper finds that it is not the resource that limits the development of water resources, but the approaches and wishes that are framed on the foundation of persistent myths. Analyzing those myths, this paper highlights the realities in water resources management of Nepal, and suggests that without dismantling the existing myths, the sustainable development of water resources seems limited.

Dwarika Dhungel

'Water is a precious gift of nature, essential for human [sic and other creatures'] survival. Without water, life on earth cannot be sustained. Water is required for basic human needs such as drinking, cooking and bathing, for irrigation to grow crops, for hydropower to produce energy, for industry and for the environment. Water is also inherent component of the ecological chain on which all life and life-supporting systems depend. In Nepal and other Himalayan Societies, water from the mountains also has important cultural and spiritual significance.' Water Resources Strategy Nepal 2002 1. Prologue Water is the most valued natural resource Nepal possesses. In addition, it is the principle 'resource supporting the economy of Nepal' (Water Resources Strategy 2002[WRS]). So far, as per the WRS, as discussed below, the country has used only a small portion of the available water. However, its demand is increasing and would grow in the days to come. Its efficient and optimum use would not only help Nepal to build a strong economy, but could also substantially contribute to development of the countries of the Ganga Basin. Accordingly, dialogues for cooperation at the regional level have been going at the professional level for a long time even if they are yet to bear fruits. This chapter is devoted to the discussions and analysis of Nepal's water resource related policies and institutions of Nepal from the standpoint of its different uses within the country and areas of cooperation with the countries in the basin, mainly with southern neighboring country. Based on the analysis, some suggestions are also offered. Published government documents, personal experiences of the contributors and discussions with stakeholders form the basis of discussion and the analysis of the subject matter. 2. Water Availability, its current Use and demand An estimated annual runoff from the rivers (6,000 rivers and rivulets) of Nepal 'is 220 billion cubic meters, with an average annual precipitation of 1530 mm. In addition, Nepal is also endowed with extensive ground water resources. Ground water is found in most of the Terai and in some mid-hill valleys like Kathmandu and Dang' (WRS). As per WRS, 14,880 m 3 of available water was used in 2000 for different purposes, such as domestic use, irrigation, industrial use, and generating hydropower. However, the National Water Plan (NWP), a plan of action prepared by the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS) and approved by the Government of Nepal on September 7, 2005 to implement the WRS in a time bound manner, states that 15 BCM of 225 BCM of annually available water has been used for economic and social purposes. The plan further states that 'Nepal has utilized mainly medium and small rivers for different uses such as drinking water, irrigation and hydropower. The larger and perennial Himalayan Rivers, except for a few run-of the-river schemes, have been virtually left untapped'. In addition, the NWP has recognized that: (i) Around 60% of the irrigable land, (1.76 million hectares (ha) of 2.64 million ha of cultivable land of which 66% of this land is irrigable), 'has some kind of irrigation facility, and less than one- This paper has been prepared on the request of the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) as input to their forthcoming book on the Ganges, which is due for publication in September 2016. I am thankful to Dr. Luna Bharati, Senior Researcher-Hydrology Water Resources of IWMI Nepal office for giving me the opportunity to prepare this paper for the use of input for the proposed book. And the paper has been prepared with the help of and inputs provided by Sri Sriranjan Lacoul, former Secretary Government of Nepal. I duly acknowledge his help and accept him as the co-author of this paper. But for all omissions and commissions as well as the analysis part, I take the whole responsibility. Also want to acknowledge the help extended by Mahendra Sapkota and all others from different agencies government and non government in collecting and preparing the paper. Thanks to all of them.

Ashok Swain

Ratna Sansar Shrestha

Matthäus Rest

Kathmandu’s Melamchi Water Supply Project is a spectral infrastructure. 40 years in the making, it is unclear whether this river diversion scheme will ever be completed. Still, it is exacerbating the city’s water scarcity in a state that at times seems as spectral as its infrastructure projects. Since the early 1970s, the residents of Kathmandu have been visited by a fantastic specter: the Melamchi Water Supply Project. This scheme is a plan to divert the water of a river to the city in order to cure it from a chronic water shortage. Time and again, however, this specter has proven impalpable, despite frequent announcements by the government and foreign donors. One important outcome of this spectral infrastructure is a severe lack of funding for the maintenance of the existing water network; even official sources estimate 60% of leakage. Combined with the exponential growth of the city since the Maoist insurgency in 1996, this leads to a progressive privatization of water and water infrastructure. As people are provided with water of low quality for only two hours every other day during dry season, they have to store large quantities of it in rooftop tanks. At the same time, private water companies supply a growing number of households. My paper will argue that the lack of water poses a growing threat to political authority in Kathmandu as can be seen by daily protests in front of the headquarters of the city’s water authorities. However, the fact that the state is as elusive as its unbuilt infrastructures leaves those protesting without a clear target: due to the Maoist uprising and the still uncompleted peace process Kathmandu has not had a mayor since 2002 while the newly established Republic of Nepal is still in lack of a constitution.

David Sauri Pujol

Hydro Nepal: Journal of Water, Energy and Environment

Floriane CLEMENT , Luna Bharati

Despite decades of investment and institutional refinement, externally funded irrigation programs still exhibit low success rates and more particularly in countries facing institutional and political challenges. This paper aims at bringing fresh insights on the reasons for such shortcomings with the particular case study of a donor-sponsored program recently implemented in the Mid and Far Western Regions of Nepal. Findings indicate that the political situation and institutional system in Nepal have substantially affected the outcomes of the agricultural water management interventions conducted by the program. Yet, beyond the influence of these contextual factors, two other (less acknowledged) mechanisms have contributed to create a gap between project objectives and outcomes: a) concepts commonly found in project documents and development discourses such as participation or empowerment are kept vague and ambiguous and lack an explicit recognition of power distribution; and b) the organizational system of many funding agencies tends to create incentives for project staff to show outcomes rather than to make impacts. These findings suggest that refining current models of AWM interventions is not sufficient to improve their achievements. A more radical shift is needed. A few avenues for change include to: 1) pay a greater attention to the meaning and operationalisation of common development concepts (e.g., rights based approach, empowerment or participation); 2) consider the way interventions affect power distribution among stakeholders, including communities; and 3) modify the organizational system of the funding agency to increase its downward accountability to targeted beneficiaries. To sum-up, we need to rethink development as a means of empowering governments and citizens rather than as a way to provide assistance.

International journal of water resources development

Floriane CLEMENT

Integrated water resources management (IWRM) has been prescribed in the global water policy literature for decades. This article looks at how the concept has been applied in Nepal. It highlights the normative approach in IWRM policy formulation, the existing institutional barriers to apply it and how these resulted in the framing of IWRM ‘implementation’ as merely a compilation of donor-funded projects. Current discourse on IWRM highlights the need to shift the emphasis from national policy formulation to local adaptive, pragmatic approaches to IWRM. This article brings to light the need to identify potential entry points to scale up locally rooted water management approaches towards the development of nested institutional set-ups in water resources management.

International Journal of Water Resources Development

Luna Bharati

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Conclusions, acknowledgements, author contributions, conflict of interest, data availability statement, drinking water status in nepal: an overview in the context of climate change.

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S. Sharma , M. Baidya , P. Poudel , S. R. Panthi , R. R. Pote-Shrestha , A. Ghimire , S. P. Pradhan; Drinking water status in Nepal: an overview in the context of climate change. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 1 November 2021; 11 (6): 859–866. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2021.045

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Although Nepal has made remarkable progress in the drinking water only sector from past few decades, the status of drinking water, in terms of climate change, is poorly documented and thus less known. This review aims to sum up drinking water status in climate change perspectives by reviewing available secondary data from published and gray literature. Climate change, and its impact on the drinking water sector, is undeniable. Though many policies and laws are enforced to address climate change issues, very few policies and laws have incorporated climate change-resilient WASH as a priority. It is of current need to carry out action-based research followed by eco-region wise interventions for adaptation and mitigation of impacts on WASH sector due to climate change.

This review provides the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) status in Nepal.

Clear evidence on the climate change impact on drinking water and adaptation is provided via review.

The climate in Nepal is greatly affected by the Himalayan mountain range and South Asian monsoon ( NCVST 2009 ). An annual maximum temperature increase of 0.056 °C ( DHM 2017 ) has been experienced; likewise, a 1.8 °C increase in temperature was reported in Nepal between 1975 and 2006 ( Karki 2004 ; Synnott 2012 ). This rate is higher than the global average which ranged from 0.8 to 1.2 °C ( IPCC 2018 ). About 80% of the precipitation in Nepal pours down in the form of summer monsoon from June to September ( DHM 2015 ). Trend analysis from 1971 to 2014 shows that the pre-monsoon rainfall in the high Himalayan areas has reduced significantly, by 0.74 mm per year ( DHM 2017 ). The South Asian monsoon-dependent water sources of Nepal are strongly influenced by the change in temperature and precipitation with a range of effects such as Glacier melt, snowmelt, rain-fed downstream spring, and groundwater recharge ( NCVST 2009 ). The changing monsoon pattern and the decreasing amount of rainfall have also been evident widely in Nepal ( Ahmad et al. 2018 ). There are wide variation of climate within a north-south distance of 200 km in Nepal ( Shankar & Shrestha 1985 ; Chalise 1994 ; UNEP 2001 ).

Generally in Nepal, variation in the effect of climate change is considered mainly due to its ecological diversity, which can be distinguished as mountains, hills, and southern plains (known as Terai ). Assessing impacts of climate change based on eco-region shall be a wise approach. The increasing trend of temperature rate is higher in the mountains compared to other regions. Table 1 demonstrates the status of temperature and precipitation description in different eco-regions. No clear trend is projected for either increase or decrease in mean annual precipitation in Nepal. In terms of spatial distribution, increasing monsoon rainfall trends in eastern and central Nepal were evidenced ( DHM 2017 ). Moreover, the projection indicates an increase in monsoon and post-monsoon rainfall as well as an increase in the intensity of rainfall and a decrease in winter precipitation. Climate change concerns in the Himalayan region are multifaceted – encompassing natural disasters like landslides, floods, and droughts ( Barnett et al. 2005 ). Rising temperature and change in precipitation patterns in many parts of the country resulting from climate change are predicted to have an influence on water resource availability in future ( Dahal et al. 2020 ). In Nepal, this issue has not been adequately considered in the design of the water system and the focus is more on the supply and coverage side. It is obvious that there are some climate-related challenges meeting the sustainable development goal (SDG) by 2030. Thus, in this context, this review will provide an overview of the trend in the drinking water status of Nepal with climate change perspectives to emphasize safe, sustainable, and climate-resilient water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services.

Climatic description of Nepal's eco-regions

( Source : DHM 1984–2013).

Search criteria

This paper was prepared by reviewing both published articles and gray literature. We reviewed published data on water, sanitation, hygiene, and climate change over the period 1980–2020. Electronic database-based searches were done: Google Scholar, Web of Science, PubMed, and HINARI. The databases were searched using key words: drinking water, sanitation, hygiene, climate change, temperature, precipitation, and Nepal. The searches for published data were confined to literature that was published with abstracts in English. Based on the inclusion criteria for the title and abstract, the full text of the relevant studies was reviewed and analyzed.

Published or unpublished documents, policy briefs, reports, power-point presentations, web content, and primary data from the Government of Nepal (GoN)’s relevant departments like Department of Water Supply and Sewerage Management, Sector Efficiency Improvement Unit, Ministry of Water Supply, and Department of Hydrology and Meteorology were considered as gray literature. Most of the gray literature was in the Nepali language, with a few in English – all kind of literature relevant to our objective was considered for review and, where possible, only the gist of Nepali literature was translated.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Documents were included if: (i) the study was carried out in Nepal, (ii) the sample size was more than 50, (iii) they were policy documents, sectoral reports, status report, and web-based information from authorized GoN's institutions, and (iv) the study provided information on WASH and the climate change scenario of Nepal. In addition, for analyzing meteorological parameters, we purchased meteorological data from the year 1983 to 2013 from the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology. We excluded those studies that primarily focused on engineering aspects of WASH and those climate change-related studies that exclusively focused on climatological parameters (e.g., glaciology and GHGs).

Water supply status in Nepal

Recent data from the Department of Water Supply and Sewerage Management (DWSSM) in 2019 reported, merely 51.69% of the population have piped water coverage and the remaining 48.31% are relying on un-piped locally and privately managed systems like private tubewells ( Figure 1 ). Even if Nepal achieved the water supply related MDG goals, when analyzed by facility type, non-piped coverage has increased from 36% in 2000 to 44% in 2017 ( JMP 2019 ). Similarly when analyzed by the service level, during these 20 years, safely managed improved water supply sources have just decreased from from 24% to only 18% ( JMP 2021 ).

Water supply type on the basis of eco-regions. (Source: DWSSM 2019 ).

After achieving the basic water supply target of MDGs ( NPC 2016 ), Nepal has now set its target for the SDGs. The specific SDG 6 targets for the year 2030 include basic water supply coverage to 99%, piped water supply to 90%, and improved sanitation to 95% of households ( NPC 2017 ). Despite the fact that Nepal is trying its best to improve the accessibility and sustainability of water supply, there are disparities in the ecological division level. The water supply and sanitation coverage seem to be unequal though not so noteworthy ( Figure 1 ).

‘Poorly functioning systems result in unreliable, insufficient and unsafe water supply, which has direct impact on the proper use and cleanliness of toilets and hand washing’ as well as hygiene behaviors ( Budhathoki 2019 ). Nepal's functionality of the water supply schemes is not as expected as the met target of basic water supply. Only 28.13% of drinking water schemes are fully functional ( DWSSM 2019 ). Even if there is a decreasing trend in water supply schemes requiring repairs, reconstruction, and rehabilitation ( Figure 2 ), available data indicate that water supply systems are not in good condition to have a reliable water supply that is sustainable. This also raises concerns on affectivity and sustainability of sanitation and hygiene-related activities.

Comparative status of the functionality of water supply schemes from 2010 to 2018 ( Sources : NMIP 2010 ; NMIP 2014 ; DWSSM 2019 ).

Vulnerability of climate change in the water sector

Impacts of climate change are inevitable in almost every sector, nonetheless agriculture and food security, water resource and energy, forest and biodiversity, public health, climate-induced disaster, and urban settlements and infrastructures are directly recognized by the National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) for their vulnerability ( NAPA 2010 ). Furthermore, climate change can create multiple impacts on water resources due to alteration of water flow on the rivers and streams ( Mishra et al. 2018 ).

Dried spring sources are evident in various parts of the country. For instance, In Tanahu district, depletion of stream, spring and point source water in 10 years (2004 to 2014) was observed by by 20, 34 and 50% retrospectively ( RWSSP-WN 2016 ). Changing rainfall patterns and temperatures, and frequent occurrence of climate-induced disasters, has caused drying and depletion of spring water sources ( Adhikari 2018 ). A spring assessment survey done in 2017 showed that 73.2% of the springs used as drinking water had a reduced flow and 12.2% had dried up over the decade in the watershed of Thulokhola, located in the Nuwakot district – Province 3 of Nepal ( Poudel & Duex 2017 ). A similar study in Melamchi showed the volume of water in the springs has decreased by 30% in the last decade ( Chapagain et al. 2017 ). There is no doubt that the climate change impact on water resources has led to a drinking water shortage in the hilly and mountain areas of Nepal ( Gurung et al. 2019 ). It is already evident that because of climate change water shortages will be accelerated, mainly due to the gap between demand and supply. Poor and subsistence farmers will be the hardest hit ( Chaulagain 2006 ), and a compelling reason for the community to opt for an alternate source of water ( Gum et al. 2009 ). Here, the alternate source is undeniably an un-improved source with compromised water quality and quantity.

Climate-induced disasters in the water sector

Due to the varying topography of Nepal, 80% of the population is at risk from natural hazards including floods, landslides, windstorms, hailstorms, fires, earthquakes, and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) ( MOHA 2018 ). Climate change-induced hydro metrological disasters, like floods and droughts, are more likely to increase in future, causing loss of livelihood and property ( UNDRR 2019 ). Increasing temperature due to climate change has caused glaciers to melt rapidly causing more critical floods in lowlands of the Terai, along with slow-onset disasters like heat and cold waves ( NAPA 2010 ; ICIMOD 2013 ; Kaji et al. 2020 ). The Koshi flood in 2008, the Farwest flood in 2008, and the Terai flood in 2017 are some of the massive flood events that caused severe impact on lives and properties in the lowlands of the Terai ( ICIMOD 2013 ; Chapagain et al. 2017 ). Meanwhile, in the mountains and Himalayan regions, different kinds of climate-induced disasters like GLOFs and landslides are evident. Studies have shown around 21 glacier lakes are at risk of bursting, including six critical GLOFS ( NAPA 2010 ; ICIMOD 2011 ; Khadka et al . 2019 ). Along with casualties like life, properties, and livelihood loss, climate-induced disasters like floods and landslides have a major impact on WASH infrastructures like water supply pipes, intakes, reservoirs, and sanitation facilities ( Oxfam 2008 ; Ahmad et al. 2018 ). The effect of this could be more devastating in developing countries like Nepal. As a result of such impact, the functionality of the WASH infrastructures is ultimately reduced, leading to compromised WASH behaviors and health issues relating to the same.

Climate-induced influences in the water sector and its impact on health

Direct and devastating effects of changing climate and its influence on the water sector raise a key concern for public health. Heavy rainfall accelerates flood frequency and intensity in the Terai, excessive runoff and landslides in the hills, and water quality degrades in the mountains. Similarly, with low rainfall, droughts are becoming common in the Terai and a water-scarce condition is created in the hills, as indicated by the drying of water sources. Low rain causes a shift in the snow line in the mountains. Temperature upsurge will also have an impact on water balance and reduce total water availability where subsistence farmers will be the hardest hit ( Chaulagain 2006 ). Water-borne, water-washed, and vector-borne diseases are major issues of public health that come with rising temperature and fluctuating precipitation ( Figure 3 ). The substantially high average temperature ( Karki 2004 ; Dahal 2006; Synnott 2012 ) certainly makes a favorable environment for disease-causing vectors like Anopheles and Aedes mosquitos ( Rogers & Randolph 2006 ). Disasters and natural calamities are not to be mistaken for population casualties, but the after effect of those calamities is always the bigger threat and challenge – where again the diseases are the major killers.

Cause, effect and health impact of climate change in different eco-regions.

Adaptation practices in the water sector

In response to the decrease in precipitation and drying up of water sources like springs, local communities have limited adaptation measures and are largely depending on local initiatives such as water tank construction at the source itself, transporting water using pipes, water diversion from other sources, digging deeper wells, and traveling for activities like laundry and fetching drinking water ( Poudel & Duex 2017 ). Besides this, the conservation of lakes and the promotion of rainwater harvesting are some other prevalent adaptation practices to reduce water stress ( Patra & Terton 2017 ). Other local-level adaptation strategies to adapt to prevailing water stresses are water harvesting (small-scale structures), harvesting of rainwater, artificial groundwater recharge, conservation ponds, irrigation channels, and drip water irrigation ( Jha 2011 ; Adhikari 2018 ). A potential study of rain water harvesting to combat climate change-induced water shortage in the Arghakhachi district has concluded that proper rainwater harvesting technology can compensate the immediate water uses such as domestic use, irrigation, and recharging groundwater and contribute to springs ( WSSDO 2016 ). It is evident that the construction of conservation ponds by adapting rainwater harvesting methods has helped to revive dried-up wells and tube wells in Province 3 ( Bista 2019 ). Conservation ponds themselves, being an indigenous practice but reintroduced as adaptive practice in Nepal, and proven as good strategy for storing water and replenishing groundwater reserves ( FAO 2015 ).

Some indigenous practices to adapt hazards are not hazard resistant enough, mainly due to limited resource choices as well as usage, and also due to low economical conditions. Water-related interventions and development practices in Nepal did not consider climate and only focus on coverage in terms of access. A recent approach that seemed promising for reducing the climate change impact on water supply is the Water Safety Plan (WSP). WSP locally addresses disaster risk-reduction and climate change adaptation strategies, along with capacity building at the local level ( Baidya et al. 2017 ). WSP is based on hazard analysis and critical point and the multiple barrier approach. The main principle behind this is, if one of the barriers fails, it can be compensated by effectively operating the other barriers, which will reduce the contamination passing through the entire system ( DWSSM 2013 ). DWSS has initiated the implementation of WSPs in all districts since 2008. Even after the implementation of WSP in almost 2,000 water supply schemes, sustainable implementation of WSP itself is affected by factors like depletion of sources, increased disasters, and decreased water quality. Therefore, consideration for climate change was adapted in the same principle of WSP ( MoWSS 2017 ). In Nepal climate resilient water safety plan (CRWSP) has been introduced in few water supply systems, where based on health based targets climate related existing and future hazardous events are also identified and managed accordingly ( MoWSS 2017 ).

Adaptation practice in the health sector

Nepal recently developed the Health National Adaptation Plan (H-NAP) with a vision of developing climate-resilient health systems for protecting human health from the probable impacts of climate change. The plan aims to develop national frameworks and strategies on climate change and health along with a focus on the health sector and inter-sector collaborations, including research. Furthermore, it may be a milestone in mainstreaming health in the overall NAP and, in the following days, practical evidence of adaptation practices shall be documented.

Nepal is experiencing the impact of climate change in the early stages as a consequence of climate change directly hitting the Himalayas and freshwater reserves. The majority of national water supply systems are spring sources that are reliant on precipitation. Most of the glaciers are melting, causing increased risk of flooding, and thereby causing not only disaster situations but also affecting the functionality of the WASH-related infrastructures. The water supply coverage and its functional status do not match the water demand, e.g., annual 1.9% sanitation facility growth rate versus stagnant 28% functional water supply coverage. The functionality of WASH structures is largely questionable; the resilience to hold off the climate change impact and climate-induced disasters is yet a far distanced target for Nepal. The emerging climate scenario demands that the prerequisites such as drinking water supply and sanitation facilities be made climate resilient, identifying climate threats, and designing disaster risk-reduction measures.

Though Nepal surpassed the MDG to improve access to basic water supply, the disaggregated data clearly show the inequality of service coverage among eco-regions. Only basic water supply coverage increased, with no clear emphasis on quality and resilience. Hills – being most populous – are the most deprived region for basic water supply and are relying upon unprotected locally managed spring sources. Water supply is inadequate, unreliable, and low quality even in the capital city of Nepal ( Katuwal & Bohara 2011 ). In a context where basic water supply is poor, compromised drinking water quality poses multiple risks to health where climate change plays synergetic effect on human health with a range of effects like water- and vector-borne diseases, climate-induced disasters, and infrastructural damage.

Very few policy documents justify eco-region-specific development plans, programs, and designs for adapting to the changing climate and to be resilient for future climatic conditions. In practice, the climate adaptive programs are only focused on a few sectors – mainly agricultures. The interlinkages between multi-sectors and the multidimensional synergetic effect of climate change on different sectors have not been well identified and addressed at the ground level in Nepal. Social networking and local indigenous adaptations with limited technical know-how within community are the only coping mechanisms against climate change hazards in community.

Climate change effects are evident in the water sector and will surely deteriorate current scenarios. Action-oriented studies on source improvement, rainwater harvesting, and groundwater recharging are essential to understand both qualitative and quantitative aspects of water usage. Given the diversity of Nepal, if climate sensitivity is to be considered, eco-region-based programs and interventions shall be more relevant and realistic. Efforts must be focused on adaptations and climate resilience.

The authors would like to acknowledge the World Health Organisation (WHO), Nepal, Department of Water Supply, and Sewerage Management for technical support to develop this work.

S.S.M.B. and S.R.P. envisioned the concept of this review. Access to gray literature was facilitated by R.R.P.-S., M.B., and A.G. who designed the review and worked with P.P. and S.P.P. to develop the initial draft which was then reviewed and finalized by all aforementioned authors.

The authors’ views expressed in this publication are personal and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the organizations they represent. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

This research received no external funding.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

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• Killian Dumont & Raunak Shrestha
• Jul 7, 2021

A Policy Perspective on Water Management in Nepal: Interview with Madhav Belbase

Access to clean drinking water is a fundamental right in Nepal, but climate change, pollution, and lack of adequate infrastructure development may restrict access and threaten the population with water insecurity. Nepal has abundant water resources, however, water in Nepal, in most cases, is viewed as a commodity mostly synonymous with hydropower, thus disregarding other benefits of water resources. To understand more about water management in Nepal, we spoke to Madhav Belbase, the former Secretary of the Ministry of Water Supply. Until his recent retirement earlier this year, he was Nepal’s top policymaker in water sector management, pioneering mega projects and negotiating transboundary issues with India. Prior to his appointment as the Secretary, Mr. Belbase served as Director General of the Department of Irrigation, and later as Joint Secretary at the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS). Under Mr. Belbase’s leadership, Nepal pioneered interbasin water transfer projects using tunnel boring machines, initiated river basin master plans, and most recently completed the Melamchi Water Supply Project (MWSP) which is considered to be the most viable long-term alternative to ease the chronic drinking water shortage situation in the Kathmandu valley. Mr. Belbase is highly acclaimed nationally and internationally for his technical experience and risk-taking capacity in shaping Nepal’s policies related to water resources management.

Drawing on your vast experience in the water management sector, how do you think water is seen in Nepal?

There is a popular misconception among many Nepali people that Nepal is the second most water-rich country in the world. This is added to a narrative that if you have a resource in abundance, you do not need to manage it. But it’s not true. Although there is more than 7000 m³ of water available per capita annually, the disparity in its availability in terms of space and time is enormous. Besides, climate change and water pollution, as well as the lack of adequate investment in the water sector have further aggravated water scarcity in water for human use, water for food, and water for environment and socio-culture.

Discourses on water management in Nepal are dominated by hydropower production and often neglect the other uses of water. Water management lacks integration. Throughout the recent water management history, hydropower has always centered the water discussion with the intent of exporting electricity to the neighboring countries. As a result, the sector was liberalized in the early 1990s. To this day, the issuing of licenses for hydropower production lacks stringent procedures. Rivers in Nepal are often diverted at multiple points along their stretches, affecting the other existing and potential uses of water.

Because of the modern-day hyper-focus on water for energy production, things like irrigation, water supply, the environment, and the cultural and social aspects of water resources management have been neglected. However, this wasn’t always the case. Nepal has a rich history of traditional water management techniques that took advantage of the country’s natural resources and topography. Traditional irrigation systems used irrigation canals like ‘ Rajkulo’ and stone spouts to direct water from natural springs and ponds into population centers. Some of the irrigation systems are in operation last 400 years. However, in the most populated areas, they are no longer widely used having been replaced by modern practices. If energy is the focus of today’s water infrastructure, food production was the focus of these traditional systems, ensuring food security for decades. Unfortunately, such traditional knowledge has given way to a more technocratic approach that views water as a commodity.

One of the major projects that you led during your time as Secretary of the Ministry of Water Supply was the Melamchi Water Supply Project (MWSP), which diverts fresh water from the Melamchi river into the Kathmandu Valley. What is the long-term viability of the MWSP considering the growing stress on freshwater supplies?

Climate change is already impacting rainfall patterns in Nepal. We used to have downpours in January and February, but now winter rainfall is slowly disappearing and becoming increasingly precarious. Even in the monsoon, rainfall patterns have completely changed. The intensity of precipitation is rising, which creates larger runoffs and landslides, and lower infiltration. At the same time, heavy downpours in the winter months (referred in Nepali as jhari ) seem to be disappearing, impacting the distribution of water. Although the total amount of rain has not changed a lot. When we need water, we don’t have it, and when the water does come, we seem to be getting too much.

The Melamchi Water Supply Project is meant to be a long-term solution to address water shortages in the Kathmandu valley. However, the Melamchi river itself is snow-fed . As we may get less snow due to climate change, there could be an issue with its flow in the future. The river is extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, but we can safeguard ourselves from the worst-case scenario through the development of water storage projects within or just outside the valley. Some of the projects have been identified and are at various stages of study. Not only in Kathmandu valley, but water storage projects and interbasin water transfer projects are to be developed to even out the disparity in water availability. This can be done by transferring water from surfeit to deficit basins. Water storage can either be done through constructing large-scale reservoirs and dams, or small-scale ponds and household level reservoirs and even rainwater harvesting. Dams are critical for the long-term sustainability of water management and irrigation in Nepal. We can’t rely too much on groundwater, so storage of surface water has to be used in conjunction with groundwater reservoirs.

The recent flood in Melamchi last month devastated the community. Was this anticipated as a once-in-100 years type event? What kinds of precautions were adopted taking into consideration upstream geology.

You have rightly mentioned the headworks of the Melamchi Water Supply project have been designed with 100-year floods in mind. To ensure adequate protection, the project includes energy dissipation devices and safety mechanisms. The surface of the structures has been constructed to minimize abrasion due to flowing debris and bed loads. Hydraulic structures are designed to withstand the worst possible situation that can occur within the designed 100 year return period. However, an event can occur which is more intense than the expected 100-year flood, meaning structures and systems are always at risk. The recent damage in the Melamchi bazaar was mainly due to a large amount of unexpected debris flow. The devastation, therefore, has nothing to do with the Melamchi headworks construction.

Drones to the Rescue in Melamchi. (Video from Nepali Times )

In your experience, what are the opportunities and challenges for transboundary water cooperation with other riparian countries?

About 40% of the annual flow and 70% of dry season flows of the Ganges river in India originate from Nepali rivers. The Ganges basin is home to about 500 million people, which can in itself explain the importance of the rivers of Nepal for the people living in North east India. Floods during the monsoon and a lack of adequate water for food production in the dry seasons are the two major issues facing the Ganges basin. Obviously , the construction of storage projects in Nepalese territory to regulate the flows of the rivers originating in Nepal could solve both problems in India to a great extent. However, the road that led to bilateral cooperation between the two countries was a bit bumpy in the past. In the 1950s both countries signed two treaties namely, the Koshi River Treaty and Gandak river treaty, for which there is a huge dissatisfaction among the Nepali people. The conception among Nepalis is that both the treaties yield much fewer benefits in comparison to the problems they create for the residents of areas where infrastructure is constructed as per the agreements.

Having said that, there are many opportunities for cooperation with India, but we must also safeguard Nepali interests . If reservoirs in Nepali territory to resolve the problems related to flood and water scarcity in the dry season are to be constructed, pricing of the impounded water must be judicially determined for win-win cooperation between the countries. There are of course other many issues to be properly solved before constructing such mega water projects for mutual benefits.

Looking upstream from Nepal, China also shares our rivers. Nepal’s main concern with Chinese water relations is the sharing of flood and rainfall data. Because precipitation and weather events in China affect Nepal’s water supply downstream, better cooperation is needed to properly manage transboundary water risks. This type of data sharing is already happening with India, which has a greater interest in being Nepal’s downstream neighbor.

Recently, China sent a warning that the upstream of Tamakoshi river was dammed due to a large landslide. Tamakoshi is responsible for above 400MW of hydropower generation that covers almost one-third of Nepal's hydropower energy. What are your thoughts on a single hydropower project having such a large proportion of the national hydropower generation? What are the consequences of such planning?

Although this time we avoided significant problems associated with the upstream damming of the Tamakoshi due to a landslide, we must anticipate this sort of problem in the future. There are two parts to your question. Firstly, given the geology and steep slopes of the mountain as well as intense rainfall that occurs in Nepal, the structures we build on the rivers are always vulnerable. Under such conditions, it is often difficult to predict the worst-case scenario flood. There are computer models to estimate near to actual situations, however, how accurately we provide the input data largely determines how closely we can predict the flows. Due to climate change, this type of prediction has become more and more difficult. The Tamakoshi, headworks are designed to weather a flood with a 1,000 year return period, including a glacial lake outburst flood, meaning the headworks are designed to withstand a flood so intense it is only predicted to occur once every 1,000 years. This level of risk planning is common practice, and would normally be safe for the typical worst-case conditions.

Secondly, being one of the least developed countries in the world, our per capita electricity consumption is very low, about 300 kWh. As the country progresses, the per capita consumption grows, and you need to produce more electricity. In such a situation, a 456 MW project like Tamakoshi is not actually that big, and we will have similar projects distributed all over the country. However, for the present condition of the country, when a single project generates, about one-third of electricity, there is always the risk of power failure due to an unprecedented natural disaster in the Tamakoshi basin.

Moving forward, what do you see as the most important issue that needs to be tackled when it comes to water management in Nepal? Do you have any parting messages for young people?

Water is a finite resource, and there is increasing stress on water resources. Our attitudes of abundance and overuse are risky, and we must uphold a sustainable limit to water uses to protect this precious resource for future generations. Nepal also needs to explore the possibilities of reusing and recycling water. Young people need to realize the need to limit water use as well as population growth to achieve an optimum sustainable level of consumption. Beyond consumption, pollution of our available freshwater resources is another major issue that must be understood and addressed on the individual level.

Much of this article focuses on water for energy, and water for consumption and food production. Yet the importance of water goes beyond just our physiological needs. Water is associated with cultural, social, and economic needs. To avoid water conflict, we need to retain how water is related to our cultures, societies, and economies. This is particularly true for young people who need to understand water better than us, as they will bear the brunt of water scarcity under climate change. Young people need to be much more far-sighted to understand and protect the future of water in the latter half of the century. And finally, we need to realize that water is not just a resource to be used by humans. Future planning should also provide water for animals, birds, and all aspects of nature including those that are not economically productive to humanity. It is in the hands of the younger generations to produce an integrated approach to water management that safeguards our water for all far into the future.

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Essay on the importance of water : nepali educate.

L ife, both animal and plant, is impossible without water. Without water men die of dehydration About 70% of the human body is water. Of the total surface of the earth, 75 % is water and just below the surface of the land in most areas there is a saturated layer known as the water table. Animals and plants have large percentages of water in their make-up and some animals regulate their movements according to the water sources.

If there is no water there can be no life. The moon is a sterile desert because there is no water in it. It is to be remembered that it was water that determined the location of human settlements and without the Nile the Egyptian Civilization would not have developed The Nile provided the Egyptians facilities for irrigation and transport. As Herodotus said, Egypt is the "Gift of the Nile".

The urban man rarely thinks of the importance of water. When he needs water, all he has to do is to turn on the tap. The only time the urban folk become aware of the importance of water is when there is a drought and their water supply is regulated. If water rationing becomes too drastic. they may find themselves in a worse position than the rural man who may have a steady supply of water from his well. Imagine a day when the taps ran dry: Mr. Townsman would have found life intolerable. He could not brush his teeth, have his shave or could he have his bath in the morning. After lunch, he would have had a very difficult time trying to wash up. He might have used cloth to wipe his crockery. He could not wash his car. At the end of the day, however, our Mr. Townsman would have realized that water is precious and he should not be a water-waster. Scientists find water the most fascinating fluid in the world because of its versatility and usefulness. Electricity is generated by the force of running water.

Unlike other substances, water expands when freezing takes place. In ancient Rome snow was used to pack prawns and meat. Ice is used for refrigeration. Water is converted into steam and used as power. Whatever man eats is dependent on water for its growth. Water can convert whole, barren tracts of land into luxurious, rich and fertile regions, through the use of irrigation. In parts of Spain, diminishing quantities of rain have caused fertile land to dry up in the past years, creating barren deserts. This is turn has caused many men and their families to move to new places.

Most of us who take our daily supply of water for granted. may not be able to fully appreciate the importance of water. Many have perished through lack of water. Military men know that the most effective way of subduing any city or fortress is to cut its water supply.

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