essay on native american

164 Native American Research Topics

Looking for interesting Native American research topics? Here, we will explore the vibrant cultures and contributions of Indigenous peoples in North America. Choose a Native American essay topic to delve into the profound impact of colonization on Native American societies, their resilience, artistic expressions, and challenges.

💥 TOP 7 Native American Research Topics

🏆 best native american essay topics, 📍 native argumentative essay topics, 👍 more native american topics to write about, 🎓 interesting native american research questions, ✍️ native american essay topics for college, ❓ more native american essay topics.

• Values in Native American Oral Literature
• Horse Riding Stereotype Among the Native Americans
• Alaska Natives Diet: Traditional Food Habits and Adaptation of American Foodstuffs
• Comparison of Native American and African Religions
• Racial and Cultural Discrimination of Native Americans
• Native American Boarding Schools
• The Navajo Indians: Native American Studies
• Native American’s Oregon Recipe Native American recipes are techniques used by early American tribes to prepare foods rich in nutrition. In this case, the main discussion will focus on the Oregon native recipe.
• Native American Poems’ Comparative Analysis This paper presents a comparative analysis of three poems. They are “Absence” and “To the Pine Tree” by Schoolcraft, and “The Indian Corn Planter” by Johnson.
• European Trade Goods for Native Americans The use of European trade goods changed Native Americans’ lives while providing them with more opportunities to succeed in supporting and protecting their families.
• Institutional Racism Against Native Americans: The Killers of the Flower Moon David Grann published The Killers of the Flower Moon about the murders in Oklahoma in the 1920s and contributed to the creation of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).
• Native American Families in the United States This paper gives an in-depth analysis of the Native American society alongside other minority groups in terms of the human capital, time of arrival and demographic characteristics.
• Native American and African Religions According to Toropov and Buckles, within the Native American spirituality, all processes whether human or non human (spiritual), are linked.
• Native American Myths and American Literature The most attractive works for attention in the canon of American literature were those that seemed to illuminate the entire diversity of American culture.
• Cultural Competence Concerning Native Americans Native American communities have religious beliefs, community and family factors, and secondary determinants that affect cultural competence.
• Native American Renaissance in Poems In the 1950s, the culture of Native Americans experienced a phenomenon known as the Native American Renaissance.
• Social Work With Native American Population The Native American or Indigenous population has historically been challenged by severe oppression ever since the European population’s first arrival in the Americas.
• Native American Music of the Cherokee Indian Tribe Several scholars have studied and documented the rich music history and the place that music occupies in the life of the Cherokees.
• Europeans vs Native Americans: Why the Conflict Was Inevitable? As soon as Indians began refusing to do what colonizers asked of them, the latter started taking brutal measures.
• Native American Culture Before and After Colonization This paper discusses the culture of Native Americans and how this population managed to preserve and develop its cultural identity despite it being on the brink of extinction.
• Psychoeducation Group for Native Americans with Trauma The purpose of the psychoeducational group is to assist Native American individuals with trauma in the provision of high-quality therapy.
• Who Discovered America: Native Americans, Vikings and Columbus At the end of the 15th century, the Spanish navigator Christopher Columbus, with his expedition, reached North America’s shores, mistakenly believing that he had arrived in India.
• Native American Music: Cherokee Indian Tribe Different tribes had different kinds of music for different purposes, but they were all brought together by two characteristics; togetherness and drums.
• Native Americans: Annotated Bibliography The annotated bibliography of the articles related to the studies about modern Native Americans and their relations with non-Indians.
• Native Americans: Impact of European Colonization Depriving Native Americans of their land, culture, and freedom, European colonialism virtually annihilated their community, agency, and, ultimately, their lives.
• Relationships Between the European Settlers and the Native Americans This essay aims to examine the places of worship as a sphere of encounter for Europeans and the Indigenous people of America.
• Photography Impacts on Cultural Identity of Native Americans in America The photos of Native Americans often turn out to be disadvantageous to the appearance of the indigenous Americans, especially in this era of photography.
• Native American Women and Parenting The purpose of this research study is to review the plight of Native American mothers as well as other marginalized women populations.
• European vs. Native American Societies When the Europeans started to arrive in the New World, they discovered a society of Native Americans, or Indians, which was fundamentally different from their own.
• The Impact of European Colonization on Native American Communities.
• The Role of Native American Sovereignty in Contemporary Society.
• Cultural Appropriation and Its Effects on Native American Traditions.
• The Repatriation of Native American Artifacts: Ethical Considerations.
• Native American Mascots: Promoting Stereotypes or Cultural Appreciation?
• The Ongoing Struggle for Land Rights and Resource Management.
• The Importance of Preserving Native American Languages and Oral Traditions.
• Tribal Gaming and Economic Development: Balancing Progress and Tradition.
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Challenges in Native American Communities.
• Environmental Activism: Native American Perspectives on Conservation.
• The Impact of Boarding Schools on Native American Identity and Culture.
• Indigenous Rights and the Fight Against Pipeline Construction.
• The Role of Native American Women in Traditional and Modern Societies.
• Treaty Rights and Their Significance in Upholding Sovereignty.
• Reproductive Health and Healthcare Disparities in Native American Communities.
• Addressing Food Insecurity and Nutrition Challenges in Indigenous Populations.
• The Effects of Historical Trauma on Native American Mental Health.
• Tribal Justice Systems: Strengthening Cultural Practices and Community Accountability.
• Native American Education: Bridging the Achievement Gap.
• Sacred Sites and Religious Freedom: Balancing Cultural Preservation and Development.
• The Role of Native American Veterans in U.S. Military History.
• Native American Activism: Strategies for Advocating Indigenous Rights.
• The Role of Native American Literature in Resisting Assimilation.
• The Impact of Climate Change on Native American Communities.
• The Erasure of Native American Women from Missing and Murdered Indigenous People (MMIP) Discussions.
• Access to Healthcare and Health Disparities in Tribal Lands.
• Native American Identity and Racial Identity in the United States.
• The Impact of Federal Policies on Native American Reservations.
• The Role of Native American Languages in Educational Curriculum.
• Addressing Substance Abuse in Native American Youth: Prevention and Treatment Strategies.
• The Natchez: Native American People’s History The Natchez is a Native American ethnic group that initially lived in the Natchez Bluffs area in the Lower Mississippi Valley, which is the present-day town of Natchez.
• Native American and Cherokee Heritage Populations The aim of this research paper is to present the main characteristics of such cultural groups as Native Americans and Cherokee Heritage populations.
• The Rite of Sun Dance: Ancient Native American Practice The rite of the Sundance is an ancient Native American practice by the Lakota Sioux. It is a ceremonial dance done during summer at a Sun Dance gathering.
• Native American, European, and Black Women in North America The position of Native American, European, and Black women has changed a lot, giving them more opportunities, but also retaining certain limitations.
• Influence of Spaniards on Native Americans After considering the Spanish actions, one can understand how they changed the lives of the Indians. Spanish ships were anchored at the port of Monterey’s Bay to control the shore.
• The Relationship Between Native Americans and White Settlers The relationship between Native Americans and white settlers, as well as the perception of it, were more complex than often portrayed and should be explored.
• The Representation of Native Americans in Films The development of the representation of Native Americans in films has been uneven, with early movies featuring the population quite amply, while making obvious mistakes.
• New Perspective on the Enslavement of Native Americans The work shows a new perspective on the complex topic of Indian enslavement in the United States, which was overlooked before.
• Historical Trauma in Native Americans and African Americans Comparing and contrasting the historical trauma of Native Americans and African Americans provides an opportunity to see similarities in their life experiences.
• European-Native American Encounter After Columbus After Columbus, due to the forced ways of life, the Natives had to change their thinking methods to make possible fruitful interactions with the Europeans.
• Native American Tribes Before and After European Influence The paper examines why there were so many tribes, the development of the Native American cultures, the role of the environment, and the impact of Europeans.
• Native Americans: The Value of Environmental and Cultural History The history of Native Americans involves the environment in which they lived before being colonized. Native Americans have been silenced and deprived of their environment.
• Indian Boarding Schools and Native Americans Genocide The primary aim of the schools was to provide ample educational opportunities for Indians. In fact, children were prone to bullying and cultural stigmatization.
• British Colonists Attitude Toward Native Americans The ways British colonists regarded Native Americans, and black apparently was not identical, which determined the unequal positions of those in the newly created society.
• Native Americans in Schools: Effects of Racism Despite the improvement in educational policies, racism against Native Americans is still a problem in the education sector.
• Vine Deloria on Native American Activism When describing Indian Activism, Deloria emphasizes the concept of restoring sacred lands as one of the central ideas of the activist movement.
• The Native American Pipe Ceremony Then and Now The Native American Pipe Ceremony is the heart of the spiritual and cultural life of the native people of North America, particularly the Sioux or Lakota.
• Native American’s Trail Trees Markers A trail marker tree is a landmark used by Native Americans to tell directions they should follow when traveling.
• Native North American Art and the Indigenous Cultures This paper intends to compare the art pieces and cultural practices of the two regions of North America to identify existing similarities and differences.
• The Colonization of America as a Native American Genocide This paper argues that the colonization of America can be classified as the genocide of Native Americans as it features the goal of destroying the group.
• Aspects of Native American Culture With his writing, Franklin explores some aspects of the Native American culture, such as the transition of knowledge between Indians, and their attitude towards the White people.
• What Prevents Blacks, Latinos, and Native Americans From Banding Together With the inability of Asians, Blacks, Latinos, and Native Americans to access upward mobility, banding together to fight white supremacy has become an unrealized goal.
• Native American Tribes’ Customs and Politics The west region, north region, and northwest coast region are all part of the Native American culture. These are among the regions that the indigenous people of the United States.
• “Yellow Woman and a Beauty of the Spirit”: Old Tales in the Lives of Native Americans The current essay intends to examine how “Yellow Woman and a Beauty of the Spirit” reveals the role of old tales in the lives of Native American tribes in Yellow Woman.
• Religion and Europeans’ Attitude to Native Americans The paper examines how religion affected the attitude of the Europeans towards Native Americans in their initial contact and what factors contributed to this approach.
• Chief Joseph as a Famous Native American Chief Joseph was a leader in the 19th century, of a tribe called Nez Percé, he converted to Christianity after he failed in negotiations with the current Americans.
• Native Americans Issues in the US Even though Indian Americans are the indigenous population of this territory, they have experienced much discrimination since the Europeans came to North America.
• Healthcare Provider and Faith Diversity: Native American Spirituality, Buddhism, and Sikhism This paper outlines an explicit view on the following diverse faiths in regard to healthcare provision: Native American spirituality, Buddhism, and Sikhism.
• Healthcare System for Native and African Americans This paper discusses historical events contributing to mistrust of the health care system and steps to reduce health disparities among Native Americans and African Americans.
• Indian Land Rights Native American
• Native American Casinos and Their Influence on the Community
• Kennewick Man and the Native American Graves Protection
• Native American Boarding Schools of the Nineteenth Century
• Historical Challenges That Native American Women Have Faced
• Native American Healing and Medicinal Practices
• Integrating Holistic Modalities Into Native American Alcohol Treatment
• Ethically Handling and Reburying Human Remains of Indigenous Native American People
• Gender Roles and Sexuality in the Cultural Beliefs of the Native American Tribes
• Holocaust vs. Native American Genocide
• American Colonialism Still Influences Native American Identity
• Native American Community: Problems With Substance Abuse
• Jainism, Taoism, and the Native American Lakhota Beliefs
• European Misperceptions and Stereotypes: Racism in Native American Society
• Important Native American Historical Dates
• Cleansing and Forced Relocation of Native American Nations
• Manifest Destiny and the Genocide of the Native American Indian
• Ecological World View and Native American Uniformity
• Buddhist Native American Religions
• Native American Culture and Health Care
• The Lived Experiences of Native American Women Parenting on and off Reservations The study will examine the experiences of Native American women living on and off reservations from a qualitative viewpoint.
• The Problem of Native Americans’ Existence Susan Power raises the problem of Native Americans’ existence in a modern world and their communication with the dominant society
• The Role of the Natives in the American Revolution This essay will provide a short account of the natives in the American Revolution and explain their reasons for siding with either party.
• The Land Conflict Between White Settlers and Native Americans This paper aims to examine the background of land conflict between white settlers and native Americans, as well as offer alternative ways of its resolution.
• The Discovery of America: Effects on Native Americans The discovery of the New World stopped the independent development of native Americans and laid the foundation for their colonial dependence.
• The U.S. Treatment of Native Americans The topic of the U.S. attitude toward Native Americans is essential to discuss. Three examples of harmful attitudes will be provided in this paper.
• Education for Native Americans: Difficulties This study focuses on the difficulties that Native American students experience in mastering educational programs related to information technology and computer science.
• Native Americans in the United States: Literature Review The paper reviews literature works about the native Americans: “What you Pawn I Will Redeem” by S. Alexie, “The Third and Final Continent” by J. Lahiri, “The Shawl” by L. Erdrich.
• The Art of Native North America The article analyzes Native American art in terms of its diversity and any general trends that can be found in it.
• Oban on Native American Indian Culture and Values The bear has always been part of Native American Indian culture and mythology, throughout the story, the traditional beliefs of Indians about bears are clearly articulated.
• Native American Studies: “Fool’s Crow” by Welch “Fool’s Crow” by James Welch is a remarkable book in the sphere of Native American literature. It is a masterful evocation of the Native American lifestyle and skillful reporting.
• Native-American Studies: Quapaw Indians This essay will discuss the culture of Quapaw Indians, tracing the history of the Quapaw Indians, their location, economic activities, and lifestyle.
• The Native American Indians The Native American Indians experienced the process of colonization performed by the English, French, and Spain colonizers.
• Freedom From Beliefs Native Americans This essay is valuable to the oppressed since through this, the writer gives them courage to face the struggle.
• Popular Culture: Native American Communities BBC and Reuters, the Times, and the Look portray that low-class location prevents many Native Americans to obtain social respect and opportunities available for the white majority.
• Native Americans and Using of Peyote Issue Peyote or mescaline is a hallucinogen derived from a cactus. A group of Native Americans use this regularly as part of their religious ceremonies.
• Native Americans History: The Other Trail of Tears The given work tells us about the native Americans, the history of their lives, problems, and restrictions they were facing.
• Native Americans and Navajo Heritage and Health Beliefs This paper demonstrates a compare and contrast analysis of common characteristics and distinguishing traits between Native American and Navajo heritage.
• Women and Natives in Colonial America During the Colonial era of world history, Europeans explored other continents looking for new land, valuable resources, and trade opportunities.
• Indian Boarding Schools’ Impact on Native Americans Indian boarding schools represented the institutions that forcibly put Native American children and teenagers in educational settings.
• European Exploration and Effects on Native Americans After the end of the fourteenth century, many European world powers began to explore and discover new regions.
• Native Americans’ History Before and After 1492 Native Americans inhabited the Americas for thousands of years before the arrival of Columbus and other European explorers and settlers.
• Native Americans and Apache Heritage This paper contains presentation about Native Americans as cultural group and Apache Heritage as socio-cultural group using scientific literature, Internet resources, and other sources.
• Native Americans and Navajo Heritage This paper contains presentation about Native Americans as cultural group and Navajo Heritage as socio-cultural group using scientific literature, Internet resources, and other sources.
• Heroes in Native American Legend and German Tale Folk literature is a concentration of wisdom and moral values. Fairy tales open the world where good confronts evil, and good always wins.
• Native American Indians: Concepts, Theories and Research Complexities in the interaction of Native Americans and settlers from Europe in the 15th century and early 16th century led to the establishment of boundaries between the natives and settlers.
• Native Americans and Nursing Care Strategies The purpose of this discussion is to describe demographic and cultural characteristics of Native Americans and present nursing strategies of providing culturally competent care.
• Native Americans: White Mountain Apache People To reveal a cultural landscape of White Mountain Apache people as well as their attitudes towards their lives, it is essential to pinpoint some core definitions used in the reading.
• Culturally Competent Healthcare Native Americans Culturally competent healthcare is the right mind-set to have in order to deliver cost-efficient service to members of the Native American population.
• Native Americans’ Mental Health The aim of this paper is to understand what healthcare needs with regard to mental health Native Americans might have, to reduce the rate of incidents related to mental health issues.
• European-Native American Relations The exploration in Americas allowed the development of cultural contacts and cultural exchanges among representatives of different societies.
• How Did the Environment Affect the Native American Indians?
• Should Native American Tribes Be Allowed to Use Peyote?
• How Did the Native American Removal Compare to the Holocaust?
• Do Native Americans Get Social Security?
• What Made Native American Peoples Vulnerable to Conquest by European Adventurers?
• How Did Manifest Destiny Affect Native American Culture?
• What Do Native American Arts Look Like?
• How Does Native American Mascot Controversy Affect U.S. Reputation?
• What Was Columbus’ Factor in Native American Depopulation?
• How Is Native American Philosophy Unique From Eurocentric?
• What Was Native American Society Like Before European Contact?
• How Were the Native American Indians Driven Out From Their Land?
• When Did the Native American Indians First Meet the European Settlers?
• What Does Sovereignty Do for Native Americans?
• How Sovereign Are Native American Nations Today?
• What Benefits Does the US Government Give to Native Americans?
• When Did Native Americans Lose Their Sovereignty?
• Can Native American Tribes Protect Their Land if They Are Not Recognized by the Federal Government?
• Which President Removed Native Americans From Their Lands?
• Do Native Americans Get Anything From the Government?
• Why Are Some Native American Tribes Not Federally Recognized?
• Do Native Americans Have Sovereign Immunity?
• How Did Native American Society Change After European Contact?
• Are Native Americans Protected by Law?
• Do Native Americans Pay More Taxes?

Cite this post

• Chicago (N-B)
• Chicago (A-D)

StudyCorgi. (2022, July 14). 164 Native American Research Topics. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/native-american-essay-topics/

"164 Native American Research Topics." StudyCorgi , 14 July 2022, studycorgi.com/ideas/native-american-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . (2022) '164 Native American Research Topics'. 14 July.

1. StudyCorgi . "164 Native American Research Topics." July 14, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/native-american-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "164 Native American Research Topics." July 14, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/native-american-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "164 Native American Research Topics." July 14, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/native-american-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Native American were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 21, 2024 .

• History Classics
• Your Profile
• Find History on Facebook (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on Twitter (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on YouTube (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on Instagram (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on TikTok (Opens in a new window)
• This Day In History
• History Podcasts
• History Vault

Native American Cultures

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 16, 2023 | Original: December 4, 2009

Many thousands of years before Christopher Columbus ’ ships landed in the Bahamas , a different group of people discovered America: the nomadic ancestors of modern Native Americans who hiked over a “land bridge” from Asia to what is now Alaska more than 12,000 years ago. 

In fact, by the time European adventurers arrived in the 15th century, scholars estimate that more than 50 million people were already living in the Americas. Of these, some 10 million lived in the area that would become the United States. As time passed, these migrants and their descendants pushed south and east, adapting as they went. 

In order to keep track of these diverse groups, anthropologists and geographers have divided them into “culture areas,” or rough groupings of contiguous peoples who shared similar habitats and characteristics. Most scholars break North America—excluding present-day Mexico—into 10 separate culture areas: the Arctic, the Subarctic, the Northeast, the Southeast, the Plains, the Southwest, the Great Basin, California, the Northwest Coast and the Plateau.

The Arctic culture area, a cold, flat, treeless region (actually a frozen desert) near the Arctic Circle in present-day Alaska , Canada and Greenland, was home to the Inuit and the Aleut. Both groups spoke, and continue to speak, dialects descended from what scholars call the Eskimo-Aleut language family. 

Because it is such an inhospitable landscape, the Arctic’s population was comparatively small and scattered. Some of its peoples, especially the Inuit in the northern part of the region, were nomads, following seals, polar bears and other game as they migrated across the tundra. In the southern part of the region, the Aleut were a bit more settled, living in small fishing villages along the shore.

Did you know? According to the U.S. Census Bureau, there are about 4.5 million Native Americans and Alaska Natives in the United States today. That’s about 1.5 percent of the population.

The Inuit and Aleut had a great deal in common. Many lived in dome-shaped houses made of sod or timber (or, in the North, ice blocks). They used seal and otter skins to make warm, weatherproof clothing, aerodynamic dogsleds and long, open fishing boats (kayaks in Inuit; baidarkas in Aleut).

By the time the United States purchased Alaska in 1867, decades of oppression and exposure to European diseases had taken their toll: The native population had dropped to just 2,500; the descendants of these survivors still make their homes in the area today.

The Subarctic

The Subarctic culture area, mostly composed of swampy, piney forests (taiga) and waterlogged tundra, stretched across much of inland Alaska and Canada. Scholars have divided the region’s people into two language groups: the Athabaskan speakers at its western end, among them the Tsattine (Beaver), Gwich’in (or Kuchin) and the Deg Xinag (formerly—and pejoratively—known as the Ingalik), and the Algonquian speakers at its eastern end, including the Cree, the Ojibwa and the Naskapi.

In the Subarctic, travel was difficult—toboggans, snowshoes and lightweight canoes were the primary means of transportation—and population was sparse. In general, the peoples of the Subarctic did not form large permanent settlements; instead, small family groups stuck together as they traipsed after herds of caribou. They lived in small, easy-to-move tents and lean-tos, and when it grew too cold to hunt they hunkered into underground dugouts.

The growth of the fur trade in the 17th and 18th centuries disrupted the Subarctic way of life—now, instead of hunting and gathering for subsistence, the Indians focused on supplying pelts to the European traders—and eventually led to the displacement and extermination of many of the region’s native communities.

The Northeast

The Northeast culture area, one of the first to have sustained contact with Europeans, stretched from present-day Canada’s Atlantic coast to North Carolina and inland to the Mississippi River valley. Its inhabitants were members of two main groups: Iroquoian speakers (these included the Cayuga, Oneida, Erie, Onondaga, Seneca and Tuscarora), most of whom lived along inland rivers and lakes in fortified, politically stable villages, and the more numerous Algonquian speakers (these included the Pequot, Fox, Shawnee, Wampanoag, Delaware and Menominee) who lived in small farming and fishing villages along the ocean. There, they grew crops like corn, beans and vegetables.

Life in the Northeast culture area was already fraught with conflict—the Iroquoian groups tended to be rather aggressive and warlike, and bands and villages outside of their allied confederacies were never safe from their raids—and it grew more complicated when European colonizers arrived. Colonial wars repeatedly forced the region’s Indigenous people to take sides, pitting the Iroquois groups against their Algonquian neighbors. Meanwhile, as white settlement pressed westward, it eventually displaced both sets of Indigenous people from their lands.

The Southeast

The Southeast culture area, north of the Gulf of Mexico and south of the Northeast, was a humid, fertile agricultural region. Many of its natives were expert farmers—they grew staple crops like maize, beans, squash, tobacco and sunflower—who organized their lives around small ceremonial and market villages known as hamlets. Perhaps the most familiar of the Southeastern Indigenous peoples are the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek and Seminole, sometimes called the Five Civilized Tribes, some of whom spoke a variant of the Muskogean language.

By the time the U.S. had won its independence from Britain, the Southeast culture area had already lost many of its native people to disease and displacement. In 1830, the federal Indian Removal Act compelled the relocation of what remained of the Five Civilized Tribes so that white settlers could have their land. Between 1830 and 1838, federal officials forced nearly 100,000 Indigenous people out of the southern states and into “Indian Territory” (later Oklahoma) west of the Mississippi. The Cherokee called this frequently deadly trek the Trail of Tears .

The Plains culture area comprises the vast prairie region between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains, from present-day Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. Before the arrival of European traders and explorers, its inhabitants—speakers of Siouan, Algonquian, Caddoan, Uto-Aztecan and Athabaskan languages—were relatively settled hunters and farmers. After European contact, and especially after Spanish colonists brought horses to the region in the 18th century, the peoples of the Great Plains became much more nomadic. 

Groups like the Crow, Blackfeet, Cheyenne, Comanche and Arapaho used horses to pursue great herds of buffalo across the prairie. The most common dwelling for these hunters was the cone-shaped teepee, a bison-skin tent that could be folded up and carried anywhere. Plains Indians are also known for their elaborately feathered war bonnets.

As white traders and settlers moved west across the Plains region, they brought many damaging things with them: commercial goods, like knives and kettles, which Indigenous people came to depend on; guns; and disease. By the end of the 19th century, white sport hunters had nearly exterminated the area’s buffalo herds. With settlers encroaching on their lands and no way to make money, the Plains natives were forced onto government reservations.

The Southwest

The peoples of the Southwest culture area, a huge desert region in present-day Arizona and New Mexico (along with parts of Colorado, Utah, Texas and Mexico) developed two distinct ways of life.

Sedentary farmers such as the Hopi, the Zuni, the Yaqui and the Yuma grew crops like corn, beans and squash. Many lived in permanent settlements, known as pueblos, built of stone and adobe. These pueblos featured great multistory dwellings that resembled apartment houses. At their centers, many of these villages also had large ceremonial pit houses, or kivas.

Other Southwestern peoples, such as the Navajo and the Apache, were more nomadic. They survived by hunting, gathering and raiding their more established neighbors for their crops. Because these groups were always on the move, their homes were much less permanent than the pueblos. For instance, the Navajo fashioned their iconic eastward-facing round houses, known as hogans, out of materials like mud and bark.

By the time the southwestern territories became a part of the United States after the Mexican War, many of the region’s native people had already been killed. (Spanish colonists and missionaries had enslaved many of the Pueblo Indians, for example, working them to death on vast Spanish ranches known as encomiendas.) During the second half of the 19th century, the federal government resettled most of the region’s remaining natives onto reservations.

The Great Basin

The Great Basin culture area, an expansive bowl formed by the Rocky Mountains to the east, the Sierra Nevadas to the west, the Columbia Plateau to the north, and the Colorado Plateau to the south, was a barren wasteland of deserts, salt flats and brackish lakes. Its people, most of whom spoke Shoshonean or Uto-Aztecan dialects (the Bannock, Paiute and Ute, for example), foraged for roots, seeds and nuts and hunted snakes, lizards and small mammals. Because they were always on the move, they lived in compact, easy-to-build wikiups made of willow poles or saplings, leaves and brush. Their settlements and social groups were impermanent, and communal leadership (what little there was) was informal.

After European contact, some Great Basin groups got horses and formed equestrian hunting and raiding bands that were similar to the ones we associate with the Great Plains natives. After white prospectors discovered gold and silver in the region in the mid-19th century, most of the Great Basin’s people lost their land and, frequently, their lives.

Before European contact, the temperate California area had more people than any other North American landscape at the time, with approximately 300,000 people in the mid-16th century. It's estimated that 100 different tribes and groups spoke more than 200 dialects. These languages were derived from the Penutian (the Maidu, Miwok and Yokuts), the Hokan (the Chumash, Pomo, Salinas and Shasta), the Uto-Aztecan (the Tubabulabal, Serrano and Kinatemuk) and the Athapaskan (the Hupa, among others). Many of the “Mission Indians” who were driven out of the Southwest by Spanish colonization also spoke Uto-Aztecan dialects.

Despite this great diversity, many native Californians lived very similar lives. They did not practice much agriculture. Instead, they organized themselves into small, family-based bands of hunter-gatherers known as tribelets. Inter-tribelet relationships, based on well-established systems of trade and common rights, were generally peaceful.

Spanish explorers infiltrated the California region in the middle of the 16th century. In 1769, the cleric Junipero Serra established a mission at San Diego, inaugurating a particularly brutal period in which forced labor, disease and assimilation nearly exterminated the culture area’s native population.

The Northwest Coast

The Northwest Coast culture area, along the Pacific coast from British Columbia to the top of Northern California, has a mild climate and an abundance of natural resources. In particular, the ocean and the region’s rivers provided almost everything its people needed—salmon, especially, but also whales, sea otters, seals and fish and shellfish of all kinds. As a result, unlike many other hunter-gatherers who struggled to eke out a living and were forced to follow animal herds from place to place, the Indians of the Pacific Northwest were secure enough to build permanent villages that housed hundreds of people apiece. 

Those villages operated according to a rigidly stratified social structure, more sophisticated than any outside of Mexico and Central America. A person’s status was determined by his closeness to the village’s chief and reinforced by the number of possessions—blankets, shells and skins, canoes and even slaves—he had at his disposal. (Goods like these played an important role in the potlatch, an elaborate gift-giving ceremony designed to affirm these class divisions.)

Prominent groups in the region included the Athapaskan Haida and Tlingit; the Penutian Chinook, Tsimshian and Coos; the Wakashan Kwakiutl and Nuu-chah-nulth (Nootka); and the Salishan Coast Salish.

The Plateau

The Plateau culture area sat in the Columbia and Fraser River basins at the intersection of the Subarctic, the Plains, the Great Basin, California and the Northwest Coast (present-day Idaho, Montana and eastern Oregon and Washington). Most of its people lived in small, peaceful villages along streams and riverbanks and survived by fishing for salmon and trout, hunting and gathering wild berries, roots and nuts.

In the southern Plateau region, the great majority spoke languages derived from the Penutian (the Klamath, Klikitat, Modoc, Nez Perce, Walla Walla and Yakima or Yakama). North of the Columbia River, most (the Skitswish (Coeur d’Alene), Salish (Flathead), Spokane and Columbia) spoke Salishan dialects.

In the 18th century, other native groups brought horses to the Plateau. The region’s inhabitants quickly integrated the animals into their economy, expanding the radius of their hunts and acting as traders and emissaries between the Northwest and the Plains. 

In 1805, the explorers Lewis and Clark passed through the area, followed by increasing numbers of white settlers. By the end of the 19th century, most of the remaining members of Plateau tribes had been cleared from their lands and resettled in government reservations.

Photo Galleries

HISTORY Vault: Native American History

From Comanche warriors to Navajo code talkers, learn more about Indigenous history.

Sign up for Inside History

Get HISTORY’s most fascinating stories delivered to your inbox three times a week.

By submitting your information, you agree to receive emails from HISTORY and A+E Networks. You can opt out at any time. You must be 16 years or older and a resident of the United States.

More details : Privacy Notice | Terms of Use | Contact Us

• Utility Menu

Pluralism Project Archive

Native american religious and cultural freedom: an introductory essay (2005).

I. No Word for Religion: The Distinctive Contours of Native American Religions

A. Fundamental Diversity We often refer to Native American religion or spirituality in the singular, but there is a fundamental diversity concerning Native American religious traditions. In the United States, there are more than five hundred recognized different tribes , speaking more than two hundred different indigenous languages, party to nearly four hundred different treaties , and courted by missionaries of each branch of Christianity. With traditional ways of life lived on a variety of landscapes, riverscapes, and seascapes, stereotypical images of buffalo-chasing nomads of the Plains cannot suffice to represent the people of Acoma, still raising corn and still occupying their mesa-top pueblo in what only relatively recently has come to be called New Mexico, for more than a thousand years; or the Tlingit people of what is now Southeast Alaska whose world was transformed by Raven, and whose lives revolve around the sea and the salmon. Perhaps it is ironic that it is their shared history of dispossession, colonization, and Christian missions that is most obviously common among different Native peoples. If “Indian” was a misnomer owing to European explorers’ geographical wishful thinking, so too in a sense is “Native American,”a term that elides the differences among peoples of “North America” into an identity apparently shared by none at the time the continents they shared were named for a European explorer. But the labels deployed by explorers and colonizers became an organizing tool for the resistance of the colonized. As distinctive Native people came to see their stock rise and fall together under “Indian Policy,” they resourcefully added that Native or Indian identity, including many of its symbolic and religious emblems, to their own tribal identities. A number of prophets arose with compelling visions through which the sacred called peoples practicing different religions and speaking different languages into new identities at once religious and civil. Prophetic new religious movements, adoption and adaptation of Christian affiliation, and revitalized commitments to tribal specific ceremonial complexes and belief systems alike marked religious responses to colonialism and Christian missions. And religion was at the heart of negotiating these changes. “More than colonialism pushed,” Joel Martin has memorably written, “the sacred pulled Native people into new religious worlds.”(Martin) Despite centuries of hostile and assimilative policies often designed to dismantle the structures of indigenous communities, language, and belief systems, the late twentieth century marked a period of remarkable revitalization and renewal of Native traditions. Built on centuries of resistance as well as strategic accommodations, Native communities from the 1960s on have vigorously pressed their claims to religious self-determination.

B. "Way of Life, not Religion" In all their diversity, people from different Native nations hasten to point out that their respective languages include no word for “religion”, and maintain an emphatic distinction between ways of life in which economy, politics, medicine, art, agriculture, etc., are ideally integrated into a spiritually-informed whole. As Native communities try to continue their traditions in the context of a modern American society that conceives of these as discrete segments of human thought and activity, it has not been easy for Native communities to accomplish this kind of integration. Nor has it been easy to to persuade others of, for example, the spiritual importance of what could be construed as an economic activity, such as fishing or whaling.

C. Oral Tradition and Indigenous Languages Traversing the diversity of Native North American peoples, too, is the primacy of oral tradition. Although a range of writing systems obtained existed prior to contact with Europeans, and although a variety of writing systems emerged from the crucible of that contact, notably the Cherokee syllabary created by Sequoyah and, later, the phonetic transcription of indigenous languages by linguists, Native communities have maintained living traditions with remarkable care through orality. At first glance, from the point of view of a profoundly literate tradition, this might seem little to brag about, but the structure of orality enables a kind of fluidity of continuity and change that has clearly enabled Native traditions to sustain, and even enlarge, themselves in spite of European American efforts to eradicate their languages, cultures, and traditions. In this colonizing context, because oral traditions can function to ensure that knowledge is shared with those deemed worthy of it, orality has proved to be a particular resource to Native elders and their communities, especially with regard to maintaining proper protocols around sacred knowledge. So a commitment to orality can be said to have underwritten artful survival amid the pressures of colonization. It has also rendered Native traditions particularly vulnerable to exploitation. Although Native communities continue to privilege the kinds of knowledge kept in lineages of oral tradition, courts have only haltingly recognized the evidentiary value of oral traditions. Because the communal knowledge of oral traditions is not well served by the protections of intellectual property in western law, corporations and their shareholders have profited from indigenous knowledge, especially ethnobotanical and pharmacological knowledge with few encumbrances or legal contracts. Orality has also rendered Native traditions vulnerable to erosion. Today, in a trend that linguists point out is global, Native American languages in particular are to an alarming degree endangered languages. In danger of being lost are entire ways of perceiving the world, from which we can learn to live more sustainable, balanced, lives in an ecocidal age.

D. "Religious" Regard for the Land In this latter respect of being not only economically land-based but culturally land-oriented, Native religious traditions also demonstrate a consistency across their fundamental diversity. In God is Red ,Vine Deloria, Jr. famously argued that Native religious traditions are oriented fundamentally in space, and thus difficult to understand in religious terms belonging properly tothe time-oriented traditions of Christianity and Judaism. Such a worldview is ensconced in the idioms, if not structures, of many spoken Native languages, but living well on particular landscapes has not come naturally to Native peoples, as romanticized images of noble savages born to move silently through the woods would suggest. For Native peoples, living in balance with particular landscapes has been the fruit of hard work as well as a product of worldview, a matter of ethical living in worlds where non human life has moral standing and disciplined attention to ritual protocol. Still, even though certain places on landscapes have been sacred in the customary sense of being wholly distinct from the profane and its activity, many places sacred to Native peoples have been sources of material as well as spiritual sustenance. As with sacred places, so too with many sacred practices of living on landscapes. In the reckoning of Native peoples, pursuits like harvesting wild rice, spearing fish or hunting certain animals can be at once religious and economic in ways that have been difficult for Western courts to acknowledge. Places and practices have often had both sacred and instrumental value. Thus, certain cultural freedoms are to be seen in the same manner as religious freedoms. And thus, it has not been easy for Native peoples who have no word for “religion” to find comparable protections for religious freedom, and it is to that troubled history we now turn.

II. History of Native American Religious and Cultural Freedom

A. Overview That sacred Native lifeways have only partly corresponded to the modern Western language of “religion,” the free exercise of which is ostensibly protected by the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution , has not stopped Native communities from seeking protection of their freedom to exercise and benefit from those lifeways. In the days of treaty making, formally closed by Congress in 1871, and in subsequent years of negotiated agreements, Native communities often stipulated protections of certain places and practices, as did Lakota leaders in the Fort Laramie Treaty when they specifically exempted the Paha Sapa, subsequently called the Black Hills from land cessions, or by Ojibwe leaders in the 1837  treaty, when they expressly retained “usufruct” rights to hunt, fish, and gather on lands otherwise ceded to the U.S. in the treaty. But these and other treaty agreements have been honored neither by American citizens nor the United States government. Native communities have struggled to secure their rights and interests within the legal and political system of the United States despite working in an English language and in a legal language that does not easily give voice to Native regard for sacred places, practices, and lifeways. Although certain Native people have appealed to international courts and communities for recourse, much of the material considered in this website concerns Native communities’ efforts in the twentieth and twenty-first century to protect such interests and freedoms within the legal and political universe of the United States.

B. Timeline 1871 End of Treaty Making Congress legislates that no more treaties are to be made with tribes and claims “plenary power” over Indians as wards of U.S. government. 1887-1934 Formal U.S. Indian policy of assimilation dissolves communal property, promotes English only boarding school education, and includes informal and formalized regulation and prohibition of Native American ceremonies. At the same time, concern with “vanishing Indians” and their cultures drives a large scale effort to collect Native material culture for museum preservation and display. 1906 American Antiquities Act Ostensibly protects “national” treasures on public lands from pilfering, but construes Native American artifacts and human remains on federal land as “archeological resources,” federal property useful for science. 1921 Bureau of Indian Affairs Continuing an administrative trajectory begun in the 1880's, the Indian Bureau authorized its field agents to use force and imprisonment to halt religious practices deemed inimical to assimilation. 1923 Bureau of Indian Affairs The federal government tries to promote assimilation by instructing superintendents and Indian agents to supress Native dances, prohibiting some and limiting others to specified times. 1924 Pueblos make appeal for religious freedom protection The Council of All the New Mexico Pueblos appeals to the public for First Amendment protection from Indian policies suppressing ceremonial dances. 1924 Indian Citizenship Act Although uneven policies had recognized certain Indian individuals as citizens, all Native Americans are declared citizens by Congressional legislation. 1928 Meriam Report Declares federal assimilation policy a failure 1934 Indian Reorganization Act Officially reaffirms legality and importance of Native communities’ religious, cultural, and linguistic traditions. 1946 Indian Claims Commission Federal Commission created to put to rest the host of Native treaty land claims against the United States with monetary settlements. 1970 Return of Blue Lake to Taos Pueblo After a long struggle to win support by President Nixon and Congress, New Mexico’s Taos Pueblo secures the return of a sacred lake, and sets a precedent that threatened many federal lands with similar claims, though regulations are tightened. Taos Pueblo still struggles to safeguard airspace over the lake. 1972 Portions of Mount Adams returned to Yakama Nation Portions of Washington State’s Mount Adams, sacred to the Yakama people, was returned to that tribe by congressional legislation and executive decision. 1978 American Indian Religious Freedom Act Specifies Native American Church, and other native American religious practices as fitting within religious freedom. Government agencies to take into account adverse impacts on native religious freedom resulting from decisions made, but with no enforcement mechanism, tribes were left with little recourse. 1988 Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association Three Calif. Tribes try to block logging road in federal lands near sacred Mt. Shasta Supreme Court sides w/Lyng, against tribes. Court also finds that AIRFA contains no legal teeth for enforcement. 1990 Employment Division, Department of Human Resources v. Smith Oregon fires two native chemical dependency counselors for Peyote use. They are denied unemployment compensation. They sue. Supreme Court 6-3 sides w/Oregon in a major shift in approach to religious freedom. Scalia, for majority: Laws made that are neutral to religion, even if they result in a burden on religious exercise, are not unconstitutional. Dissent identifies this more precisely as a violation of specific congressional intent to clarify and protect Native American religious freedoms 1990 Native American Graves and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) Mandates return of human remains, associated burial items, ceremonial objects, and "cultural patrimony” from museum collections receiving federal money to identifiable source tribes. Requires archeologists to secure approval from tribes before digging. 1990 “Traditional Cultural Properties” Designation created under Historic Preservation Act enables Native communities to seek protection of significant places and landscapes under the National Historic Preservation Act. 1993 Religious Freedom Restoration Act Concerning Free Exercise Claims, the burden should be upon the government to prove “compelling state interest” in laws 1994 Amendments to A.I.R.F.A Identifies Peyote use as sacramental and protected by U.S., despite state issues (all regs must be made in consultation with reps of traditional Indian religions. 1996 President Clinton's Executive Order (13006/7) on Native American Sacred Sites Clarifies Native American Sacred Sites to be taken seriously by government officials. 1997 City of Bourne v. Flores Supreme Court declares Religious Freedom Restoration Act unconstitutional 2000 Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA) Protects religious institutions' rights to make full use of their lands and properties "to fulfill their missions." Also designed to protect the rights of inmates to practice religious traditions. RLUIPA has notably been used in a number of hair-length and free-practice cases for Native inmates, a number of which are ongoing (see: Greybuffalo v. Frank).

III. Contemporary Attempts to Seek Protection Against the backdrop, Native concerns of religious and cultural freedoms can be distinguished in at least the following ways.

• Issues of access to, control over, and integrity of sacred lands
• Free exercise of religion in public correctional and educational institutions
• Free Exercise of “religious” and cultural practices prohibited by other realms of law: Controlled Substance Law, Endangered Species Law, Fish and Wildlife Law
• Repatriation of Human Remains held in museums and scientific institutions
• Repatriation of Sacred Objects/Cultural Patrimony in museums and scientific institutions
• Protection of Sacred and Other Cultural Knowledge from exploitation and unilateral appropriation (see Lakota Elder’s declaration).

In their attempts to press claims for religious and cultural self-determination and for the integrity of sacred lands and species, Native communities have identified a number of arenas for seeking protection in the courts, in legislatures, in administrative and regulatory decision-making, and through private market transactions and negotiated agreements. And, although appeals to international law and human rights protocols have had few results, Native communities bring their cases to the court of world opinion as well. It should be noted that Native communities frequently pursue their religious and cultural interests on a number of fronts simultaneously. Because Native traditions do not fit neatly into the category of “religion” as it has come to be demarcated in legal and political languages, their attempts have been various to promote those interests in those languages of power, and sometimes involve difficult strategic decisions that often involve as many costs as benefits. For example, seeking protection of a sacred site through historic preservation regulations does not mean to establish Native American rights over access to and control of sacred places, but it can be appealing in light of the courts’ recently narrowing interpretation of constitutional claims to the free exercise of religion. Even in the relative heyday of constitutional protection of the religious freedom of minority traditions, many Native elders and others were understandably hesitant to relinquish sacred knowledge to the public record in an effort to protect religious and cultural freedoms, much less reduce Native lifeways to the modern Western terms of religion. Vine Deloria, Jr. has argued that given the courts’ decisions in the 1980s and 1990s, especially in the Lyng and Smith cases, efforts by Native people to protect religious and cultural interests under the First Amendment did as much harm as good to those interests by fixing them in written documents and subjecting them to public, often hostile, scrutiny.

A. First Amendment Since the 1790s, the First Amendment to the Constitution has held that “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” The former of the amendment’s two clauses, referred to as the “establishment clause” guards against government sponsorship of particular religious positions. The latter, known as the “free exercise” clause, protects the rights of religious minorites from government interference. But just what these clauses have been understood to mean, and how much they are to be weighed against other rights and protections, such as that of private property, has been the subject of considerable debate in constitutional law over the years. Ironically, apart from matters of church property disposition, it was not until the 1940s that the Supreme Court began to offer its clarification of these constitutional protections. As concerns free exercise jurisprudence, under Chief Justices Warren and Burger in the 1960s and 1970s, the Supreme Court had expanded free exercise protection and its accommodations considerably, though in retrospect too few Native communities were sufficiently organized or capitalized, or perhaps even motivated, given their chastened experience of the narrow possibilities of protection under U.S. law, to press their claims before the courts. Those communities who did pursue such interests experienced first hand the difficulty of trying to squeeze communal Native traditions, construals of sacred land, and practices at once economic and sacred into the conceptual box of religion and an individual’s right to its free exercise. By the time more Native communities pursued their claims under the free exercise clause in the 1980s and 1990s, however, the political and judicial climate around such matters had changed considerably. One can argue it has been no coincidence that the two, arguably three, landmark Supreme Court cases restricting the scope of free exercise protection under the Rehnquist Court were cases involving Native American traditions. This may be because the Court agrees to hear only a fraction of the cases referred to it. In Bowen v. Roy 476 U.S. 693 (1986) , the High Court held against a Native person refusing on religious grounds to a social security number necessary for food stamp eligibility. With even greater consequence for subsequent protections of sacred lands under the constitution, in Lyng v. Northwest Cemetery Protective Association 485 U.S. 439 (1988) , the High Court reversed lower court rulings which had blocked the construction of a timber road through high country sacred to California’s Yurok, Karok and Tolowa communities. In a scathing dissent, Harry Blackmun argued that the majority had fundamentally misunderstood the idioms of Native religions and the centrality of sacred lands. Writing for the majority, though, Sandra Day O’Connor’s opinion recognized the sincerity of Native religious claims to sacred lands while devaluing those claims vis a vis other competing goods, especially in this case, the state’s rights to administer “what is, after all, its land.” The decision also codified an interpretation of Congress’s legislative protections in the 1978 American Indian Religious Freedom Act as only advisory in nature. As of course happens in the U.S. judical system, such decisions of the High Court set new precedents that not only shape the decisions of lower courts, but that have a chilling effect on the number of costly suits brought into the system by Native communities. What the Lyng decision began to do with respect to sacred land protection, was finished off with respect to restricting free exercise more broadly in the Rehnquist Court’s 1990 decision in Employment Division, State of Oregon v. Smith 484 U.S. 872 (1990) . Despite nearly a century of specific protections of Peyotism, in an unemployment compensation case involving two Oregon substance abuse counselors who had been fired because they had been found to be Peyote ingesting members of the Native American Church , a religious organization founded to secure first amendment protection in the first place, the court found that the state’s right to enforce its controlled substance laws outweighed the free exercise rights of Peyotists. Writing for the majority, Justice Scalia’s opinion reframed the entire structure of free exercise jurisprudence, holding as constitutional laws that do not intentionally and expressly deny free exercise rights even if they have the effect of the same. A host of minority religious communities, civil liberties organizations, and liberal Christian groups were alarmed at the precedent set in Smith. A subsequent legislative attempt to override the Supreme Court, the Religious Freedom Restoration Act , passed by Congress and signed into law in 1993 by President Clinton was found unconstitutional in City of Bourne v. Flores (1997) , as the High Court claimed its constitutional primacy as interpreter of the constitution.

i. Sacred Lands In light of the ruling in Lyng v. Northwest Cemetery Protective Association (1988) discussed immediately above, there have been few subsequent attempts to seek comparable protection of sacred lands, whether that be access to, control of, or integrity of sacred places. That said, three cases leading up to the 1988 Supreme Court decision were heard at the level of federal circuit courts of appeal, and are worthy of note for the judicial history of appeals to First Amendment protection for sacred lands. In Sequoyah v. Tennessee Valley Authority , 19800 620 F.2d 1159 (6th Cir. 1980) , the court remained unconvinced by claims that a proposed dam's flooding of non-reservation lands sacred to the Cherokee violate the free excersice clause. That same year, in Badoni v. Higginson , 638 F. 2d 172 (10th Cir. 1980) , a different Circuit Court held against Navajo claims about unconstitutional federal management of water levels at a am desecrating Rainbow Arch in Utah. Three years later, in Fools Crow v. Gullet , 760 F. 2d 856 (8th Cir. 1983), cert. Denied, 464 U.S.977 (1983) , the Eighth Circuit found unconvincing Lakota claims to constitutional protections to a vision quest site against measures involving a South Dakota state park on the site.

ii. Free Exercise Because few policies and laws that have the effect of infringing on Native American religious and cultural freedoms are expressly intended to undermine those freedoms, the High Court’s Smith decision discouraged the number of suits brought forward by Native communities under constitutional free exercise protection since 1990, but a number of noteworthy cases predated the 1990 Smith decision, and a number of subsequent free exercise claims have plied the terrain of free exercise in correctional institutions. Employment Division, State of Oregon v. Smith (1990)

• Prison:Sweatlodge Case Study
• Eagle Feathers: U.S. v. Dion
• Hunting for Ceremonial Purposes: Frank v. Alaska

iii. No Establishment As the history of First Amendment jurisprudence generaly shows (Flowers), free exercise protections bump up against establishment clause jurisprudence that protects the public from government endorsement of particular traditions. Still, it is perhaps ironic that modest protections of religious freedoms of tiny minorities of Native communities have undergone constitutional challenges as violating the establishment clause. At issue is the arguable line between what has been understood in jurisprudence as governmental accommodations enabling the free exercise of minority religions and government endorsement of those traditions. The issue has emerged in a number of challenges to federal administrative policies by the National Park Service and National Forest Service such as the voluntary ban on climbing during the ceremonially significant month of June on what the Lakota and others consider Bear Lodge at Devil’s Tower National Monument . It should be noted that the Mountain States Legal Foundation is funded in part by mining, timbering, and recreational industries with significant money interests in the disposition of federal lands in the west. In light of courts' findings on these Native claims to constitutional protection under the First Amendment, Native communities have taken steps in a number of other strategic directions to secure their religious and cultural freedoms.

B. Treaty Rights In addition to constitutional protections of religious free exercise, 370 distinct treaty agreements signed prior to 1871, and a number of subsequent “agreements” are in play as possible umbrellas of protection of Native American religious and cultural freedoms. In light of the narrowing of free exercise protections in Lyng and Smith , and in light of the Court’s general broadening of treaty right protections in the mid to late twentieth century, treaty rights have been identified as preferable, if not wholly reliable, protections of religious and cultural freedoms. Makah Whaling Mille Lacs Case

C. Intellectual Property Law Native communities have occasionally sought protection of and control over indigenous medicinal, botanical, ceremonial and other kinds of cultural knowledge under legal structures designed to protect intellectual property and trademark. Although some scholars as committed to guarding the public commons of ideas against privatizing corporate interests as they are to working against the exploitation of indigenous knowledge have warned about the consequences of litigation under Western intellectual property standards (Brown), the challenges of such exploitation are many and varied, from concerns about corporate patenting claims to medicinal and agricultural knowledge obtained from Native elders and teachers to protecting sacred species like wild rice from anticipated devastation by genetically modified related plants (see White Earth Land Recovery Project for an example of this protection of wild rice to logos ( Washington Redskins controversy ) and images involving the sacred Zia pueblo sun symbol and Southwest Airlines to challenges to corporate profit-making from derogatory representations of Indians ( Crazy Horse Liquor case ).

D. Other Statutory Law A variety of legislative efforts have had either the express purpose or general effect of providing protections of Native American religious and cultural freedoms. Some, like the Taos Pueblo Blue Lake legislation, initiated protection of sacred lands and practices of particular communities through very specific legislative recourse. Others, like the 1990 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act , enacted broad protections of Native American religious and cultural freedom [link to Troost case]. Culminating many years of activism, if not without controversy even in Native communities, Congress passed the American Indian Religious Freedom Act , signed into law in 1978 and amended in 1993, in order to recognize the often difficult fit between Native traditions and constitutional protections of the freedom of “religion” and ostensibly to safeguard such interests from state interference. Though much heralded for its symbolic value, the act was determined by the courts (most notably in the Lyng decision upon review of the congressional record to be only advisory in nature, lacking a specific “cause for action” that would give it legal teeth. To answer the Supreme Court's narrowing of the scope of free exercise protections in Lyng and in the 1990 Smith decision, Congress passed in 2000 the  Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA)  restoring to governments the substantial burden of showing a "compelling interest" in land use decisions or administrative policies that exacted a burden on the free exercise of religion and requiring them to show that they had exhausted other possibilities that would be less burdensome on the free exercise of religion. Two other notable legislative initiatives that have created statutory protections for a range of Native community religious and cultural interests are the 1966 National Historic Preservation Act and the Native American Language Act legislation beginning to recognize the significance and urgency of the protection and promotion of indigenous languages, if not supporting such initiatives with significant appropriations. AIRFA 1978 NAGPRA 1990 [see item h. below] Native American Language Act Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA)  2000 National Historic Preservation Act  [see item g below]

E. Administrative and Regulatory Policy and Law As implied in a number of instances above, many governmental decisions affecting Native American religious and cultural freedom occur at the level of regulation and the administrative policy of local, state, and federal governments, and as a consequence are less visible to those not locally or immediately affected.

F. Federal Recognition The United States officially recognizes over 500 distinct Native communities, but there remain numerous Native communities who know clearly who they are but who remain formally unrecognized by the United States, even when they receive recognition by states or localities. In the 1930s, when Congress created the structure of tribal governments under the Indian Reorganization Act, many Native communities, including treaty signatories, chose not to enroll themselves in the recognition process, often because their experience with the United States was characterized more by unwanted intervention than by clear benefits. But the capacity and charge of officially recognized tribal governments grew with the Great Society programs in the 1960s and in particular with an official U.S. policy of Indian self-determination enacted through such laws as the 1975 Indian Self Determination and Education Act , which enabled tribal governments to act as contractors for government educational and social service programs. Decades later, the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act formally recognized the authority of recognized tribal governments to engage in casino gaming in cooperation with the states. Currently, Native communities that remain unrecognized are not authorized to benefit from such programs and policies, and as a consequence numerous Native communities have stepped forward to apply for federal recognition in a lengthy, laborious, and highly-charged political process overseen by the  Bureau of Indian Affairs, Office of Federal Acknowledgment . Some communities, like Michigan’s Little Traverse Band of Odawa have pursued recognition directly through congressional legislation. As it relates to concerns of Native American religious and cultural freedom, more is at stake than the possibility to negotiate with states for the opening of casinos. Federal recognition gives Native communities a kind of legal standing to pursue other interests with more legal and political resources at their disposal. Communities lacking this standing, for example, are not formally included in the considerations of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (item H. below).

G. Historic Preservation Because protections under the National Historic Preservation Act have begun to serve as a remedy for protection of lands of religious and cultural significance to Native communities, in light of first amendment jurisprudence since Lyng , it bears further mention here. Native communities seeking protections through Historic Preservation determinations are not expressly protecting Native religious freedom, nor recognizing exclusive access to, or control of sacred places, since the legislation rests on the importance to the American public at large of sites of historic and cultural value, but in light of free exercise jurisprudence since Lyng , historic preservation has offered relatively generous, if not exclusive, protection. The National Historic Preservation Act as such offered protection on the National Register of Historic Places, for the scholarly, especially archeological, value of certain Native sites, but in 1990, a new designation of “traditional cultural properties” enabled Native communities and others to seek historic preservation protections for properties associated “wit cultural practices or beliefs of a living community that (a) are rooted in that community’s history, and (b) are important in maintaining the continuing cultural identity of the community.” The designation could include most communities, but were implicitly geared to enable communities outside the American mainstream, perhaps especially Native American communities, to seek protection of culturally important and sacred sites without expressly making overt appeals to religious freedom. (King 6) This enabled those seeking recognition on the National Register to skirt a previous regulatory “religious exclusion” that discouraged inclusion of “properties owned by religious institutions or used for religious purposes” by expressly recognizing that Native communities don’t distinguish rigidly between “religion and the rest of culture” (King 260). As a consequence, this venue of cultural resource management has served Native interests in sacred lands better than others, but it remains subject to review and change. Further it does not guarantee protection; it only creates a designation within the arduous process of making application to the National Register of Historic Places. Pilot Knob Nine Mile Canyon

H. Repatriation/Protection of Human Remains, Burial Items, and Sacred Objects Culminating centuries of struggle to protect the integrity of the dead and material items of religious and cultural significance, Native communities witnessed the creation of an important process for protection under the 1990 Native American Graves and Repatriation Act . The act required museums and other institutions in the United States receiving federal monies to share with relevant Native tribes inventories of their collections of Native human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, and objects of “cultural patrimony” (that is objects that were acquired from individuals, but which had belonged not to individuals, but entire communities), and to return them on request to lineal descendants or federally recognized tribes (or Native Hawaiian organizations) in those cases where museums can determine cultural affiliation, or as often happens, in the absence of sufficiently detailed museum data, to a tribe that can prove its cultural affiliation. The law also specifies that affiliated tribes own these items if they are discovered in the future on federal or tribal lands. Finally, the law also prohibits almost every sort of trafficking in Native American human remains, burial objects, sacred objects, and items of cultural patrimony. Thus established, the process has given rise to a number of ambiguities. For example, the law’s definition of terms gives rise to some difficulties. For example, “sacred objects” pertain to objects “needed for traditional Native American religions by their present day adherents.” Even if they are needed for the renewal of old ceremonies, there must be present day adherents. (Trope and Echo Hawk, 143). What constitutes “Cultural affiliation” has also given rise to ambiguity and conflict, especially given conflicting worldviews. As has been seen in the case of Kennewick Man the “relationship of shared group identity” determined scientifically by an archeologist may or may not correspond to a Native community’s understanding of its relation to the dead on its land. Even what constitutes a “real” can be at issue, as was seen in the case of Zuni Pueblo’s concern for the return of “replicas” of sacred Ahayu:da figures made by boy scouts. To the Zuni, these contained sacred information that was itself proprietary (Ferguson, Anyon, and Lad, 253). Disputes have arisen, even between different Native communities claiming cultural affiliation, and they are adjudicated through a NAGPRA Review Committee , convened of three representatives from Native communities, three from museum and scientific organizations, and one person appointed from a list jointly submitted by the other six.

I. International Law and Human Rights Agreements At least since 1923, when Haudenosaunee Iroqois leader Deskaneh made an appeal to the League of Nations in Geneva, Native communities and organizations have registered claims and concerns about religious and cultural freedoms with the international community and institutions representing it in a variety of ways. Making reference to their status as sovereign nations whose treaties with the U.S. have not been honored, frustrated with previous efforts to seek remedies under U.S. law, concerned with the capacity for constitutional protection of what are typically “group” and not individual rights, and sometimes spurned by questions about the rightful jurisdiction of the U.S., Native organizations have sought consideration of their claims before the United Nations and engaged in its consultations on indigenous rights. After years of such appeals and efforts, a nearly unanimous  United Nations General Assembly passed the United Nations Declarations on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples The 1996  Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples includes reference [article 12] to the “right to manifest, practice, develop and teach their spiritual and religious traditions, customs and ceremonies; the right to maintain, protect, and have access in privacy to their religious and cultural sites; the right to the use and control of ceremonial objects,; and the right to the repatriation of human remains.” Importantly, the Declaration does not exclude those communities whose traditions have been interrupted by colonization. Indigenous peoples are recognized as having “the right to maintain, protect and develop the past, present and future manifestations of their cultures as well as the right to the restitution of cultural, intellectual, religious and spiritual property taken without their free and informed consent or in violation of their laws, traditions and customs.” Also specified are their rights to their languages. An offshoot of the American Indian Movement, the International Indian Treaty Council is one such organization that has shifted its attention to the international arena for protections of indigenous rights, including those of religious and cultural freedom.]]

J. Negotiated Agreements and Private Transactions Many if not most Native claims and concerns related to religious and cultural freedoms have been and will continue to be raised and negotiated outside the formal legal and regulatory structures outlined above, and thus will seldom register in public view. In light of the career of Native religious and cultural freedoms in legislative and legal arenas, Vine Deloria, Jr., has suggested the possibilities of such agreements to reach Native goals without subjecting Native communities to the difficulties of governmental interference or public scrutiny of discreet traditions (Deloria 1992a). Still, the possibilities for Native communities to reach acceptable negotiated agreements often owe to the legal and political structures to which they have recourse if negotiations fail. The possibilities of such negotiated agreements also can be shaped by the pressures of public opinion on corporate or governmental interests. Kituwah Mound Valley of the Shields/Weatherman’s Draw

IV. Selected Past Native American Religious and Cultural Freedom Court Cases

A. Land Sequoyah v. Tennessee Valley Authority 620 F. 2d 1159 (6th Cir. 1980) . Dam’s Destruction of Sacred River/Land Badoni v. Higginson 638 F 2d 172 (10th Cir. 1980) . Desecration of Rainbow Arch, Navajo Sacred Spot in Utah Fools Crow v. Gullet 706 F. 2d. 856 (8th Cir. 1983), cert. Denied, 464 U.S. 977 (1983) . State Park on top of Vision Quest site in S. Dakota Wilson v. Block 708F. 2d 735 (D.C. Cir. 1983) ; Hopi Indian Tribe v. Block; Navajo Medicine Men Assn’ v. Block Expansion of Ski Area in San Francisco Peaks, sacred to Navaho and Hopi Lyng v. Northwest Cemetery Protective Association 485 U.S. 439 (1988) Logging Road in lands sacred to Yurok, Karok, and Tolowa

B. Free Exercise Bowen v. Roy 476 U.S. 693 (1986) Native refusal of Social Security Number U.S. v. Dion 476 U.S. 734 Sacramental Eagle Hunt contra Endangered Species Act Frank v. State 604 P. 2d 1068 (Alaska 1979) Taking moose out of season for potlatch *Native American Church v. Navajo Tribal Council 272 F 2d 131 (10th Cir. 1959) Peyotists vs. Tribal Gov’t Prohibiting Peyotism People v. Woody 61 Cal.2d 716, 394 P.2d 813, 40 Cal. Rptr. 69 (1964) Groundbreaking recognition of Free Exercise exemption from State Ban. Employment Division, State of Oregon v. Smith 484 U.S. 872 (1990) Denial of Peyotist’s unemployment compensation held constitutional

C. Prison cases involving hair *Standing Deer v. Carlson 831 F. 2d 1525 (9th Cir. 1987). *Teterud v. Gilman 385 F. Supp. 153 (S. D. Iowa 1974) & New Rider v. Board of Education 480 F. 2d 693 (10th Cir. 1973) , cert. denied 414 U.S. 1097, reh. Denied 415 U.S. 939 *Indian Inmates of Nebraska Penitentiary v. Grammar 649 F. Supp. 1374 (D. Neb. 1986)

D. Human Remains/Repatriation *Wana the Bear v. Community Construction, Inc. 180 Cal Rptr. 423 (Ct. App. 1982). Historic Indian cemetery not a “cemetery.” *State v. Glass 273 N.E. 2d 893 (Ohio Ct. App. 1971). Ancient human remains not “human” for purposes of Ohio grave robbing statute

E. Treaty Rights Pertaining to Traditional/Sacred Practices *U.S. v. Washington 384 F. Supp. 312 (W.D. Wash. 1974) aff’d 520 F.2d 676 (9th Cir. 1975), cert. denied, 423 U.S. 1086 (1976). Boldt Decision on Salmon Fishing *Lac Court Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians v. Voight, 700 F. 2d 341 (7th Cir.) Cert. denied, 464 U.S. 805 (1983) 653 F. Supp. 1420; Fishing/Ricing/Gathering on Ceded Lands Minnesota v. Mille Lacs Band of Chippewa Indians 124 F 3d 904 affirmed. (1999) Fishing/Ricing/Gathering on Ceded Lands

V. References & Resources

Brown, Michael, Who Owns Native Culture (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2003). Burton, Lloyd Worship and Wilderness: Culture, Religion, and Law in the Management of Public Lands and Resources (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2002).

Deloria, Vine, Jr., “Secularism, Civil Religion, and the Religious Freedom of American Indians,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 16:9-20 (1992).

[a] Deloria, Vine, Jr., “Trouble in High Places: Erosion of American Indian Rights to Religious Freedom in the United States,”in The State of Native America: Genocide, Colonization, and Resistance , ed. M. Annette Jaimes (Boston: South End Press, 1992).

[b] Echo Hawk, Walter,  In the Courts of the Conqueror: The 10 Worst Indian Law Cases Ever Decided ( Fulcrum Publications , 2010) . Fine-Dare, Kathleen, Grave Injustice: The American Indian Repatriation Movement and NAGPRA (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002).

Ferguson, T.J., Roger Anyon, and Edmund J. Ladd, “Repatriation at the Pueblo of Zuni: Diverse Solutions to Complex Problems,” in Repatriation Reader , ed. Devon Mihesuah (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000) pp. 239-265.

Gordon-McCutchan, R.C., The Taos Indians and the Battle for Blue Lake (Santa Fe, New Mexico: Red Crane Books, 1991).

Gulliford, Andrew, Sacred Objets and Sacred Places: Preserving Tribal Traditions (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).

Johnson, Greg, Sacred Claims: Repatriation and Living Tradition (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007).

King, Thomas F., Places that Count: Traditional Cultural Properties in Cultural Resource Management (Walnut Creek, Calif: Altamira Press, 2003).

Long, Carolyn, Religious Freedom and Indian Rights: The Case of Oregon v. Smith (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2001).

Maroukis, Thomas A., Peyote Road: Religious Freedom and the Native American Church (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010)

Martin, Joel, The Land Looks After Us: A History of Native American Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).

McLeod, Christopher (Producer/Director), In Light of Reverence , Sacred Lands Film Project, (Earth Image Films, La Honda Calif. 2000).

McNally, Michael D., "Native American Religious Freedom Beyond the First Amendment," in After Pluralism ed. Courtney Bender and Pamela Klassen (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010).

Mihesuah, Devon A., ed., Repatriation Reader: Who Owns American Indian Remains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000).

Nabokov, Peter, A Forest of Time: American Indian Ways of History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

Sullivan, Robert, A Whale Hunt (New York: Scribner, 2000).

Trope, Jack F., and Walter Echo-Hawk, “The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act: Background and Legislative History,” in Repatriation Reader , ed. Devon Mihesuah (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000), pp. 123-168.

Wenger, Tisa, We Have a Religion : The 1920s Pueblo Indian Dance Controversy and American Religious Freedom (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009).

Essay on Native American

Students are often asked to write an essay on Native American in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Native American

Who are native americans.

Native Americans are the first people who lived in North America. They are also called American Indians. Many different groups lived across the land for thousands of years before Europeans arrived.

Native American Homes

These first Americans lived in many types of homes. Some had teepees made of animal skins, while others built homes with wood or earth. The kind of home depended on the tribe’s location and resources.

Traditions and Culture

Native American culture is rich with traditions. They have special music, dance, and art that are important to their communities. Storytelling is also a big part of their culture, teaching lessons and history.

Challenges Faced

Native Americans faced many problems when Europeans came to America. They lost land and many people due to wars and diseases. Today, they work to preserve their culture and rights.

Native Americans Today

Today, Native Americans live all over the United States. They keep their heritage alive by practicing traditions and teaching them to younger generations. They contribute to America in countless ways.

250 Words Essay on Native American

Native Americans are the first people to live in what is now the United States. Before Europeans came to America, Native Americans lived across the land for thousands of years. They are also known as American Indians or Indigenous Americans.

Their Culture

Native Americans have rich traditions and cultures. They speak different languages and have various customs. Many celebrate their history through music, dance, and stories. They respect nature and often see the earth as a living thing.

Homes and Living

Long ago, Native Americans made homes that fit their needs and the places they lived. Some built teepees, others made igloos or wooden houses. They hunted, fished, and farmed for food. Families were very important, and everyone in the community helped each other.

Challenges They Faced

When Europeans arrived, life changed for Native Americans. They lost much of their land and many people due to new diseases and wars. Today, many Native Americans live on reservations, which are special areas of land set aside for them.

Today, Native Americans work to keep their cultures alive. They teach their languages and traditions to their children. Many are also involved in businesses, art, and politics. They contribute to America while remembering their past.

Native Americans have a unique and important place in the history and culture of the United States. Their story is one of strength and survival.

500 Words Essay on Native American

Who are native americans.

Native Americans are the first people who lived in what is now the United States, long before Europeans came to the continent. They are also known as American Indians or Indigenous Americans. There are many different groups, each with their own unique cultures, languages, and histories.

Where Did They Live?

Native Americans lived all across North America. They were in places like the cold, snowy lands of Alaska, the dry deserts of Arizona, the thick forests of the northeast, and the sunny beaches of Florida. Each group adapted to their environment and used what was around them to survive. They built homes, hunted, fished, and farmed, creating a life for themselves.

Culture and Traditions

Each Native American group had its own traditions, stories, and ways of living. Some celebrated with big dances and music, while others were known for their pottery or weaving skills. They respected nature and often believed that everything had a spirit. Family and community were very important to them, and they taught their children to value their cultural heritage.

Native American Languages

There were hundreds of Native American languages spoken by different tribes. Sadly, many of these languages are not used much anymore, and some are even at risk of being forgotten. Today, people are trying to save these languages by teaching them to young Native Americans.

Impact of European Arrival

When Europeans arrived in America, it brought many changes for Native Americans. They faced new diseases, lost their lands, and had to deal with many challenges. Over time, many Native Americans were moved away from their homes to places called reservations. Life became very difficult for them as they tried to hold onto their cultures and ways of life.

Today, Native Americans still live all over the United States. They work in all kinds of jobs, go to school, and are part of the larger community. But they also work hard to remember and celebrate their cultures. There are festivals, museums, and events where they share their history, art, and traditions with others.

Why We Should Learn About Native Americans

Learning about Native Americans is important because it helps us understand the first people of this land. Their stories and cultures are a big part of America’s history. By knowing more about them, we can respect and appreciate the diversity of people that make up our country.

In conclusion, Native Americans have a rich and diverse history that is an essential part of the American story. Despite facing many hardships, they continue to preserve their cultures and contribute to the country in many ways. By learning about their past and present, we can celebrate the strength and spirit of the original inhabitants of the United States.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

• Essay on Nationality
• Essay on National Pride
• Essay on Fashion Industry

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Happy studying!

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Home — Essay Samples — Sociology — Race and Ethnicity — Native American

Essays on Native American

When it comes to choosing essay topics related to Native American culture, history, and issues, the options are vast and diverse. The rich and complex history of Native American people provides a multitude of potential essay topics to explore. Whether you are interested in contemporary issues, historical events, cultural practices, or social justice, there is a wide range of Native American essay topics to consider.

Studying and writing about Native American topics is important for several reasons. First and foremost, it helps to shed light on the often overlooked and misunderstood history and culture of Indigenous peoples. By examining and discussing these topics, we can work towards a more accurate and respectful understanding of Native American experiences. Additionally, writing about Native American topics can help raise awareness of ongoing social and political issues facing Indigenous communities and contribute to the broader conversation about equity and justice.

When choosing a Native American essay topic, it is important to consider your interests, the available resources, and the scope of your assignment. Whether you are focusing on historical events, contemporary issues, cultural practices, or literature, there are several factors to keep in mind. Consider the resources available to you, including primary sources, academic journals, and reputable websites. It may also be helpful to consider the scope of the assignment and choose a topic that can be effectively explored within the given parameters.

Recommended Native American Essay Topics

When it comes to writing an essay about Native American culture, history, and issues, there are numerous interesting topics to explore. Here is a list of Native American essay topics categorized by themes:

Historical Topics

• The impact of European colonization on Native American communities
• The Trail of Tears and its lasting effects on Cherokee people
• The significance of the Wounded Knee Massacre
• The role of Native American code talkers in World War II
• The effects of the Indian Removal Act on Indigenous peoples

Contemporary Issues

• Native American activism in the modern era
• The impact of environmental degradation on Indigenous communities
• The ongoing fight for tribal sovereignty and self-governance
• Indigenous perspectives on land and resource management
• The portrayal of Native Americans in popular media and its effects

Cultural Practices and Traditions

• The significance of powwows in Native American culture
• The role of storytelling in preserving Indigenous traditions
• The importance of traditional Native American art forms
• The impact of boarding schools on Native American cultural practices
• The role of sacred sites in Native American spirituality

Literature and Native American Authors

• An analysis of Leslie Marmon Silko's "Ceremony"
• The themes of identity and displacement in Louise Erdrich's works
• The impact of Sherman Alexie's writing on contemporary Native American literature
• Exploring the works of Joy Harjo and the influence of Native American poetry
• The significance of Native American oral traditions in modern literature

Social Justice and Equity

• The ongoing fight for Indigenous rights and representation
• The impact of historical trauma on Native American communities
• The intersection of Indigenous identity and LGBTQ+ rights
• The significance of Indigenous-led movements such as #NoDAPL
• The role of Indigenous women in the fight for social justice

These are just a few examples of the many essay topics available for exploring Native American history, culture, and issues. Whether you are interested in historical events, contemporary activism, cultural traditions, literature, or social justice, there are numerous avenues to explore within the rich and diverse landscape of Native American topics.

Karankawa Tribe Clothing Research Paper

My father’s song: an analysis, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

Each essay is customized to cater to your unique preferences

+ experts online

Mexicanos Chapter 4 Summary

Challenges faced by native americans in 21str century, sitting bull - the native american chief, american revolution's negative impact on native american history, let us write you an essay from scratch.

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Confrontation of Cultural Imperialism in Native American Fiction

Native american culture and society , the negros vs the native american, native americans in the 21st century and the housing issues they faced, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

Expert-written essays crafted with your exact needs in mind

Indian Removal Act: Relocation of Native Americans

Kathleen duval's and him native ground, racism and oppression of american indians in the united states, storyteller never dies, the role of american women during world war ii, individuals and community, mary rowlandson: questioning civilization, natives demise at our feet, the issue of healthcare in 'the absolutely true diary of a part-time indian', the short and long term effects of the indian removal act, native american death rituals and funeral costumes, ethnocentrism and policies for native american tribes, an overview of native american creation myths, the piran bay maritime conflict: historical context, native american: past, present and future, analyzing chabon antagonist, native american craft as language, a type of correspondence, the pueblo peoples, people of blackfoot: john white calf, sherman alexie’s survival equation and the resilience of native american culture, relevant topics.

• American Identity
• Cultural Identity
• Indigenous People
• Intercultural Communication
• Physical Appearance
• African American
• Mexican American
• Asian American
• Critical Race Theory

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Bibliography

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

The Future of the Discipline

The Futures of Native American History in the United States

Pekka Hämäläinen | Dec 1, 2012

New Indian historians placed indigenous peoples at the center of things, hoping to recast the old master narrative of America that locked native people on the wrong side of modernity. They have, by any measure, been widely successful. The last quarter of a century has seen a succession of groundbreaking studies that have changed American history almost beyond recognition. Early American history, where the impact has been strongest, has experienced what one scholar recently called an "indigenous turn." Gone is the trivialization of Native Americans as myopic, prepolitical actors, mere speed bumps in Anglo-America's westward expansion, and gone is the reduction of hundreds of indigenous communities to a hazy backdrop of frontier hostility. Rather than a monolithic, preordained sequence, the creation of America is now seen as a multilateral process that created new worlds for all.

The ascendancy of Native American history has been so forceful that some of its practitioners fear that the field is running out of steam, having exhausted its creative momentum. Such concerns reflect in part the anxieties of scholars who set out to decenter American history and suddenly found their marginal field at the center. Native American history has come into its own and it has expanded beyond its traditional confines. It has penetrated deeply into American history, and it is there, in the mainstream, where it will flourish. Tightly intertwined with borderlands, environmental, and imperial histories, Native American history will continue to reshape the contours of American history. Building on an already substantial body of scholarship, new studies will elucidate the roles and meanings of gender, race, sexuality, intermarriage, slavery, and empire in Indian-colonist relations—and, increasingly, in Indian-Indian relations as well. We will learn about previously obscured indigenous borders and centers and we will bend our representations of colonial and early national realms around them. We will continue to debate how Native American or colonial early America really was and whether resistance or accommodation defined its course.

But some concerns about the futures of Native American history are well warranted. Embedded in the mainstream, the field is dissolving into broader historiographical currents, gradually saturating them. This may mark the ultimate triumph of the new Indian history, but it is a success laced with uncertainty: when subfields become new orthodoxies, they tend to stiffen and become reactionary. This is a particular concern for Native American history which, along with African American history, has become something of a moral touchstone of American history, deeply critical of its last half millennium. There are, however, in-built dynamics and new developments in the field that will help it retain a critical, subversive edge.

During the last two decades, many Native American communities have experienced dramatic revivals. They have rebuilt economies through lobbying, resource development, and gaming, and they have built schools, houses, hospitals, and cultural centers. They have fought for federal recognition and asserted treaty rights in courts. Stronger communities have translated into stronger voices: Native intellectuals are becoming more vocal, and growing numbers of Native peoples are entering graduate schools and faculties. Together, these developments pose compelling challenges to the practice of Native American history. Some Native thinkers demand that Native peoples should write their own histories and decide how, and if, their histories should be disseminated to wider audiences. They want to reclaim their histories from the snares of scholarly and media misrepresentation and they insist that academic research should empower indigenous communities. Some see an unbridgeable divide between oral traditions and archive-based documentation and assert the primacy of the former, arguing that Native stories extend deeper in time and get closer to the essence of indigenous experiences.

Native American history has become a contested ground, where debates about the politics of knowledge production, intellectual gatekeeping, and the ownership of the past simmer. The controversies will continue, but scholarly common grounds will emerge. In fact, they already have. Both Native and non-Native writers have started to produce studies that narrow the gap between indigenous expectations and established academic practices, pushing Native American history in new directions. Scholars now write directly about the pain and psychological trauma of Native peoples, sensitizing us to the human dimensions of racism and dispossession and forcing us to come to terms with the pervasive violence of American history. They have started to write about such neglected topics as Native American–African American relations and such divisive ones as the enslavement of African people by Native people. They explore the complex linkages among Indian removals, Indian reservations, and U.S. constitutional history, and they probe how Native people have resisted, survived, and exploited assimilationist federal programs. Terms like ethnic cleansing, extermination, cultural genocide, and historical memory are entering the scholarship with unprecedented theoretical vigor.

New studies are also challenging the tidy periodization of American history into precontact, colonial, and national periods by showing how deep-rooted indigenous practices survived to shape colonial policies and by showing how the legacies—and the very practices—of colonialism continue in the present. And new studies are pulling Native American history from early America closer to the present, where the field can respond more directly to the needs and concerns of indigenous communities. The vicissitudes and ambiguities of federal Indian policy and law; Native struggles for self-determination in a paracolonial situation; affirmations of Native identity through political activism, cultural preservation, repatriation, language revitalization, spiritual movements, wage labor, intermarriage, and mobility; the rise of pan-Indianism and modern Indian nations and the related reconfiguration of national, state, and tribal relations; the connections between the decline of keystone species and indigenous self-determination; the division of Indian tribes into haves and have-nots: these and other emergent lines of research that are now realigning Native American history will alter how we understand multiculturalism, democracy, sovereignty, and the role of the nation state in modern American society.

These are global issues, and they are pulling Native American history into the world. For some time now, and increasingly since the Columbus Quincentenary, scholars, intellectuals, and activists across the world have engaged in transnational conversations about indigenous issues. The establishment of the Native American and Indigenous Studies Association in 2008 integrated those efforts by providing a broad interdisciplinary platform for global indigenous studies. There is now an emergent field of comparative indigenous scholarship that is gathering momentum and is exemplified by innovative studies that have traced, among other topics, treaty-making processes in New Zealand and the United States, indigenous diasporas across the Americas and the Pacific and Atlantic rims, and the forced removal of indigenous children into state institutions in Australia and the United States. It is already clear that one of the futures of Native American history will be comparative and transnational. If the recent studies are an indication, that future is secure and bright.

Pekka Hämäläinen is the Rhodes Professor of American History at Oxford University. He is the author of The Comanche Empire .

Tags: Diversity, Equity, & Inclusion Profession North America Indigenous History

The American Historical Association welcomes comments in the discussion area below, at AHA Communities , and in letters to the editor . Please read our commenting and letters policy before submitting.

Please read our commenting and letters policy before submitting.

The United States Government’s Relationship with Native Americans

A brief overview of relations between Native Americans and the United States Government.

Social Studies, U.S. History

Lakota Delegation 1891

The Treaty of Ft. Laramie of 1868 "set apart for the absolute and undisturbed use and occupation" of the Black Hills for the Lakota Nation. But the discovery of gold in the area ultimately led to the treaty's annulment and the Black Hills War.

Photograph by Charles Bell

The history of relations between Native Americans and the federal government of the United States has been fraught. To many Native Americans, the history of European settlement has been a history of wary welcoming, followed by opposition, defeat, near-extinction, and, now, a renaissance. To Europeans and Americans, it has included everything from treatment of Native American nations as equals (or near-equals) to assimilation to exile to near-genocide, often simultaneously. Late 18th Century Many Native American tribes allied with the British during the Revolutionary War. However, the Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, was silent on the fates of these British allies. The new United States government was thus free to acquire Native American lands by treaty or force. Resistance from the tribes stopped the encroachment of settlers, at least for a while. Treaty-making After the Revolutionary War, the United States maintained the British policy of treaty -making with the Native American tribes . In general, the treaties were to define the boundaries of Native American lands and to compensate for the taking of lands. Often, however, the treaties were not ratified by the Senate, and thus were not necessarily deemed enforceable by the U.S. government, leaving issues unresolved. On occasion, the representatives of Native American tribes who signed the treaties were not necessarily authorized under tribal law to do so. For example, William McIntosh, chief of the Muskogee-Creek Nation, was assassinated for signing the Treaty of Indian Springs in violation of Creek law. Treaty -making as a whole ended in 1871, when Congress ceased to recognize the tribes as entities capable of making treaties. The value of the treaties also came to be called into question when the Supreme Court decided, in 1903, Congress had full power over Native American affairs, and could override treaties. Many of the treaties made before then, however, remained in force at least to some extent, and the Supreme Court was occasionally asked to interpret them. One notable treaty with ongoing repercussions is the Treaty of Fort Laramie of 1868. Under that treaty , the United States pledged, among other things, that the Great Sioux [Lakota] Reservation , including the Black Hills, would be "set apart for the absolute and undisturbed use and occupation" of the Lakota Nation. Although neither side fully complied with the treaty ’s terms, with the discovery of gold in the area, the United States sought to buy back the Black Hills. The Lakota rejected the offer, resulting in the Black Hills War (1876-1877), which included Custer’s Last Stand at the Battle of Little Bighorn (June 25-26, 1876). Finally, in 1877, Congress went back on the original treaty and passed an act reclaiming the Black Hills. In 1923, the Lakota sued. Sixty years later, the Supreme Court determined the annulment was a “taking” under the Fifth Amendment and that the tribe was owed “just compensation” plus interest starting from 1877. The tribe has refused to accept payment, however, and is still seeking return of the land. As of 2018, the amount due appears to be around $1 billion. Removal and Resettlement Although conflicts were fought in the Northwest Territories (Tecumseh and the Battle of Tippecanoe) and the Southeast (Creek War and the Seminole Wars), the major policy toward the North American tribes in the early part of the 19th century was removal and resettlement. The Removal Act of 1830 authorized President Andrew Jackson to negotiate for the removal and resettlement of Native American tribes. A primary target was the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole from Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. Although the removal and resettlement was supposed to be voluntary, ultimately, this resulted in the series of forcible removals known as the Trail of Tears. Allotment and Assimilation For most of the middle part of the 19th century, the U.S. government pursued a policy known as “allotment and assimilation.” Pursuant to treaties that were often forced upon tribes, common reservation land was allotted to individual families. The General Allotment (Dawes) Act of 1887 made this more general, which resulted in the loss of much reservation land. A new approach was undertaken during the New Deal, under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, with the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, which ended allotment, banned further sale of Native American land, and returned some lands to the tribes. After World War II, however, proposals arose in favor of assimilation, termination of tribes, and an end to reservations. A number of reservations, such as the Menominee in Wisconsin and the Klamath in Oregon, had their reservations terminated. Today The influence of the civil rights movement in the 1960s led to the Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975, which restored some sovereignty to tribal governments and gave them a certain independence in handling federal funds and operating federal programs. The status of the Native American tribes with respect to the states is complicated. In general, today’s Native American groups are sovereign within their territory with respect to tribal members, but lack authority over nontribal members. However, the Supreme Court did determine in 1987 that states cannot regulate Native American gaming enterprises. This resulted in the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988, which provided the framework that governs Indian casinos.

Media Credits

The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.

Production Managers

Program specialists, last updated.

October 19, 2023

User Permissions

For information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. They will best know the preferred format. When you reach out to them, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource.

If a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media.

Text on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service .

Interactives

Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. You cannot download interactives.

Related Resources

Native Americans

Native Americans have experienced discrimination at the hands of European settlers during the colonial era and the white majority in the United States for over four hundred years. In that time, there have been a wide variety of policies towards Native Americans, some with good intentions and some bad, but none seemed to resolve the clash of cultures and the difficulties faced by Native Americans. They have rarely enjoyed liberty and equality in the American system of self-government.

The first encounters of European colonists and Native Americans in North America set the patterns for the relationship for nearly two centuries. First, and most devastatingly, Europeans unwittingly brought many diseases for which Natives had no immunity, and hundreds of thousands died. Second, Native Americans sometimes benefitted from trading furs and other goods to Europeans, but the trade often altered traditional commercial routes or Native ways of life. Third, colonists and Natives engaged in a series of massacres and wars throughout the Eastern Seaboard that resulted in brutality and a large number of deaths on each side. Native American scalping of enemy combatants and civilians in the wars caused the Europeans to think them uncivilized savages. King Philip’s War, fought in New England in 1675-1676, remains the bloodiest war in American history in casualty rates. The British and Americans supposedly used germ warfare against Native Americans, but there was in fact only one unproven claim of the British army spreading smallpox through blankets. Finally, the European population grew rapidly, and colonists expanded onto Native lands through war, broken treaties, and land grabs.

Before, during, and after the American Revolution, there were a number of wars fought on the Ohio Valley and Mid-West. Native Americans on the frontier had generally sided with the French during the French and Indian War and on the side of the British during the American Revolution. Native Americans found that they lost large amounts of land after the American Revolution and did not have a say in the peace treaty. Some of the Founding Fathers expressed the hope that Natives would be integrated into American society by adopting private property and agriculture, white styles of dress, and education and written languages. They believed that this was a benevolent, humane, and enlightened policy, and that, if accomplished, the two peoples could live in relative peace. Nevertheless, after the American Revolution, white Americans continued to flood the frontier for agricultural land. This was spurred on by the Louisiana Purchase from France in 1803. Americans believed that they had a “Manifest Destiny” or divine mission to expand westward and conquer the entire continent. Native Americans would either be paid for their land or compelled to give it up by force. Either way, keeping all of their lands did not seem to be an option for white settlers.

Native Americans on the frontier had generally sided with the French during the French and Indian War and on the side of the British during the American Revolution. Native Americans found that they lost large amounts of land after the American Revolution and did not have a say in the peace treaty.

Manifest Destiny found support in federal law when Congress passed the Indian Removal Act (1830) that allowed the national government to relocate Natives beyond the Mississippi River.

Even though the Cherokee people adopted white ways, Georgia supported those whites who sought to take Native lands. In the  Cherokee Nation v. Georgia  (1831) decision, Native Americans sued to protect their property rights from encroachment by the state of Georgia on behalf of land-hungry white settlers. In the decision, Supreme Court Chief Justice John Marshall broke with the custom of treating Natives as independent nations that theoretically protected the sanctity of land treaties and declared that the tribes were “domestic dependent nations” rather than an independent nation with sovereign treaty rights. In  Worcester v. Georgia  (1832), another case dealing with the relationship of Cherokee and the Georgia state government, Marshall reversed his earlier decision and declared that Native tribes were foreign nations who were immune to state laws. However, President Andrew Jackson used his executive power and sided with the white Georgians. In a famous statement of the exercise of executive power President Jackson retorted when he heard of the decision: “John Marshall has made his decision. Now let him enforce it.”

In 1838, despite the legal victory, more than 16,000 Cherokees were forcibly removed to the Oklahoma Territory and an estimated 4,000 died tragically in this “Trail of Tears.” It followed the removal of several other tribes from the Southeast including tens of thousands of Choctaw, Seminoles, Creek, and Chickasaw throughout the 1830s.

In 1838, despite the legal victory, more than 16,000 Cherokees were forcibly removed to the Oklahoma Territory and an estimated 4,000 died tragically in this “Trail of Tears.”

In 1851, the Indian Appropriations Act initiated the policy of establishing reservations, or land parcels set aside for Native tribes, as an attempt to balance the demand of Western settlers for land and to protect lands for Natives. The land however was often poor, away from ancestral homes, and forced Natives to adopt white agriculture. Moreover, individual Americans demanded Native lands and chiseled away at the size of reservations. In addition, the reservations worsened the lot of Native Americans, but Americans continued in their advance to settle the continent.

After the Civil War, the brutal wars between the Native Americans and federal troops continued with casualties on both sides. In 1876, General George Custer and the Seventh Cavalry attacked Chief of the Hunkpapa Lakota tribe, Sitting Bull, who led an alliance of Sioux and Cheyenne warriors at Little Bighorn. Custer recklessly attacked the Natives led by Crazy Horse, war leader of Oglala Lakota tribe, who killed Custer and all his 250 soldiers. In late 1890, at the Wounded Knee massacre, the U.S. Seventh Cavalry took revenge by slaughtering 150 Sioux men, women, and children after the warriors refused to surrender their arms.

During the mid-to-late nineteenth century, America industrialized as migrants continued to settle the West, using the Transcontinental Railroad and marking off private properties with barbed wire. Thus was it clear that the settlers were moving rapidly westward, establishing farms, and depleting massive herds of buffalo that the Natives depended upon for food. Reformers were outraged by the mistreatment of Native Americans as chronicled in Helen Hunt Jackson’s  A Century of Dishonor  (1881). Reformers sought to implement integration into American society with the Dawes Act (1887), which imposed a system of individual ownership of land and allotted parcels of land to Natives while selling off “surplus” land to white Americans. However, the Act both failed to protect Native lands or integrate them into American culture.

In 1934, the New Deal reinforced the idea that the federal government would care for dependent Native Americans with the Indian Reorganization Act.

The new law ended the policy of allotting land to individual Native Americans and supported tribal sovereignty over the lands. The federal government moreover provided funds for health care, social welfare, and education on the reservations. Although reservations had been embraced by reformers, they soon fell out of favor as a symbol of white control. The federal government also seemed to fail just as much as the reservations in ameliorating the conditions of Native Americans which continued to worsen compared to an affluent postwar America.

After World War II, the conditions on reservations were shown to be well below that of middle-class America. Poverty, unemployment, crime, and malnutrition were endemic on reservations. Rates for suicide, alcohol and drug abuse, depression, and infant mortality were startlingly high. Reformers sought a remedy by removing Natives from oppressive reservations and their historical stigma into mainstream America in what was called “Indian termination” policy. Whereas critics complained that Natives were forced into reservations, they now fought against being forced to assimilate. It seemed that both segregation and integration were abject failures and the elusive search for a successful policy respecting the liberty and equality of Natives would not be found.

After World War II, the conditions on reservations were shown to be well below that of middle-class America. Poverty, unemployment, crime, and malnutrition were endemic on reservations.

The 1960s and 1970s saw the rise of a movement in pursuit of Native American rights just as other groups engaged in similar reform movements. In several incidents occupying historic monuments, activists on the left sought to publicize the plight of Native Americans.

In late 1969, hundreds of Natives and their white supporters occupied Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay to expose the historical discrimination and “genocide” suffered by Natives and to demand a center there for the study of Native American history and culture. The last occupiers did not leave Alcatraz until 1971. Politically radical Native Americans joined the American Indian Movement (AIM), and hundreds took over Wounded Knee in the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota in February, 1973. The members of AIM occupied the town for 71 days, and there were several exchanges of gunfire with federal law enforcement officials. For Native activists, it seemed more evidence of oppression by the federal government, but the charges were dropped against the leaders. The reservation suffered a crime rate nearly ten times that of Detroit after the federal officials departed, and the lofty aims of the activists were not achieved.

The violent protest by radicals soon gave way to the multicultural and diversity trends in education during the 1980s and beyond. The term “American Indian” fell into disfavor as a symbol of European oppression and “Native Americans” became the accepted term. Activists called depictions of Native Americans as sports mascots racist and applied pressure to use more innocuous symbols. For example, Stanford University changed their mascot from Indians to Cardinals, and Dartmouth University from Indians to Big Green. Many historians began to portray the European settlement of America as an “invasion” or “genocide.” After Indian reservations gained the right to open gaming casinos, tribes began to earn large sums, and some non-Natives claimed Indian ancestry to take advantage of the windfall of revenue. Similar questions of who was a Native American were applicable to college applications and federal contracts, both of which employed affirmative action programs.

Native Americans have rarely enjoyed the benefits of liberty and equality under the American republic. They have had a status throughout the centuries that has alternated between separation and assimilation. Federal policies related to Native Americans have changed many times over the last two hundred years, but none have seemed to improve their freedom or equality in American society. Unlike women or African Americans, who have won greater liberty and equality in recent decades to fulfill American ideals, Native Americans can point to few examples of progress. Over the past century, federal policies that have attempted both separation and integration have failed because they have been unable to resolve the tension of preserving the unique autonomy of Native Americans while at the same time integrating them into the American character.

Related Content

Native Americans have experienced discrimination at the hands of European settlers during the colonial era and the white majority in the United States for over four hundred years. In that time, there have been a wide variety of policies towards Native Americans, some with good intentions and some bad, but none seemed to resolve the clash of cultures and the difficulties faced by Native Americans. They have rarely enjoyed liberty and equality in the American system of self-government.

Native American Writing Prompts: Explore Indigenous Perspectives

My name is Debbie, and I am passionate about developing a love for the written word and planting a seed that will grow into a powerful voice that can inspire many.

Understanding the Importance of Native ⁣American Writing Prompts

Exploring the significance of native american writing prompts, exploring indigenous perspectives through writing, connecting with native american culture through writing prompts, unearthing untold stories:⁣ writing about native american⁤ history, why participate in our writing prompts, engaging in critical thinking ⁣with native american writing prompts, promoting empathy and cultural understanding through native american writing​ prompts, frequently asked questions, to wrap it up.

Native American‌ writing prompts hold a vital place in cultural education and⁢ communication. They provide a ⁣platform for⁢ individuals to delve ​into the rich heritage and stories‌ of Native American tribes, encouraging a⁣ deeper understanding and appreciation of their‍ customs,​ beliefs, and history. These​ prompts play a‌ pivotal role in fostering creativity while promoting cultural sensitivity and ​respect.

Incorporating Native American writing prompts into the learning process allows students⁣ to engage with diverse perspectives and broaden⁤ their knowledge about indigenous communities. By encouraging critical⁣ thinking and research, these prompts encourage students to explore and reflect upon the complex issues faced by Native Americans, ensuring that their voices are heard and respected⁢ in academic settings. Writing on topics‍ such as traditional ceremonies, indigenous art forms, or historical events ‌allows‌ students⁣ to grasp the nuances of Native American culture while cultivating empathy and respect for these communities.

Benefits of ⁤Native American Writing Prompts: – Promote cultural literacy and awareness – Encourage critical ​thinking ​and analysis – Provide a creative outlet for self-expression – Foster empathy and understanding towards Native American communities – Encourage research and exploration of indigenous history and ⁣traditions

Tips for Effective Native American Writing Prompts: – Ensure the inclusion of diverse Native American​ tribes‌ and‌ cultures – Provide resources and references for students to deepen⁤ their knowledge – Encourage students to interview or interact with members of Native American communities, when possible – Prompt students to reflect on the challenges, achievements, and contributions of Native Americans throughout history – Create‍ a safe and inclusive environment for discussing sensitive ​topics and differing perspectives

In conclusion,​ Native American writing prompts serve as crucial tools for promoting cultural appreciation, education, and respect. By incorporating them into educational settings, we can ⁢empower students to embrace the narratives and ⁣experiences of indigenous communities, paving the way for⁣ a more inclusive and empathetic society.

The rich cultural heritage and diverse perspectives of indigenous communities can be explored through writing, offering a⁣ window into their traditions, beliefs, and values. Through the power of storytelling, indigenous voices can be amplified, fostering⁢ a greater appreciation for their contributions to literature and society. The act of writing allows for the‍ preservation and sharing of indigenous ‌knowledge, helping to bridge the gap ​between different cultures⁤ and generations.

When , it⁣ is essential to‌ acknowledge the multitude of voices within these communities. Indigenous literature ​encompasses a wide range of genres, from poetry and memoirs to fiction and non-fiction. These works provide valuable insights into the experiences of indigenous ​peoples, their ⁤struggles, triumphs, and the complexities of their identities.

• Historical Insights: Indigenous ‍writing often sheds light on untold ⁢stories from the past, offering alternative⁤ narratives about colonization, resistance, and resilience.
• Cultural Traditions: Writers from indigenous backgrounds share their cultural practices, rituals, and customs,⁢ providing a deeper understanding of their communities.
• Environmental Perspectives: Many indigenous authors have a deep connection to the land, emphasizing the importance of environmental stewardship​ and sustainability.

By ​engaging ‍with indigenous literature, readers can develop a greater sense of empathy, dismantle stereotypes, and confront the challenges​ faced by these communities. Writing offers⁢ an avenue for indigenous voices to ⁣be heard and celebrated, enriching our collective literary ⁢landscape.

Exploring Native American culture ​can ​be⁢ a transformative experience, allowing us⁢ to⁤ gain a deeper understanding of the traditions,⁢ values, and perspectives that​ have shaped this rich ​heritage. One way to connect with ⁢Native American culture ‍is through engaging ‍writing prompts that encourage introspection ‌and creative expression. By ‌delving into these prompts, we can unearth hidden insights and foster a greater appreciation for the diverse tribal​ communities that make up Native‌ American ‌culture.

The beauty of using writing prompts as a gateway to Native American culture⁣ lies in the opportunity they provide for self-reflection. Whether it’s⁤ contemplating the significance of storytelling in Native American tribes or exploring the ⁢deep spiritual connections to ‌nature, these prompts encourage us to‌ delve into our own thoughts‍ and emotions. Through ⁢this process, we can gain a unique perspective on the values that Native American cultures uphold and how they intersect with our own lives.

• Celebration of nature: Explore the profound connections that Native American tribes have ‍with the natural world. Reflect on ​your personal relationship ‍with‍ nature and how it⁣ aligns with the reverence for ​the environment found in various ⁤Native​ American cultures.
• Uncovering oral traditions: ⁣ Dive into the power of storytelling in Native American culture. Write a story inspired by traditional⁤ oral ‌narratives, or create your own mythological tale that incorporates elements from Native ⁤American folklore.
• Spiritual practices: Reflect on​ the spiritual practices and rituals ⁣that are integral to Native ⁤American tribes. ⁣Explore how these practices differ from​ mainstream religions and their potential ⁢impact on ‍personal spirituality.
• Art as cultural expression: Investigate the significance of art in Native​ American culture, such as pottery, beadwork, and painting. Create your ​own piece⁣ of art inspired by these traditional forms, using it as a means to connect with and pay homage to the artistic traditions⁢ of Native American tribes.

Native American history is rich and diverse, with countless untold stories waiting to be discovered ⁣and shared. Writing about this history provides⁣ an opportunity to shed light on the ‍experiences, achievements, and struggles of Indigenous peoples across the ‍Americas. ‍By ⁤delving into the lesser-known aspects ‍of⁤ Native American history, writers can help reshape the narrative, challenge stereotypes, and ⁣contribute ​to a⁣ more inclusive understanding of the past.

When writing about Native ⁤American history, it is crucial⁣ to approach the subject with respect, sensitivity, ⁤and extensive⁤ research. Here are some key considerations:

• Authenticity and Representation: Seek diverse perspectives and voices to accurately represent the vast array of Native American cultures and experiences. Collaborate with Indigenous ⁣scholars, elders, and‌ community members to ensure authenticity in your storytelling.
• Awareness of Historical Context: Understand the historical context in which events occurred and the impact​ of colonization, forced assimilation, and other systemic injustices. This ​knowledge will provide a deeper understanding of Native American history.
• Challenging Stereotypes: Question and challenge the ⁤stereotypes often associated with Native American history.​ Avoid perpetuating harmful narratives‍ and ⁢instead emphasize the resilience, accomplishments, and contributions of​ Indigenous peoples.
• Engaging Narratives: Infuse your writing with engaging ⁤storytelling techniques to captivate readers and make the ‌often-overlooked stories of Native Americans accessible to wider audiences. Be mindful of⁤ cultural sensitivities and avoid sensationalizing or appropriating Native American experiences.

Writing ⁤about Native ‍American history is an opportunity‍ to ⁤honor the past, celebrate cultural heritage, and foster understanding ⁣between different communities. By unearthing untold stories and ⁣presenting them in a respectful and accurate manner, writers have the power to contribute to a more comprehensive and inclusive portrayal of Native American history.

Amplifying Indigenous Voices‌ through Writing Prompts

Writing has always⁣ been a powerful tool for self-expression and storytelling, and now it is being used as a ⁢means to amplify Indigenous voices. By providing‌ thought-provoking writing prompts that center around Indigenous culture, history, and experiences, we aim to create a ⁤space where these voices can be heard⁣ loud and clear.

Our writing prompts are carefully crafted to encourage reflection, engagement, and exploration. They offer an opportunity for Indigenous writers to share their unique perspectives, shed light on important issues, and celebrate the rich traditions of their communities. Whether it is through poetry, prose, or personal anecdotes, the power of words‍ allows for the preservation and dissemination of Indigenous stories, ensuring they are not forgotten​ or silenced.

• Celebrate Indigenous heritage: Engaging with ⁣our writing prompts ‍provides a platform ​to showcase the diverse⁤ cultures and traditions of Indigenous communities, allowing readers‌ to gain a deeper understanding and appreciation for their rich heritage.
• Foster community connection: ‌By participating in our writing prompts, ⁢Indigenous writers can connect with others who share similar experiences, challenges, and triumphs. It creates a⁣ sense of belonging and community, giving participants the opportunity to uplift and support one another.
• Challenge stereotypes and⁣ raise awareness: Writing prompts centered around Indigenous experiences can challenge preconceived notions and stereotypes, helping‍ to educate others‌ about the complex history, contemporary issues, and resilience of Indigenous people and cultures.
• Empowerment through storytelling: Through ​writing,​ Indigenous individuals⁤ have the power to reclaim their narratives, share their truths, and inspire others. It is⁢ a form of empowerment, allowing for personal growth and healing while educating​ and enlightening readers.

can foster a deeper understanding and appreciation for the rich cultural‍ heritage of Indigenous peoples. By exploring thought-provoking prompts inspired by Native American literature and folklore, students are encouraged to analyze, interpret, and connect with ‌these powerful narratives on a personal level.

Through these writing prompts, students can embark on ‌a journey of critical thinking, allowing them to ⁢develop empathy, broaden their worldview, and challenge their⁢ own assumptions. Here are a few ways that engaging with Native American writing prompts⁣ can enhance critical ‌thinking skills :

• Exploring diverse perspectives: Native American writing showcases diverse viewpoints, experiences, and wisdom, inviting students to critically examine different cultural values and beliefs. This prompts ⁤them to‍ question their own perspectives and develop a more nuanced understanding of the world.
• Analyzing symbols and themes: Native American literature often incorporates symbolic elements and explores universal themes of identity, nature, and spirituality. Writing prompts can inspire students to analyze these symbols and themes, challenging them to think critically about their meaning ⁢and relevance in the context of Native American cultures.
• Connecting⁤ with ⁣personal experiences: Native American stories and prompts often emphasize the importance of personal connections​ to nature, community, and ancestral heritage. Engaging with ⁤these prompts can encourage students to reflect on ⁤their⁤ own​ experiences and values, fostering a ​deeper sense of self-awareness and ⁣empathy.

By , students are not only honing their analytical skills but also gaining a⁤ greater appreciation for the cultural richness and resilience of Indigenous peoples.

Native American writing prompts can⁢ be a powerful tool for promoting empathy⁤ and cultural ⁤understanding. By ​engaging with the stories, experiences, and perspectives of Native American writers, students can gain ⁤a deeper appreciation for the rich diversity of Native American cultures, histories, and traditions. These writing prompts provide a unique opportunity for students to explore⁢ themes such as ‍identity, heritage, and the important issues facing Native communities today.

One of the key benefits of using Native American writing prompts is that they encourage students‍ to ⁤step outside their own cultural bubbles and ​explore different perspectives. ​By delving into these prompts, ‌students can gain a better understanding of the challenges, triumphs, and unique⁢ perspectives of Native American individuals and communities. This process of reflection and research fosters ⁢empathy, allowing students to develop a more nuanced ⁣understanding of Native American experiences and cultural contributions. Furthermore, writing prompts can encourage critical thinking , creativity, and self-expression, empowering students to ⁣engage deeply with the material and develop their own voices.

• Engagement with Native American writers’ ⁤stories
• Expanding cultural horizons through diverse experiences
• Developing empathy ‍and understanding through exploration of themes
• Promoting critical thinking and self-expression
• Fostering appreciation for Native American cultures, histories, and traditions

Embracing ⁢Native ⁢American writing prompts in educational settings ⁢enriches the learning experience, offering students a unique lens ‍through which to view the world. By exploring these prompts, they can broaden their perspectives, challenge their assumptions, and deepen their understanding of the beauty and complexity of Native American cultures.

Q: What is the purpose of ⁤”Native American Writing Prompts: Explore Indigenous Perspectives”? A: The purpose of⁤ this article⁢ is to introduce a collection ​of writing prompts that delve into indigenous perspectives,​ specifically those of Native Americans.

Q: Who is the intended audience for this article? A:⁢ This article is intended for writers, educators, students, or anyone‍ interested in exploring Native American perspectives through the act of writing.

Q: What is unique about these writing prompts? A: These prompts are designed to showcase the diversity and ⁢richness of Native American cultures, allowing writers to explore various themes, histories, and perspectives ⁤rooted in indigenous experiences.

Q: Can anyone use ‍these writing prompts or are they only for Native American writers? A: These writing prompts are accessible to everyone – whether you have ⁤Native American heritage or not. They provide a platform for all individuals to engage with and learn ‌from indigenous perspectives.

Q: How can these writing ‌prompts ‍help writers connect with Native American perspectives? A: By using​ these writing prompts, writers can delve into Native ​American cultures and explore their deep-rooted traditions, stories, and worldviews. This process allows for a deeper⁤ understanding and connections with indigenous perspectives.

Q: Are there any ​recommended resources or​ references accompanying these writing prompts? A: Yes, the article ​provides a list of additional ⁤resources, including books, documentaries, and websites, that can further enhance​ one’s‍ understanding ‍of ⁣Native American history, traditions, and contemporary issues.

Q: Can these writing prompts be used in an educational or classroom setting? A: Absolutely! These prompts can be utilized effectively in ⁢educational settings to promote cultural awareness, understanding, and inclusivity. They encourage ⁤students to‌ engage​ with Native American perspectives and challenge preconceived notions or stereotypes.

Q: How many writing prompts are included in this article? A: The article includes a comprehensive compilation of ten unique writing prompts ⁢that⁤ cover a broad ‍range of topics ⁤relevant to Native American experiences.

Q: Are the writing prompts ‌suitable for writers of⁤ all ‌levels? A: Yes, these writing prompts are ⁢adaptable to⁤ various writing levels, ranging from beginners to experienced writers. They​ are⁤ designed to ⁤be accessible and stimulating, allowing writers to explore indigenous perspectives at ‍their own‌ pace and comfort.

Q: Can these writing prompts serve as a starting point for longer writing projects or research? A: Certainly! These⁢ prompts can serve as thought-provoking starting points for longer writing projects or even research papers. They provide a foundation for writers to embark on deeper investigations of Native American histories, cultures, and contemporary issues.

In conclusion, exploring indigenous perspectives⁢ through Native American writing prompts allows us to gain a deeper understanding and appreciation​ of their rich‌ culture and history. It offers a unique opportunity to amplify their voices and ensure​ their‌ stories are heard and celebrated.

How to Punctuate Movie Titles in Writing: Get it Right!

How Do You Type Article Titles in Writing? Get It Right

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Reach out to us for sponsorship opportunities.

Welcome to Creative Writing Prompts

At Creative Writing Prompts, we believe in the power of words to shape worlds. Our platform is a sanctuary for aspiring writers, seasoned wordsmiths, and everyone. Here, storytelling finds its home, and your creative journey begins its captivating voyage.

© 2024 Creativewriting-prompts.com

• Subject List
• Take a Tour
• For Authors
• Subscriber Services
• Publications
• African American Studies
• African Studies

American Literature

• Anthropology
• Architecture Planning and Preservation
• Art History
• Atlantic History
• Biblical Studies
• British and Irish Literature
• Childhood Studies
• Chinese Studies
• Cinema and Media Studies
• Communication
• Criminology
• Environmental Science
• Evolutionary Biology
• International Law
• International Relations
• Islamic Studies
• Jewish Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Latino Studies
• Linguistics
• Literary and Critical Theory
• Medieval Studies
• Military History
• Political Science
• Public Health
• Renaissance and Reformation
• Social Work
• Urban Studies
• Victorian Literature
• Browse All Subjects
• How to Subscribe
• Free Trials

In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Native American Oral Literatures

Introduction, bibliographies, anthologies, theoretical works, ethnography, literary studies and ethnopoetics, novels, poetry, and short stories reflecting the oral tradition, songs, dances, and material culture, native alaskan, northwest coast, and arctic, central america, great lakes, indian territory, oklahoma, related articles expand or collapse the "related articles" section about, about related articles close popup.

Lorem Ipsum Sit Dolor Amet

Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Aliquam ligula odio, euismod ut aliquam et, vestibulum nec risus. Nulla viverra, arcu et iaculis consequat, justo diam ornare tellus, semper ultrices tellus nunc eu tellus.

• Indian Removal
• Jane Johnston Schoolcraft
• Leslie Marmon Silko
• Simon Ortiz
• Sophia Alice Callahan

Other Subject Areas

Forthcoming articles expand or collapse the "forthcoming articles" section.

• Lorraine Hansberry
• Mary Boykin Chesnut
• Phillis Wheatley Peters
• Find more forthcoming articles...
• Export Citations
• Share This Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

Native American Oral Literatures by Timothy Powell LAST REVIEWED: 13 January 2022 LAST MODIFIED: 29 August 2012 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199827251-0070

The oral traditions of Native Americans, Native Alaskans, and First Nations in Canada provide a wealth of insights about the history of literature on the North American continent. Regrettably, however, these traditions are often overlooked by scholars and students of American literature. “Native American oral literatures” is defined here in a fullness that transcends disciplinary boundaries, such that the article will be valuable to the fields of Native American studies, American literature, anthropology, history, religious studies, and folklore, as well as appeal to nonacademics who simply enjoy the art of storytelling. Because there presently are more than five hundred Native American tribes in the United States alone, it is impossible to encompass the geographic and cultural scope of the subject. The temporal scope of the subject is equally daunting, ranging from at least 2000 BCE to the present. The formal borders of the field are similarly vast and included oral performances, videos of storytellers, films, novels, short stories, poems, ethnographies, dances, songs, graphic novels, cartoons, and various forms of material culture. What follows, then, is a suggestive rather than definitive bibliography that ranges from the Arctic to Mesoamerica, from oral narratives about rock art to Pulitzer Prize–winning novels. Because Native American oral literatures are extremely difficult to date according to the chronological scale of Western history, a more indigenous form of temporality is evoked. Rather than imagining a linear timeline, perhaps a better way to think of time in this context is as a dance that circles around, bringing very old stories to life so that they can be adapted to an ever-changing present. The temporal depth of the stories is such that they recount a time when animals could still talk to humans, when the Hero Twins walked the Earth, and when tricksters like Coyote had their way. As the tricksters teach us, it is best to remain skeptical of eternal truths and to consider carefully the unexpected. Thus, the term “oral literatures” should be seen as a purposefully elusive term that can be written down but is always more fluid than black marks on the white page.

Reference Works

This section includes reference works focused on a variety of themes. For an inclusive overview of the vast number of Native American, Native Alaskan, and Canadian First Nations cultures, see Sturtevant 1978–2008 , Trigger and Washburn 1996 , and Adams and MacLeod 2000 . Dillehay 2000 provides a useful research tool to help students and scholars understand the millennia before European contact. Bataille and Lisa 2001 provides a useful resource for scholars and students interested in the biographies of Native American women. Johansen and Grinde 1998 provides a more expansive reference work for Native American biographies. Hirschfelder and de Montaño 1998 is a valuable tool for researching contemporary Native American communities. Wiget 1996 provides a particularly helpful reference for understanding the oral tradition.

Adams, Richard E. W., and Murdo J. MacLeod, eds. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas . Vol. 2, Mesoamerica . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A follow up to Volume 1, on North America ( Trigger and Washburn 1996 ). Includes two parts, both focused on Mesoamerica. Volume 3, also in two parts, focuses on indigenous cultures of South America.

Find this resource:

• Google Preview»

Bataille, Gretchen M., and Laurie Lisa, eds. Native American Women: A Biographical Dictionary . 2d ed. New York: Routledge, 2001.

Originally published by Garland in 1993, contains entries for nearly 250 Native American women. The historical range of the collection spans from the period of contact to the present and is a valuable resource for including Native American women in a history that was long focused largely on Indian men.

Dillehay, Thomas D. The Settlement of the Americas: A New Prehistory . New York: Basic Books, 2000.

A good reference tool for understanding the history of indigenous cultures prior to European contact. A useful work because of its overview of debates within the field, which frequently undergoes dramatic revisions with the discovery of new archaeological materials.

Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Martha Kreipe de Montaño. The Native American Almanac: A Portrait of Native America Today . New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Includes a wide variety of information on treaties, tribal governments, languages, education, religion, games, and indigenous people in films and videos. The list of addresses for all US tribal governments is a valuable resource for those working on contemporary issues. First published 1993.

Johansen, Bruce E., and Donald A. Grinde Jr. The Encyclopedia of Native American Biography . New York: Da Capo, 1998.

Originally published by Henry Holt in 1997, this resource provides a sweeping overview of important Native Americans from the time of early contact through to the present. Also contains information on non-Indians, such as Benjamin Franklin, who played a significant role in Indian–white relations.

Sturtevant, William C., ed. Handbook of North American Indians . Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978–2008.

The definitive work on North American Indians, spanning fifteen volumes to date, with a total of twenty planned. The handbook contains information about all indigenous cultures north of Mesoamerica. The articles include a wealth of material: cultural and physical aspects of the tribes, linguistic analysis, history, and precolonial history. Well indexed with extensive bibliographies.

Trigger, Bruce G., and Wilcomb E. Washburn, eds. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas . Vol. 1, North America . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

A comprehensive reference work that includes articles by distinguished scholars on a wide range of topics focused on cultures north of Mesoamerica. The essays feature regional descriptions and thematic issues, such as “Native People in Euro-American Historiography” and “Indigenous Farmers.” As with the other volumes in the series, there are two parts.

Wiget, Andrew. Handbook of Native American Literature . London: Taylor & Francis, 1996.

Written by one of the leading scholars of Native American oral literature, the work contains information on both the written and oral traditions. Particularly notable for its detailed analysis of oral literature from different regions of North America.

This list is quite brief because White 2004 includes such a comprehensive bibliography. Readers are advised to consult this work for more tightly focused bibliographies of tribes, language families, or regions. Malfara 2011 is a valuable contribution in that it focuses on plays by Native Americans, an often neglected part of the Native American oral tradition.

Malfara, Karen Anne. “ Staging Orality—The Metamorphosis of the Oral Tradition of Storytelling: An Annotated Bibliography of Plays Written in English by Native American Playwrights and Published in the United States .” MA diss., San Diego State University, 2011.

Plays are an often neglected resource for studying the Native American oral tradition. This work contains both analysis of important themes in the field and an extensive bibliography.

White, Phillip M. Bibliography of Native American Bibliographies . Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2004.

One of the only resources of its kind, a master list of bibliographies in the field of American Indian studies. This reference tool includes more than eight hundred bibliographies on indigenous cultures of the United States and Canada. Organized by tribes and topics, the collection is a crucial starting point for further research.

These works cover the vast temporal and geographic scope of Central and North America. Bierhorst 2002 and Caduto and Bruchac 1991 are accessible to a broad audience and provide a helpful overview to the vast expanse of Native American oral literature. Erodoes and Ortiz 1984 also has an expansive scope but provides more detailed analysis of cultural context. Bierhorst 1984 provides a more focused, though still expansive, approach by concentrating on four important works that derive from the oral traditions of the Nahuatls, Iroquois, Mayas, and Navajos. Deloria 2006 is composed of fragments from historical texts that reflect the oral tradition regarding medicine men and keepers of traditional knowledge from a wide variety of cultures. Dembicki 2010 takes a highly innovative approach that pairs native storytellers with graphic artists, giving it a wide audience appeal. A more regionally focused method of exploring the subject can be seen in León-Portilla and Shorris 2002 , which focuses on the remarkably rich region of Mesoamerica. Swann 2005 embodies a slightly different approach, defining a region linguistically by concentrating on stories from the Algonquian language family, which covers a wide geographic swath mostly east of the Mississippi.

Bierhorst, John, ed. Four Masterworks of American Indian Literature . Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 1984.

This collection contains translations of four epic stories from the Native American oral tradition: Aztecs, Iroquois confederacy, Mayas, and “The Night Chant” of the Navajo ceremonial cycle. First published 1974 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux).

Bierhorst, John, ed. The Mythology of North America . New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Bierhorst provides valuable background material for understanding Native American oral literatures from the different cultural regions of Native North America. Originally published in 1985 by Morrow, the collection is valuable for its detailed explanation of common symbols in oral tradition. Introductory level, but helpful for graduate students as well.

Caduto, Michael J., and Joseph Bruchac, eds. Native American Stories . Illustrations by John Kaiohes Fadden. Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 1991.

A good introductory text, originally published in 1988. The myths all derive from the oral tradition and cover a wide range of different cultures spanning the North American continent. Caduto and Bruchac’s introduction is aimed at nonspecialists.

Deloria, Vine, Jr., ed. The World We Used to Live In: Remembering the Powers of the Medicine Men . Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2006.

Vine Deloria Jr. is the father of the modern Native American studies movement. Topics include the Lakota Yuwipi ceremony, Ojibwe conjuring, the power to call to buffalo, and the spiritual sense of place associated with the Sun Dance. Such material is culturally sensitive and should be treated with care and respect.

Dembicki, Matt, ed. Trickster: Native American Tales: A Graphic Collection . Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2010.

The collection pairs native storytellers with graphic artists to present a more visually oriented rendering of Trickster stories. Although many of the illustrators have not worked with Native American materials previously, the storytellers are respected members of their communities.

Erodoes, Richard, and Alfonoso Ortiz, eds. American Indian Myths and Legends . New York: Pantheon, 1984.

A well-respected collection that includes 166 stories on the philosophical and religious dimensions of Native American cultures. The stories encompass the broad geographic sweep of Native America, but are organized thematically with commentary that emphasizes the spiritual dimensions of indigenous cultures.

León-Portilla, Miguel, and Earl Shorris, eds. In the Language of Kings: An Anthology of Mesoamerican Literature, Pre-Columbian to the Present . New York: W. W. Norton, 2002.

A very helpful resource for covering the region of Mesoamerica, which encompasses many cultures and writing systems that range from 2000 BCE to the present. León-Portilla is a distinguished scholar who brings his expertise to the selection of stories. The introductions provide meaningful historical and cultural context.

Swann, Brian, ed. Algonquian Spirit: Contemporary Translations of the Algonquian Literatures of North America . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005.

Algonquian, or Algic, is a language family that has a vast geographic sweep ranging from California to the eastern seaboard. Brian Swann is a respected scholar who includes origin stories, ceremonial songs, stories of European contact, cultural heroes, and trickster tales.

Native American studies has had relatively few journals over the years compared to other fields. American Indian Quarterly was founded in 1974 and is perhaps the preeminent peer-reviewed journal in the field. SAIL is the journal of the Association for the Study of American Indian Literatures. American Indian Culture and Research Journal was started in 1971 and is also considered to be one of the premier journals in the field, broadly defined. Wicazo Sa Review was founded in 1985 and is more ideologically oriented. For an overview of journals focused on First Nations, see First Nations Periodical Index and Canadian Journal of Native Studies . There are also many smaller journals focused more locally. An example of this genre is Oshakaabewis Native Journal , which is dedicated to studies of the Ojibwe language in the United States and Canada.

American Indian Culture and Research Journal .

In print since 1971, the journal is multidisciplinary, designed for scholars and the general public. Fields covered include history, anthropology, geography, sociology, political science, health, literature, law, education, and the arts. Published by the UCLA American Indian Studies Center.

American Indian Quarterly .

One of the preeminent journals in the field, covering a wide variety of academic topics. The unifying theme is “ AIQ ’s commitment to publishing work that contributes to the development of American Indian Studies as a field and to the sovereignty and continuance of American Indian nations and cultures.” Published by the University of Nebraska Press.

Canadian Journal of Native Studies .

Published by the Canadian Indian/Natives Studies Association. The journal publishes work in the field of anthropology, sociology, politics, law, education, and cultural issues.

First Nations Periodical Index .

A joint project of the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College, Saskatoon Campus, the Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Centre, and the Library Services for Saskatchewan Aboriginal Peoples Committee. Provides listings of journals, newspapers, and magazines related to First Nations in Canada.

Oshakaabewis Native Journal .

An interdisciplinary forum for significant contributions to knowledge about the Ojibwe language. Publishes many bilingual works with audio material that accompanies the texts. Published by the American Indian Resource Center at Bemidji State University.

SAIL: Studies in American Indian Literatures .

The only journal in the United States that focuses exclusively on American Indian literatures. Published by the University of Nebraska Press for the Association for the Study of American Indian Literatures.

Wicazo Sa Review .

Founded in 1985, the journal provides inquiries into the Indian past and its relationship to the vital present, drawing upon interdisciplinary analysis “to assist indigenous peoples of the Americas in taking possession of their own intellectual and creative pursuits.” Published by the University of Minnesota Press.

A great many theoretical works have been written about Native American culture. This brief sample represents a cross-section of a much larger whole. Deloria 1988 , Ewen 1994 , and Mohawk 2010 represent the first generation of Native American theorists working in the academy at a historical moment when the field of American Indian studies was just coming into being, often in sharp conflict with the status quo. Allen 1992 is a landmark study of the unique qualities of feminism in an indigenous context. Smith 1999 is also a seminal text that is widely used to teach responsible and respectful methodology of researching indigenous cultures. Krupat 1998 provides a sense of how contentious the theoretical debates of the late 20th century could be. Acoose, et al. 2008 provides a critical response to Krupat 1998 and other mainstream scholars working in the field of Native American studies. King 2005 provides a welcome counter narrative to these theoretical debates by drawing upon humor and old stories, but told with a new twist.

Allen, Paula Gunn. The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions . Boston: Beacon Press, 1992.

An extremely important text in the history of establishing Native American studies in the academy and situating feminism within Native American studies. Originally published in 1986, Allen provides interesting examples from a wide range of native cultures.

Deloria, Vine, Jr. Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto . Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988.

Originally published in 1969 at the height of the culture wars, Deloria takes on the history that had silenced native voices for centuries—treaties, termination policy, anthropological discourse. Deloria, however, uses humor to leaven the arguments and makes for enjoyable reading; an essential book to understanding the origins of the field.

Ewen, Alexander, ed. Voices of Indigenous Peoples: Native People Address the United Nations . Epilogue by Oren Lyons. Santa Fe, NM: Clear Light Books, 1994.

Oren Lyons is a Faithkeeper of the Turtle Clan of the Onondaga and Seneca Nations of the Haudenosaunee or Iroquois Confederacy, and one of the most important thinkers of the American Indian movement. A powerful example of the oral tradition remains vital in a contemporary political context.

King, Thomas. The Truth about Stories: A Native Narrative . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005.

The Truth about Stories is an important counterbalance to the jargon-laden works of the late 20th century. Humorous and grounded in the ribald nature of the Native American oral tradition, King offers important insights about how to write theoretical studies while still remaining true to the language of indigenous storytelling.

Krupat, Arnold. The Turn to the Native: Studies in Criticism and Culture . Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 1998.

A controversial, albeit important, work that addressed many of the most contentious issues in the late 20th century, including racial “essentialism,” debates about “sovereignty,” and whether Native American writers can be considered postmodern.

Mohawk, John. Thinking in Indian: A John Mohawk Reader . Edited by José Barreiro. Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2010.

Like Deloria, Mohawk worked at a time when Native American scholars were fighting to establish American Indian studies. Mohawk was a respected elder of the Seneca Nation, deeply knowledgeable of Haudenosaunee tradition, and an important advocate for Native American theorists.

Smith, Linda Tuhiwai. Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples . London and New York: Zed Books, 1999.

Smith is a Maori from New Zealand. Despite the geographical disjuncture, Decolonizing Methodologies is widely regarded as an essential text for teaching undergraduate or graduate students about doing research with indigenous people and/or working with oral literatures gathered by nonnative collectors.

Womack, Craig, Acoose, Janice, Brooks, Lisa, et al. Reasoning Together: The Native Critics Collective . Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008.

A fine collection of native theorists making a convincing argument that criticism in the field of Native American studies must be rooted in the indigenous traditions being studied.

Ethnography has a long history in the field of anthropology; the works cited in this section provide a relatively brief but representative sampling. These works have been chosen to highlight how the field has always involved collaborative research, although native people were often not credited explicitly. Speck and Broom 1983 (first published in 1951) provides an example of this older style taught by Franz Boas (Leonard Speck was one of Boas’s first graduate students at the turn of the 20th century). It is notable for crediting Will West Long, a Cherokee medicine man. Deloria 1988 was also written by a student of Franz Boas and an enrolled member of the Standing Rock Sioux/Lakota tribe, significant for being one of the first native people to work in the field of ethnography. Ortiz 1972 is also an important example of ethnography done by a scholar who lived within the culture he studied. More contemporary, collaborative approaches are represented here by Basso 1996 , Cruikshank 2000 , and Evers and Toelken 2001 . There are many more fine examples of ethnographies included in the geographical sections of this article.

Basso, Keith H. Wisdom Sits in Places: Landscape and Language among the Western Apache . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996.

A deservedly renowned analysis in which Basso worked closely with elders from western Apache bands to construct a map of place-names in the Apache language. An excellent resource for teaching students the importance of place and language in native cultures.

Cruikshank, Julie. The Social Life of Stories: Narrative and Knowledge in the Yukon Territory . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000.

A very fine analysis of the exceedingly complex roles that stories play in social relations in the Yukon region. Cruikshank spent many years working with Angela Sidney, Kitty Smith, and Annie Ned. The chapter entitled “Pete’s Song” provides an in-depth analysis of the cultural ownership of stories.

Deloria, Ella Cara. Waterlily . Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 1988.

Ella Deloria was a very fine, if underappreciated, Yakton Dakota Sioux anthropologist who studied with Franz Boas at Columbia from 1915 to 1942. The novel, completed by Deloria in 1954 but not published during her lifetime, contains richly detailed cultural insights into Dakota women in the mid-19th century. New addition published in 2009.

Evers, Larry, and Barre Toelken, eds. Native American Oral Traditions: Collaboration and Interpretation . Logan: Utah State University Press, 2001.

Evers and Toelken explore the possibilities engendered by collaborative work between native and nonnative working together on oral texts. Each chapter includes an oral narrative, most with the native language and English texts, an analysis of the narrative, and a discussion of the collaborative process.

Ortiz, Alfonso. The Tewa World: Space, Time, Being, and Becoming in a Pueblo Society . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972.

Originally published in 1969, The Tewa World constitutes a landmark in the field. Ortiz is an enrolled member of the Ohkay Owingeh (San Juan) Pueblo and helped to establish the role of Native Americans in the field of anthropology. Controversial because it contains esoteric material protected by the pueblo.

Speck, Frank G., and Leonard Broom. Cherokee Dance and Drama . In collaboration with Will West Long. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983.

Originally published in 1951 by the University of California, this classic ethnographic work is based on research done by Speck and Broom between 1929 and 1935. Will West Long, a Cherokee consultant, was a talented ethnographer in his own right.

Native American literature has been a rich field for critical analysis. Hymes 1981 represents an older style called “ethnopoetics,” which was based on very detailed linguistic analysis. Brill de Ramirez 1999 and Swann 1987 focus specifically on the oral tradition. Powell 2007 and Wiget 1991 address the question of how the Native American oral tradition fits into the field of American literature. Weaver 1997 provides a helpful overview of the history of Native American literature in its printed form. Brooks 2008 provides more tightly focused analyses of specific tribes. See also Warrior 1995 , Womack 1999 , and Justice 2006 (cited under Indian Territory, Oklahoma ).

Brill de Ramirez, Susan Berry. Contemporary American Indian Literatures and the Oral Tradition . Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1999.

A theoretical discussion of how the written Native American literary tradition can be read using techniques associated with the oral tradition. Brill de Ramirez analyzes the work of Sherman Alexie, N. Scott Momaday, Leslie Marmon Silko and others who invoke dimensions of the oral tradition.

Brooks, Lisa. The Common Pot: The Recovery of Native Space in the Northeast . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008.

Brooks focuses on the Native Northeast, particularly the Wabanaki culture. A valuable analysis of early indigenous writings and a theoretically innovative work that draws upon on Wabanaki linguistics to formulate an indigenous epistemology.

Hymes, Dell. “In Vain I Tried to Tell You”: Essays in Native American Ethnopoetics . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981.

Ethnopoetics is an important academic subfield that developed out of concerns about how to translate not only from one language to another but from the oral tradition into written form. Dell Hymes is one of its finest practitioners, weaving together folklore, linguistics, literary analysis, poetry, and performance theory. Reprinted in 2004 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press)

Powell, Timothy B. “Native/American Digital Storytelling: Situating the Cherokee Oral Tradition with American Literary History.” Storytelling by Freeman Owle; digital design by William Weems. Literature Compass 4.1 (2007): 1–23.

Published in an online journal, the format allows the authors to take advantage of digital technology to embed videos of Freeman Owle, a storyteller from the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, and interactive maps. The essay explores the question of how the oral tradition fits into American literary history Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Swann, Brian, ed. Smoothing the Ground: Essays on Native American Oral Literature . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.

A scholarly collection of essays that includes many distinguished authors working in the field of folklore, literature, linguistics, and anthropology. A good overview of the different techniques scholars use to read oral literature—structuralism, ethnopoetics, comparative, etc. The interpretations are suitable for upper-level undergraduate or graduate classes.

Teuton, Christopher B. Deep Waters: The Textual Continuum in American Indian Literature . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2010.

An important analysis of the continuities between visual traditions such as Mesoamerican codices, wampum, and sandpaintings as they relate to contemporary works of American Indian literature. N. Scott Momaday, Gerald Vizenor, Ray A. Young Bear, and Robert J. Conley are the authors analyzed in depth.

Weaver, Jace. That the People Might Live: Native American Literatures and Native American Community . New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

A very helpful overview of the field of Native American printed literature from its origins in the 19th century to the fecund period of the late 20th century. Encyclopedic in scope, the close readings are insightful and astute.

Wiget, Andrew. “Reading against the Grain: Origin Stories and American Literary History.” American Literary History 3.1 (1991): 209–231.

DOI: 10.1093/alh/3.2.209 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

An interesting, if rarely considered, topic: how the origin stories of the Native American oral tradition fit into American literary history. A useful essay for survey classes of American literature seeking greater cultural diversity.

Literary works can provide a powerful and accessible way to approach the oral tradition. The late 20th and early 21st centuries have witnessed a remarkable proliferation of very fine literary works by native authors that explore the connections between material culture, oral storytelling, and written forms of storytelling. Erdrich 2006 depicts the role that a drum plays in the destitution and healing of an Ojibwe community. Harjo 2002 features many poems that bring mythical characters from the oral tradition into contemporary urban settings. Silko 2006 juxtaposes ancient stories from the Puebloan cultures with the story of a native veteran overcoming posttraumatic stress disorder. Welch 2011 immerses the reader in the traditional world of the Kiowas in the midst of the Indian Wars of the 19th century. Vizenor 1992 and King 1994 reflect the humor that is so important to many indigenous cultures. Ortiz 1992 and Tapahonso 1997 provide lustrous examples of how poetry can be infused with Native American spirituality.

Erdrich, Louise. The Painted Drum . New York: Harper Perennial, 2006.

One of the finest and most prolific contemporary American Indian writers, Erdrich is an enrolled member of the Turtle Mountain band of the Ojibwes. Although the narrative is complex, Erdrich here depicts the drum as animate, sentient character (one might say the drum is the main character of the novel).

Harjo, Joy. How We Became Human: New and Selected Poems, 1975–2000 . New York: W. W. Norton, 2002.

Harjo is a distinguished Creek, or Muscogee, poet. This collection contains poems from her first seven books and some new works. “Deer Dancer,” “Song for the Deer and Myself to Return On,” and “A Map to the Next World” explore the connection between “urban Indians” and the oral tradition.

King, Thomas. Green Grass, Running Water . New York: Bantam, 1994.

An underappreciated masterpiece of contemporary Native American literature. King takes the Trickster tales that derive from American Indian oral literature and weaves them into a contemporary story about the importance of ecological stewardship. The many playful references to the western tradition make the novel valuable for courses in American literature.

Ortiz, Simon J. Woven Stone . Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1992.

This collection of poems deepens our appreciation of the origins of the oral tradition, exploring how poetry emanates from the land itself or from the spirit world. “The stories and poems come forth, /and I am only a voice telling them.”

Silko, Leslie Marmon. Ceremony . New York: Penguin, 2006.

Perhaps the most widely taught work of literature by a Native American author. Silko is from Laguna Pueblo. The novel, originally published in 1977, masterfully tells the story of a World War II veteran struggling with post-traumatic stress syndrome and is able to engage the healing powers of Spider Woman.

Tapahonso, Lucy. Blue Horses Rush In: Poems and Stories . Tuscson: University of Arizona Press, 1997.

Tapahonso is a Navajo writer who uses poems and short fiction to create an intimate portrait of contemporary life on and off the reservation that intersects on profoundly deep levels with the teachings of the ancestors. Her poetry is striking for its use of the Navajo language as integral to understanding an indigenous worldview.

Vizenor, Gerald. Dead Voices: Natural Agonies in the New World . Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992.

Vizenor is an Ojibwe/Anishinaabe writer from the White Earth band in northern Minnesota who has had a long distinguished career. Dead Voices teaches well because of its playful sense of humor about conflicts between Native American wisdom keepers able to transform themselves into talking animals and “wordies,” or Euro-Americans.

Welch, James. Fools Crow . New York: Penguin, 2011.

Welch was a Blackfeet/Gross Ventre writer from Montana. This novel, originally published in 1986, is remarkable in that it submerges the reader in the world of the Piikáni, or Blackfeet, at the height of their struggles with the US Army in the 19th century.

Many Native American cultures do not have a word in their language for what is called, in English, “literature.” To understand “Native American oral literature” in its fullest sense, grounded in indigenous practices, it is necessary to explore interrelated forms such as dance, songs, music, and material culture. Oral performances of stories, dances, and songs are ephemeral, so they can be difficult to express in written form. The works presented in this section represent a variety of techniques ranging from wax cylinder recordings to photography to digital video. Mooney 1973 is the oldest work (originally published in 1896), relying on vivid first-hand accounts, sketches, and early photographic technology to represent the Ghost Dance. Densmore 1910–1913 is by one of the first women working in the field of anthropology; her work was recorded on wax cylinders and is of great interest because she documents how the Ojibwes recorded their own songs as pictographs etched on birch bark. Barker, et al. 2010 makes very effective use of photography to document stories told in the form of dance. Heth 1992 also uses exquisite photographs to document dance across many different Native American cultures. Evers and Molina 1987 is a very fine study of Yaqui songs and a strong example of collaborative scholarship. Nungak and Arima 2001 demonstrates the relationship between soapstone carving and myths from the Inuit culture. Williams, et al. 2005 provides an imaginative juxtaposition of material culture from the Penn Museum and writings by native people inspired by the objects. The Ahtna Heritage Foundation website makes use of video and the Internet to provide a sense of dance performance in the Ahtna community.

Ahtna Heritage Foundation. Ahtna Heritage Dancers .

The Ahtna Heritage Foundation, which can be accessed through its website, provides a striking example of how Native Alaskans, Native Americans, and First Nations people are using digital technology to preserve oral literatures, dance, and material culture. These video clips allow the viewer to hear stories and watch traditional dances.

Barker, James H., Ann Fienup-Riordan, and Theresa Arevgaq John. Yupiit Yuraryarait: Yup’ik Ways of Dancing . Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press, 2010.

Fienup-Riordan provides a helpful overview. The book demonstrates the relationship between oral traditions and dance. The 150 photographs, by Barker, provide a meaningful visual dimension.

Densmore, Frances. Chippewa Music . 2 Vols. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1910–1913.

Frances Densmore was one of the first women to do anthropological fieldwork for the American Bureau of Ethnology beginning in 1907. A classic in the field of ethnomusicology. Many of these songs are Midewiwin (Grand Medicine Society) and are therefore culturally sensitive.

Evers, Larry, and Felipe S. Molina. Yaqui Deer Songs/Maso Bwikam: A Native American Poetry . Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1987.

One of the finest examples of collaborative research between scholars and indigenous wisdom keepers. Evers is a highly respected scholar and Molina is a fluent speaker and keeper of deer songs in his own culture. The analysis interweaves ethnographic methodology, personal reminiscence, poetry, and visual imagery.

Heth, Charlotte, ed. Native American Dance: Ceremonies and Social Traditions . Washington, DC: National Museum of the American Indian, 1992.

Dance can be a difficult subject to teach, but the photography in this volume provides a valuable resource for conveying the visual dimension that is often integral to the performance of “oral literature” in its most expansive sense—spirituality, regalia, dance, music, and storytelling as integral components of traditional knowledge.

Mooney, James. The Ghost-Dance Religion and Wounded Knee . New York: Dover, 1973.

Originally published in 1896, this is a remarkable anthropological account, given that Mooney was present at Wounded Knee in 1890. The text is full of first-hand accounts of the Ghost Dance. Mooney also provides historical background to previous revitalization movements.

Nungak, Zebedee, and Eugene Arima. Inuit Stories/Legendes Inuit: Povungnituk . Gatineau, Quebec: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 2001.

This collection features forty-eight stories from the village of Povungnituk, an Inuit community near Hudson Bay in northern Quebec. The village is a center for Inuit carving in Canada. Beautiful photographs of seventy-two soapstone carvings are nicely arranged in relation to well-crafted myths told by the sculptors themselves.

Williams, Lucy Fowler, William Wierzbowski, and Robert W. Preucel, eds. Native American Voices on Identity, Art, and Culture: Objects of Everlasting Esteem . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2005.

This collection juxtaposes vivid photographs from the museum’s collection with commentary on each object by native people, written in the style of oral literature.

The Northwest Coast of North America is one of most linguistically and culturally complex regions of the continent and has been well studied for more than a hundred years. Indigenous people of the region have also been very active in the research. A good example of this can be seen at the Ahtna Heritage Foundation . On the other end of the spectrum, Boas 1969 and De Laguna 2002 provide a sense of how long anthropologists have been working in the region and how valuable the material collected in the early 20th century is now. Flaherty 1998 is an early example of ethnographic filmmaking. Cruikshank 1990 provides a complex and compelling example of how stories are owned and utilized by indigenous cultures from the Yukon Territory. Dauenhauer and Dauenhauer 2000 is an excellent example of the epic tradition of oral literature from Tlingit culture. Fienup-Riordan 2005 offers important insights into how stories work in the intimate setting of extended families. Thompson and Egesdal 2008 explores the different senses of history as embodied by oral narratives.

Ahtna Heritage Foundation .

The Ahtna Heritage Foundation provides a good example of how tribes are utilizing digital technology to strengthen community ties, support research projects, and disseminate the First Nations’ views to a larger audience.

Boas, Franz. Kwakiutl Tales . New York: AMS, 1969.

Originally published in 1910, this is a classic work by the father of modern anthropology. This collection of stories provides richly detailed insights into the Kwakwaka’wakw, as they are now self-identified. Boas worked closely with George Hunt, a fluent Kwak’wala speaker from Fort Rupert, British Columbia.

Cruikshank, Julie, ed. Life Lived Like a Story: Life Stories of Three Yukon Native Elders . In collaboration with Angela Sidney, Kitty Smith, and Annie Ned. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990.

A truly collaborative effort, the stories of Sidney, Smith, and Ned are notable because of how they demonstrate the way that the oral tradition works in modern times to explain historical phenomenon such as the Klondike gold rush, epidemics, and the building of the Alaska Highway.

Dauenhauer, Nora Marks, and Richard Dauenhauer. Haa Shuká, Our Ancestors: Tlingit Oral Narratives . Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2000.

The Daunhausers are a highly respected team that brings an array of skills to the transmission of oral narratives. Together they have produced vivid translations of the stories along with a detailed analysis, in the introduction and notes, of the oral style, content, and linguistic complexities of Tlingit oral narratives.

De Laguna, Frederica. Tales from the Dena: Indian Stories from the Tanana, Koyukuk and Yukon Rivers . Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002.

De Laguna was a highly respected anthropologist who worked for many years among the Tlingit and Athapaskan peoples in Alaska and Canada. This collection, originally recorded in 1935, includes stories from a number of communities in the Athapaskan language family. First published 1995.

Fienup-Riordan, Ann. Wise Words of the Yup’ik People: We Talk to You Because We Love You . Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 2005.

An intimate portrait of storytelling in the Yup’ik culture as conveyed between elders and youth within a close-knit culture. The stories come from gatherings organized by the Calista Elders Council and thus reflect a strong dimension of community participation.

Flaherty, Robert J., dir. Nanook of the North: A Story of Life and Love in the Actual Arctic , 1922. DVD. Claremont, CA: Criterion Collection of Janus Films, 1998.

Flaherty is often cited as the father of ethnographic filmmaking. Originally issued in 1922, Nanook is a controversial film that has been criticized for staging events and, in some cases, putting the lives of the Inuit people in danger to achieve dramatic effect.

Thompson, M. Terry, and Steven M. Egesdal, eds. Salish Myths and Legends: One People’s Stories . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008.

Salish is a language family that includes First Nations and Native American tribes in the inland regions of the Pacific Northwest. Thompson organizes the collection thematically under epic stories, why things are the way they are, Trickster stories, historical events, etc.

The indigenous cultures of California are numerous and extremely diverse; linguists estimate that approximately one hundred distinct languages existed in the region. Like the Northwest Coast, the region has produced many very fine scholarly works, ranging from Kroeber 1907 to Hinton 1994 , which document the importance of language and the insights revealed from a region with such linguistic diversity. Gifford and Block 1990 , Lang 1994 , and Luthin 2002 are good resources for scholars and students interested in studying the oral tradition as it manifests itself in stories. Sarris 1994 offers a more contemporary view of Native American writers working today, drawing upon the oral tradition and enlivening it for the present.

Gifford, Edward W., and Gwendoline Harris Block, eds. Californian Indian Nights . Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1990.

Originally published in 1930 and reissued sixty years later, the text has come under criticism for reflecting intellectual views from earlier in the 20th century that are less well regarded in the 21st century. While these critiques should be taken into account, the collection provides a representative overview.

Hinton, Leanne. Flutes of Fire: Essays on California Indian Languages . Berkeley, CA: Heyday Books, 1994.

Hinton is a distinguished linguist, a field that is often unwelcoming to nonspecialists. This book is nicely written, providing a valuable introduction to the remarkable linguistic complexity of the region now known as California. The book focuses on language revitalization and although not explicitly about oral literatures, it is nevertheless valuable.

Kroeber, A. L. “ Indian Myths of South Central California .” American Archaeology and Ethnology 4.4 (1907).

Kroeber, one of Franz Boas’s first students, left the East to found the anthropological and linguistic study of Native Californian cultures. This seminal essay explores his interest in studying myths from a linguistic point of view.

Lang, Julian, ed and trans. Ararapíkva: Creation Stories of the People; Traditional Karuk Indian Literature from Northwestern California . Berkeley, CA: Heyday Books, 1994.

Written in both Karuk and English, this text offers an in-depth analysis. Written in three-line format featuring a morpheme-by-morpheme translation and an English free translation, it is primarily for specialists. The translations read quite well, however, and are accompanied by helpful historical, cultural, and linguistic notes.

Luthin, Herbert W., ed. Surviving Through the Days: Translations of Native California Stories and Songs . Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.

This collection provides a useful introduction, but to do justice to the linguistic and cultural diversity of the region requires further research. Luthin organizes the collection geographically, with just a few samples from the various regions. The second half is made up of essays on California languages and oral literatures.

Sarris, Greg, ed. The Sound of Rattles and Clappers: A Collection of New California Indian Writing . Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994.

Native American storytelling is constantly being updated and enlivened. This collection of ten contemporary California writers provides a good example of how this tradition is alive and well. The collection includes poetry, performance art texts, and essays.

Scholarship focusing on precolonial and colonial times refers to this region as Mesoamerica. Although often cut off from studies of Native North America and treated as a separate entity, it is extremely important to make students aware of this history because of the wealth of sources that demonstrate that native people did have non-alphabetic forms of writing and did record their own history dating back to at least 1000 BCE . Boone and Mignolo 1994 is an excellent starting point for understanding the diversity of writing in Mesoamerica and South America. Christenson 2007 translates the great Mayan epic Popol Vuh , which every anthropology undergraduate is aware of, but which is also too often ignored by scholars of American literature and history. Freidel, et al. 1993 provides a broader discussion of the remarkable sophistication of the Maya. Sahagun 1978 provides a striking example of the scholarship of the Spanish priests in the early colonial period and an important insight into how Aztec or Nahuatl people recorded their own history. León-Portilla 2006 and León-Portilla and Shorris 2002 are excellent introductory texts that are accessible to undergraduates and provide a sense of the historical and cultural expanse of this remarkable region.

Boone, Elizabeth Hill, and Walter D. Mignolo, eds. Writing without Words: Alternative Literacies in Mesoamerica and the Andes . Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994.

It is important for undergraduates to understand that indigenous cultures did possess sophisticated forms of writing, particularly in Mesoamerica, that predated European contact. This work provides a critically important overview of the relation between oral and written texts.

Christenson, Allen J. Popol Vuh: Sacred Book of the Ancient Maya . CD-ROM. Provo, UT: Center for the Preservation of Ancient Religious Texts, Brigham Young University, 2007.

The Maya epic Popol Vuh is one of the great works of American literature, predating the Spanish conquest and offering invaluable insight into the complex world of Maya cosmology. Christenson offers a new translation from the original K’iche’ Mayan. The CD-ROM version provides a fully searchable electronic format. Print version published by University of Oklahoma Press.

Freidel, David, Linda Schele, and Joy Parker. Maya Cosmos: Three Thousands Years on the Shaman’s Path . New York: W. Morrow, 1993.

A highly readable intellectual excursion across three millennia, this book provides an important overview of the central philosophical, literary, and religious concepts of Maya culture. The authors also provide a corrective to the common perception that Maya culture mysteriously disappeared sometime around 900 CE .

León-Portilla, Miguel. The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico . Exp. ed. Translated by Lysander Kemp. Boston: Beacon Press, 2006.

This deservedly famous text, originally published in 1962, retells the story of Spanish conquest from the Aztec point of view. León-Portilla’s scholarly command of archival materials from Europe and the Americas brings this remarkable story to life in such a way that even introductory-level classes will find compelling.

León-Portilla, Miguel, and Earl Shorris. In the Language of Kings: An Anthology of Mesoamerican Literature, Pre-Columbian to the Present . New York: W. W. Norton, 2002.

The vast cultural complexity and the vertiginous temporal depth of Mesoamerican literary history make it difficult to represent in a single volume. This collection does a very fine job, spanning from pre-Columbian hieroglyphic documents to contemporary Maya stories, fables, and poems. León-Portilla is a preeminent scholar of Mesoamerican cultural history.

Sahagun, Bernardino de. Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain . Translated by Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles Dibble. Monographs of the School of American Research. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1978.

Historia general de las coasas de la Nueva España was written by de Sahagun in 1576–1577. Sahagun trained the youth of Aztec nobility to write Nahuatl in alphabetic form, and then translated the Nahuatl into Spanish. Subjects include Aztec religion, history, politics, and economic and natural history.

The Great Lakes region is home to the Ojibwes, the largest indigenous group north of the Rio Grande, if one includes the bands in the United States and Canada. The term Anishinaabeg refers more broadly to Algonquian-speaking peoples from this region. The Ojibwe are represented here in Benton-Banai 1988 , written by a prominent member of his community who provides a valuable Ojibwe-centered view of the tribe’s migration from the St. Lawrence River Valley to its vast expanse in the Great Lakes region. Berens and Hallowell 2009 provides a valuable resource for researching the oral history of the Ojibwe in northern Canada collected by A. Irving Hallowell and his Ojibwe consultant William Berens. Roufs 1997–2012 and Gibagadinamaagoom: An Ojibwe Digital Archive provide informative examples of how digital technology can represent the oral tradition of the Ojibwes. Kurath, et al. 2009 studies the Anishinaabegs more broadly through the lens of music and myths. Barbeau 2010 reflects an older generation of ethnographers, although the Wyandot or Huron stories collected here are still valuable. Brightman 1990 studies the Crees, who border the Ojibwes to the north, and whose culture is intertwined with the Ojibwes. Menonominee Oral Tradition presents stories from the Ojibwe’s southern neighbors who are historically related through the Three Fires Confederacy.

Barbeau, Marius. Huron and Wyandot Mythology, with an Appendix Containing Earlier Published Records . Memphis: General Books, 2010.

Originally published by the Government Printing Bureau of Ottawa in 1915. Barbeau collected many myths, missionary accounts, and traditional narratives. This edition was recently republished and is an important resource for understanding the divisions within the Great Lakes region, the Wyandots being part of the Iroquoian language family.

Benton-Banai, Edward. The Mishomis Book: The Voice of the Ojibway . Minneapolis: Red School House, 1988.

Benton-Banai had attained the rank of the 4th degree of the Aninshinaabe/Ojibwe Midewiwin (Grand Medicine Society) at the time he wrote the text. Deceptively simple, it contains a detailed account of the Ojibwe migration story from the East Coast and a tribal history dating back to primordial times that is extremely valuable.

Berens, William, as told to A. Irving Hallowell. Memories, Myths and Dreams of an Ojibwe Leader . Edited by Jennifer S. H. Brown and Susan Elaine Gray. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2009.

A. Irving Hallowell was one of the first anthropologists to deeply value the indigenous worldview and to give credit to his Ojibwe teacher, William Berens. Jennifer Brown and Susan Gray have edited Hallowell’s papers into a highly readable book of William Berens’ stories from northeast of Lake Winnipeg in the 1930s.

Brightman, Robert A. Acadohkiwina and Acimowina: Traditional Narratives of the Rock Cree Indians . Gatineau, Quebec: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1990.

Brightman is a respected anthropologist who has worked among the Cree First Nations in Manitoba for many years. A good overview of some of the central motifs of Cree folklore as passed down through the oral tradition.

Gibagadinamaagoom: An Ojibwe Digital Archive .

A digital archive edited by Timothy B. Powell and Larry P. Aitken that features videos of Ojibwe elders, artifacts from the Penn Museum, and ethnographic materials from the American Philosophical Society and the Minnesota Historical Society. The navigation system, based on the seven directions of the Ojibwe cosmology, is notable.

Kurath, Gertrude, Jane Ettawageshik, and Fred Ettawageshik. The Art of Tradition: Sacred Music, Dance and Myth of Michigan’s Anishinaabe, 1946–1955 . East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2009.

Kurath and the Ettawageshiks did their research in Michigan in the 1940s and 1950s. They use the term Anishinaabe in its broader sense to include Ojibwes and closely related tribes such as the Potowatomis and Odawas/Ottawas, which together constitute the Three Fires Confederacy.

“ Menominee Oral Tradition .” In Indian Country Wisconsin. Milwaukee, WI: Milwaukee Public Museum.

Stories about the cultural hero Mahabush adapted from older anthropological collections by Walter J. Hoffman, Alison B. Skinner and Satterlee, Leonard Bloom, among others. A good resource for locating a variety of works about Menominee folklore.

Roufs, Tim, ed. When Everybody Called Me Gah-bay-bi-nayss, “Forever-Flying Bird”: An Ethnographic Biography of Paul Peter Buffalo . Duluth: University of Minnesota, 1997–2012.

Edited by Tim Roufs, this innovative website that features the Ojibwe oral tradition as told by Paul Buffalo (Gah-bah-bi-nays), son of an Ojibwe medicine woman. Buffalo speaks of religion, herbal medicine, the Ojibwe language, and the teachings of his mother.

The Native American tribes and First Nations of the Northeast were very hard hit by the first wave of British colonization, which decimated many of the languages, although the stories and the people live on. Bierhorst 1995 provides a valuable guide to working with the mythology of the Lenapes, who are referred to by many other tribes as “grandfathers,” thereby suggesting that they may have been one of the oldest cultural groups in the region. Hewitt 1918 and Porter 2008 provide rich resources collected by members of the Iroquois Confederacy, one of the most powerful groups in the region. Speck 1998 is a classic work of ethnography focused on the Penobscot culture. Wiseman 2001 constitutes an innovative, even radical, effort to rethink the historiography of Abenaki culture. LeSourd 2009 is a fine collection of stories from the Maliseets that is a more linguistically focused analysis. Obomasawin 2006 is an important filmic account of how elders pass on the oral tradition in the Abenaki culture. Fawcett 2000 is a valuable look, through the eyes of Gladys Tantaquidgeon, into the Mohegan culture in the southern part of this region.

Bierhorst, John. Mythology of the Lenape: Guide and Texts . Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1995.

The Lenapes were commonly referred to as “grandfathers” by many other tribes on the Eastern seaboard, leading some scholars to conclude that they are one of the oldest tribes in the region. Bierhorst’s book contains a complex series of cross-referencing of interest to advanced students of folklore and anthropology.

Fawcett, Melissa Jayne. Medicine Trail: The Life and Lessons of Gladys Tantaquidgeon . Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2000.

Gladys Tantaquidgeon was a Mohegan traditionalist who worked closely with the anthropologist Frank G. Speck, trained to do field work at the University of Pennsylvania, and later returning to her community as a council member and medicine woman. The book juxtaposes the oral tradition with more conventional historical context.

Hewitt, J. N. B., ed. Seneca Fiction, Legends, and Myths . Collected by Jeremiah Curtin and J. N. B. Hewitt. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1918.

Hewitt is an extremely important figure in the history of anthropology. A member of the Tuscarora Nation, he was one of the first indigenous anthropologists and a founder of the field. A massive work, more than eight hundred pages in length, related to the history of the Senecas and the Iroquois confederacy. Reprinted in 2005 by University Press of the Pacific.

LeSourd, Phillip S., ed and trans. Tales from Maliseet Country: The Maliseet Texts of Karl V. Teeter . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009.

Phillip LeSourd is a linguist who translated these stories, originally collected by Karl V. Teeter working with Maliseet consultant Peter Lewis Paul. Paul sought out the best storytellers born before 1900. The book is written in a bilingual format, with the Maliseet and English versions of the stories printed on facing pages.

Obomasawin, Alanis, dir. Waban-Aki : People from Where the Sun Rises . DVD. Montreal: National Film Board of Canada, 2006.

One of the finest indigenous filmmakers, Obomasawin’s career spans four decades. This film documents the voices and worldview of Abenaki elders from the Odanak community in Quebec. An excellent example of how film can provide effective medium for capturing dimensions of oral literature difficult to replicate on the white page.

Porter, Tom. And Grandma Said . . .: Iroquois Teachings as Passed Down through the Oral Tradition . Transcribed and edited by Lesley Forrester. Drawings by John Kahionhes Fadden. Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2008.

Captures the humor and profound insights of the respected Mohawk elder Tom Porter (Sakokweniónkwas). The narrative covers a wide range of topics from the creation story to the four sacred rituals to the Great Law of Peace to pregnancy. Captures the cadences and cycles of storytelling in the oral tradition.

Speck, Frank G. Penobscot Man . Orono: University of Maine Press, 1998.

As one of Franz Boas’ first graduate students, Frank Speck occupies an important position in the history of anthropology, and Penobscot Man is considered to be a masterpiece of ethnographical research. Speck did his research among the Penobscots in the early 1900s, although the book was not published until 1940.

Wiseman, Frederick Matthew. The Voice of the Dawn: An Autohistory of the Abenaki Nation . Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2001.

An interesting, if somewhat controversial, alternative to conventional histories of the Native Northeast. Wiseman’s account begins with the receding of the Ice Age and continues up to the contemporary Abenaki political renaissance. Unabashedly “Abenaki-centric.”

“Indian Territory,” in this context, refers to a region of the country in what is now Oklahoma and its environs that was the endpoint for many tribes relocated during the removal period. The period can be said to begin with the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which led directly to the removal of the Cherokees, Creeks, Chickasaws, Choctaws, and Seminoles. Altogether, twenty-five tribes were removed to what is now Oklahoma from many different parts of the United States. The federal government initially promised that Indian Territory would become its own state. This promise was irrevocably broken with the creation of the state of Oklahoma in 1907. Bailey 2010 provides a collection of stories from the Osage tribe, which occupied the land before the influx of removed tribes. Kilpatrick and Kilpatrick 1995 is written by two noted ethnographers who documented the oral history of the Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma, the largest group in the region. Momaday 1969 provides a very imaginative rendering of how the Kiowas maintained their own history even after removal. Schorer 1986 is a collection of stories from the Wyandots or Hurons, Miamis, and Shawnees, all of whom were relocated to Indian Territory in the 19th century. Warrior 1995 , Womack 1999 , and Justice 2006 provide a good example of contemporary Native American scholars from Oklahoma who are rethinking how the intellectual traditions from this region are represented.

Bailey, Garrick, ed. Traditions of the Osage: Stories Collected and Translated by Francis La Flesche . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2010.

La Flesche collected these narratives in Oklahoma between 1910 and 1923 for the Bureau of American Ethnology. La Flesche was Omaha, the son of Chief Iron Eyes, and a native speaker (Osage and Omaha are closely related and mutually intelligible). Divided into categories of sacred teachings, folk stories, and animal stories.

Justice, Daniel Heath. Our Fire Survives the Storm: A Cherokee Literary History . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006.

Part of a new generation of Native American scholars who utilize traditional forms of knowledge, Justice draws upon the legacy of the Chickamauga revolt to understand how the oral tradition and works of literature helped the Cherokees survive the Trail of Tears.

Kilpatrick, Jack F., and Anna G. Kilpatrick. Friends of Thunder: Folktales of the Oklahoma Cherokees . Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995.

Jack and Anna Kilpatrick were a husband and wife team, both of whom were Cherokees from Oklahoma. They collected and translated these folktales in 1961 from seventeen Cherokee elders. The collection includes ethnographic, musical, and historic material in addition to the stories.

Momaday, N. Scott. The Way to Rainy Mountain . Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 1969.

Momaday won the Pulitzer Prize for his novel House Made of Dawn (1968), helping Native American literature enter the mainstream and curricula across the country. The Way to Rainy Mountain works in dialogue with James Mooney’s Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians .

Schorer, C. E., ed. Indian Tales of C. C. Trowbridge: Collected from Wyandots, Miamis, and Shawanoes . Brighton, MI: Green Oak Press, 1986.

A very early collection of stories compiled by Charles Christopher Trowbridge in the 1920s. Trowbridge was an amateur ethnographer who accompanied Lewis Cass on his exploration of the Northwest Territories. The Miamis, Wyandots, and Shawnees were all removed from their ancestral homelands to Indian Territory in the 19th century.

Warrior, Robert Allen. Tribal Secrets: Recovering American Indian Intellectual Traditions . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995.

Warrior, who is descended from the Osages who originally occupied the region that eventually became Indian Territory, does a fine job of recovering the indigenous intellectual traditions of the early and mid-20th century that made the contemporary turn in Native American scholarship possible.

Womack, Craig S. Red on Red: Native American Literary Separatism . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999.

Red on Red is, categorically speaking, a work of literary criticism. Womack, however, intersperses fictional passages between the chapters written the style of old Muscogee/Creek men sitting on porches in Oklahoma. A very inventive take on the role of the oral tradition in academic writing.

The horse-mounted warriors of the Plains, adorned in feathered headdresses, are indelibly etched into the American imagination as the face of Native America. The works in this section provide a more detailed and historically accurate depiction of the stories of these cultures from the 1800s to the present day. Mooney 1979 , Dorsey and Kroeber 1997 , and Lowie 2004 represent the classic ethnographic tradition of the early 20th century. Wissler and Duvall 2007 provides an example of the more recent trend of collaboration between anthropologists and native scholars. Zitkala-Sa 2003 and Sutter 2004 represent an older and more contemporary example of native people collecting stories from their own communities. Parks 1996 and Lakota Winter Counts: An Online Exhibit are innovative examples of, respectively, ethnopoetics and digital exhibits.

Dorsey, George A., and Alfred L. Kroeber. Traditions of the Arapaho . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997.

Jeffrey D. Anderson provides a useful introduction to this classic ethnography by Dorsey and Kroeber. It includes the Arapaho origin myth and a great many stories collected in the 19th century and originally published in 1903.

Lakota Winter Counts: An Online Exhibit . Washington, DC: National Museum of Natural History.

Commissioned by the National Anthropological Archives of the Smithsonian Institute, this online exhibit is one of the finest examples of how digital technology, oral history, and traditional forms such as Lakota Winter Counts can be integrated effectively. Winter Counts are pictographic calendars that would have originally been accompanied by the oral tradition.

Lowie, Robert H. The Crow Indians . Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 2004.

Lowie, an anthropologist who originally published his findings on the Crow Nation in 1935, was primarily interested in ceremonies, religion, and stories. The new Bison Books edition is prefaced by an introduction by Phenocia Bauerle, an enrolled member of the Crow Nation, who offers an important critique of Lowie’s research methods.

Mooney, James. Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians . Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1979.

Originally published in 1898, Mooney’s ethnography of the Kiowa pictographic calendars is a very helpful resource for understanding the relationship between oral history and the pictographic records kept by many tribes. A Kiowa Indian named Anko created the original. Mooney annotates the pictographs with information gathered from interviews with tribal members.

Parks, Douglas R. Myths and Traditions of the Arikara Indians . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996.

A condensed version of Park’s four volume Traditional Narratives of the Arikara Indians , collected from eleven narrators in the 1970s and 1980s. Parks employs a unique ethnopoetic approach that differs from that of Dennis Tedlock and Dell Hymes, who helped found this approach. Very approachable.

Sutter, Virginia J. Tell Me, Grandmother: Traditions, Stories, and Cultures of Arapaho People . Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2004.

Sutter is an enrolled member of the Northern Arapaho Nation. She uses an innovative style that weaves together her own story as a public administrator for the Pit River Tribe in California with that of her great-grandmother, Goes-in-Lodge, who was married to Sharpnose, a chief of the northern Arapaho.

Wissler, Clark, and D. C. Duvall, comps. and trans. Mythology of the Blackfoot Indians . 2d ed. Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 2007.

These stories were originally collected and translated by Wissler and Duvall and published in 1908 by the American Museum of National History. Introductions by Alice Beck Kehoe, a respected linguist, and Darrell Kipp, a Blackfoot/Piegan scholar who cofounded the Piegan Institute, provide context for work collected in an earlier age.

Zitkala-Sa. American Indian Stories, Legends, and Other Writings . Edited by Cathy N. Davidson and Ada Norris. New York: Penguin, 2003.

The Lakota writer and activist Zitkala-Sa (b. 1876–d. 1938) was a remarkable woman. The literary scholar Cathy N. Davidson does a fine job of collecting the many different kinds of writing done by Zitkala-Sa, from recording traditional stories about the Lakota Trickster figure Iktomi to articles published in Atlantic Monthly .

The southern part of the United States has a rich history of indigenous cultures dating back to the Mound Builders (3400 BCE –1542 CE ) and continuing to the present day. Swanton 1929 provides the best overview of the entire region. Carter 1995 traces the Caddo culture from Oklahoma, to which the tribe was removed, back to their roots in the South. Mooney 1992 is an excellent source for Cherokee stories, collected in the late 19th century. Duncan 1998 provides an important collection of traditional Cherokee tales told by contemporary storytellers. Jumper 1994 is a Seminole storyteller and speaker of the language. Kimball 2010 collects Koasati stories from a number of historical sources ranging from 1910 to 1992. Mould 2004 brings together tales and legends from the Choctaw culture.

Carter, Cecile Elkins. Caddo Indians: Where We Come From . Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995.

The Caddos’ ancestral homeland was in Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. This analysis connects stories from the past and present using a wide range of sources including archaeological data, oral histories, and historical accounts from the 17th to 20th centuries. A narrative history, rather than a collection of stories.

Duncan, Barbara R., ed. Living Stories of the Cherokee . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998.

These stories were collected from the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indians in western North Carolina from contemporary storytellers. The Cherokee storytellers, including Davey Arch, Marie Junaluska, and Robert Busheyhead, are highly respected keepers of traditional knowledge. Provides a valuable insight into the living nature of the oral tradition.

Jumper, Betty Mae. Legends of the Seminoles . Sarasota, FL: Pineapple Press, 1994.

Betty Mae Jumper is a Seminole storyteller and speaker, still living in the tribe’s ancestral homelands in Florida. A slim volume, but a valuable collection of stories from the Seminoles, who were able to hide in the Everglades to avoid removal to Oklahoma in the 19th century.

Kimball, Geoffrey D., trans. Koasati Traditional Narratives . Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2010.

This collection is the first work of Koasati oral literature ever to be published. Noted anthropologists John R. Swanton, Mary R. Haas, and Geoffrey D. Kimball collected the stories between 1910 and 1992. Kimball includes multiple versions of stories to demonstrate the fluid nature of oral literatures.

Mooney, James. James Mooney’s History, Myths, and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees . Asheville, NC: Bright Mountain Books, 1992.

An encyclopedic account of the culture of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, published in 1891 and 1900. The sacred formulae are culturally sensitive. The best way to approach this complex text is by using the index, which is printed after the myths section, not at the end of the book.

Mould, Tom, ed. Choctaw Tales . Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 2004.

The first book to bring together Choctaw stories; the collection is well done and includes annotations, analysis, photographs of the storytellers, Choctaw language versions of some stories, and a wide array of topics ranging from primordial to historic times.

Swanton, John R. Myths and Tales of the Southeastern Indians . Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 88. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1929.

Swanton was a distinguished anthropologist who collected works from the Creek, Hitchiti, Alabama, Koasati, and Natchez cultures, which are descended from the highly sophisticated Mound Builder cultures from the precontact period. In the final chapter, Swanton offers a comparative analysis.

The Southwest is a rich region for Native American oral literature because so many of the tribes have remained on their ancestral homeland for generations. These communities are very protective of traditional knowledge, so it is important to respect culturally sensitive materials. Cushing 1901 and Parsons 1994 represent a prior era of anthropological collecting. Hughte 1994 is a very humorous account of Cushing 1901 from a Zuni perspective. Evers and Molina 1987 is an excellent example of the collaborative approach that is more valued in contemporary times. Bahr 1994 offers a sense of the tremendous temporal depth of storytelling in this region by tracing Pima narratives back to the Hohokam culture (1 CE –450 CE ). Courlander 1987 focuses on the Hopi tradition, which can be traced back to the Puebloan cultures that flourished in the 1100s. Zolbrod 1984 translates the Navajo creation story, an epic of immense importance. Navajo Visual Poetry is an innovative online project utilizing digital technology to explore the relationship between the oral tradition and material culture.

Bahr, Donald M. The Short Swift Time of Gods on Earth: The Hohokam Chronicles . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.

DOI: 10.1525/california/9780520084674.001.0001 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In 1935, Juan Smith told the entire creation story of the Pima, or Akimel O’odham, people, recorded and translated by William Smith Allison with the assistance of the archaeologist Julian Hayden. Bahr published this account for the first time and provides a richly nuanced context for the thirty-six song/story cycle.

Courlander, Harold. The Fourth World of the Hopis: The Epic Story of the Hopi Indians as Preserved in Their Legends and Traditions . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987.

A collection of twenty myths and tales collected between 1968 and 1970 from eleven Hopi storytellers. Taken together, they provide a good overview of the Hopis’ rich ceremonial and historic traditions, ranging from the emergence to migrations to historical times.

Cushing, Frank Hamilton. Zuni Folk Tales . New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1901.

A classic anthropological text. Frank Cushing collected thirty-three tales between 1879 and 1884, when he lived among the Zunis. The Zunis have mixed memories of Cushing, which are nicely captured by Phil Hughte in A Zuni Artist Looks at Frank Hamilton Cushing ( Hughte 1994 ).

An outstanding example of the best in contemporary anthropological research in which Larry Evers collaborates with Felipe S. Molina, a Yaqui deer singer, to produce a very entertaining and richly detailed analysis augmented by beautiful photographs.

Hughte, Phil. A Zuni Artist Looks at Frank Hamilton Cushing . Discourse by Jim Ostler, commentary by Kriztina Kosse. Zuni, NM: Pueblo of Zuni Arts & Crafts, 1994.

A humorous look, through Hughte’s cartoons, at the famous anthropologist Frank Hamilton Cushing, who lived among the Zuni from 1879 to 1884, wearing Zuni style dress and publishing Zuni Folk Tales . Provides a great teaching tool for maintaining perspective on the “authority” of early anthropological accounts.

Navajo Visual Poetry . In UbuWeb Ethnopoetics.

Ubuweb: Ethnopoetics is an important online resource, edited by the noted scholar Jerome Rothenberg, one of the founders of the ethnopoetic approach. The digital archive contains interesting material on Navajo sand-paintings as they relate to specific chants from the Navajo or Diné culture.

Parsons, Elsie Worthington Clews. Tewa Tales . Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1994.

Originally published in 1926; Parsons collected a hundred stories from eight Native American storytellers, who insisted on remaining anonymous because the community discouraged sharing such stories with outsiders. Like many anthropological collections, the ethnographic value of the work must be weighed against the tribe’s sovereign rights to protect their own heritage.

Zolbrod, Paul G. Diné Bahane’: The Navajo Creation Story . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984.

An important text for teaching creation stories as centrally important to indigenous cultures. This epic is long and richly detailed. Zolbrod provides a helpful commentary that makes the work more accessible to undergraduate and graduate students. The Dinés are one of the largest Native American nations.

back to top

• About American Literature »
• Meet the Editorial Board »
• Adams, Alice
• Adams, Henry
• African American Vernacular Tradition
• Agee, James
• Alcott, Louisa May
• Alexie, Sherman
• Alger, Horatio
• American Exceptionalism
• American Grammars and Usage Guides
• American Literature and Religion
• American Magazines, Early 20th-Century Popular
• "American Renaissance"
• American Revolution, Music of the
• Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones)
• Anaya, Rudolfo
• Anderson, Sherwood
• Angel Island Poetry
• Antin, Mary
• Anzaldúa, Gloria
• Austin, Mary
• Baldwin, James
• Barlow, Joel
• Barth, John
• Bellamy, Edward
• Bellow, Saul
• Bible and American Literature, The
• Bishop, Elizabeth
• Bourne, Randolph
• Bradford, William
• Bradstreet, Anne
• Brockden Brown, Charles
• Brooks, Van Wyck
• Brown, Sterling
• Brown, William Wells
• Butler, Octavia
• Byrd, William
• Cahan, Abraham
• Callahan, Sophia Alice
• Captivity Narratives
• Cather, Willa
• Cervantes, Lorna Dee
• Chesnutt, Charles Waddell
• Child, Lydia Maria
• Chopin, Kate
• Cisneros, Sandra
• Civil War Literature, 1861–1914
• Clark, Walter Van Tilburg
• Connell, Evan S.
• Cooper, Anna Julia
• Cooper, James Fenimore
• Copyright Laws
• Crane, Stephen
• Creeley, Robert
• Cruz, Sor Juana Inés de la
• Cullen, Countee
• Culture, Mass and Popular
• Davis, Rebecca Harding
• Dawes Severalty Act
• de Burgos, Julia
• de Crèvecœur, J. Hector St. John
• Delany, Samuel R.
• Dick, Philip K.
• Dickinson, Emily
• Doctorow, E. L.
• Douglass, Frederick
• Dreiser, Theodore
• Dubus, Andre
• Dunbar, Paul Laurence
• Dunbar-Nelson, Alice
• Dune and the Dune Series, Frank Herbert’s
• Eastman, Charles
• Eaton, Edith Maude (Sui Sin Far)
• Eaton, Winnifred
• Edwards, Jonathan
• Eliot, T. S.
• Emerson, Ralph Waldo
• Environmental Writing
• Equiano, Olaudah
• Erdrich (Ojibwe), Louise
• Faulkner, William
• Fauset, Jessie
• Federalist Papers, The
• Ferlinghetti, Lawrence
• Fiedler, Leslie
• Fitzgerald, F. Scott
• Frank, Waldo
• Franklin, Benjamin
• Freeman, Mary Wilkins
• Frontier Humor
• Fuller, Margaret
• Gaines, Ernest
• Garland, Hamlin
• Garrison, William Lloyd
• Gibson, William
• Gilman, Charlotte Perkins
• Ginsberg, Allen
• Glasgow, Ellen
• Glaspell, Susan
• González, Jovita
• Graphic Narratives in the U.S.
• Great Awakening(s)
• Griggs, Sutton
• Harper, Frances Ellen Watkins
• Harte, Bret
• Hawthorne, Nathaniel
• Hawthorne, Sophia Peabody
• H.D. (Hilda Doolittle)
• Hellman, Lillian
• Hemingway, Ernest
• Higginson, Ella Rhoads
• Higginson, Thomas Wentworth
• Hughes, Langston
• Irving, Washington
• James, Henry
• Jefferson, Thomas
• Jesuit Relations
• Jewett, Sarah Orne
• Johnson, Charles
• Johnson, James Weldon
• Kerouac, Jack
• King, Martin Luther
• Kirkland, Caroline
• Knight, Sarah Kemble
• Larsen, Nella
• Lazarus, Emma
• Le Guin, Ursula K.
• Lewis, Sinclair
• Literary Biography, American
• Literature, Italian-American
• London, Jack
• Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth
• Lost Generation
• Lowell, Amy
• Magazines, Nineteenth-Century American
• Mailer, Norman
• Malamud, Bernard
• Manifest Destiny
• Mather, Cotton
• Maxwell, William
• McCarthy, Cormac
• McCullers, Carson
• McKay, Claude
• McNickle, D'Arcy
• Melville, Herman
• Merrill, James
• Millay, Edna St. Vincent
• Miller, Arthur
• Moore, Marianne
• Morrison, Toni
• Morton, Sarah Wentworth
• Mourning Dove (Syilx Okanagan)
• Mukherjee, Bharati
• Murray, Judith Sargent
• Native American Oral Literatures
• New England “Pilgrim” and “Puritan” Cultures
• New Netherland Literature
• Newspapers, Nineteenth-Century American
• Norris, Zoe Anderson
• Northup, Solomon
• O'Brien, Tim
• Occom, Samson and the Brotherton Indians
• Olsen, Tillie
• Olson, Charles
• Ortiz, Simon
• Paine, Thomas
• Piatt, Sarah
• Pinsky, Robert
• Plath, Sylvia
• Poe, Edgar Allan
• Porter, Katherine Anne
• Proletarian Literature
• Realism and Naturalism
• Reed, Ishmael
• Regionalism
• Rich, Adrienne
• Rivera, Tomás
• Robinson, Kim Stanley
• Roth, Henry
• Roth, Philip
• Rowson, Susanna Haswell
• Ruiz de Burton, María Amparo
• Russ, Joanna
• Sanchez, Sonia
• Schoolcraft, Jane Johnston
• Sentimentalism and Domestic Fiction
• Sexton, Anne
• Silko, Leslie Marmon
• Sinclair, Upton
• Smith, John
• Smith, Lillian
• Spofford, Harriet Prescott
• Stein, Gertrude
• Steinbeck, John
• Stevens, Wallace
• Stoddard, Elizabeth
• Stowe, Harriet Beecher
• Tate, Allen
• Terry Prince, Lucy
• Thoreau, Henry David
• Time Travel
• Tourgée, Albion W.
• Transcendentalism
• Truth, Sojourner
• Twain, Mark
• Tyler, Royall
• Updike, John
• Vallejo, Mariano Guadalupe
• Viramontes, Helena María
• Vizenor, Gerald
• Walker, David
• Walker, Margaret
• War Literature, Vietnam
• Warren, Mercy Otis
• Warren, Robert Penn
• Wells, Ida B.
• Welty, Eudora
• Wendy Rose (Miwok/Hopi)
• Wharton, Edith
• Whitman, Sarah Helen
• Whitman, Walt
• Whitman’s Bohemian New York City
• Whittier, John Greenleaf
• Wideman, John Edgar
• Wigglesworth, Michael
• Williams, Roger
• Williams, Tennessee
• Williams, William Carlos
• Wilson, August
• Winthrop, John
• Wister, Owen
• Woolman, John
• Woolson, Constance Fenimore
• Wright, Richard
• Privacy Policy
• Cookie Policy
• Legal Notice
• Accessibility

Powered by:

• [66.249.64.20|81.177.182.159]
• 81.177.182.159

Native American Cultural Values and Health Beliefs Essay

The objective.

Collaboration with the community increases the overall contribution to medicine. In the context of improving care for Native American people who are ill, an important challenge is to address disparities in attention to ethnicity. Moreover, attitudes and access to health care in these societies are often underdeveloped, requiring a range of skills to remedy the situation. Collaboration with communities and tribes can help understand the issues and improve the health status of this cultural and ethnic stratum.

Health Beliefs

Many Native American peoples view health as a holistic indicator and link spiritual, emotional, and bodily states together. Nature has traditionally been viewed as a source and assistant in healing, which does not promote medicine or trust in outsider practices. Moreover, the unification of spirit and body is largely religious and may interfere with necessary healing practices, even when a person’s life is threatened.

Health Practices

The use of medicinal plants, their properties, and their beliefs on par with ceremonial procedures is common in indigenous community beliefs. Nature is often considered by them as the main source of healing and life, which enhances the ecological nature of their worldview and implies the preservation of the environment for future generations. Moreover, such attitudes may contribute to the ancestral transmission of distrust of modern medicine.

Family Patterns

This culture values family and family relationships very highly, effectively dividing already small communities into clans. Most decisions cannot be made without the participation of respected family members and elders. Such family networks promote cohabitation and the genetic preservation of certain weaknesses (Blue Bird Jernigan et al., 2020). Cultural traditions enter into important points in the worldview of Native Americans, regardless of tribe, and influence patient behavior.

Communication Style

Indirect communication styles, quite common in Native American communities and environments, include body language, tone of voice, and other nonverbal cues. Moreover, metaphorical language and the use of pauses can contribute to misunderstandings among people who are communicating with this cultural stratum for the first time (Warne & Wescott, 2019). Showing respect and sensitivity to the patient’s culture and utterances can help establish the necessary level of relationship in the patient’s care process.

Space Orientation

For members of this ethnic background, it is especially important to respect their right to personal space. Moreover, in some cases, unreasonable touch can be seen as a personal insult. In interacting assertions of individuality and privacy with religion, interesting patterns have emerged that often imply the importance and spirituality of any interaction (Carter et al., 2019). Much of this requires the presence of family members or respected representatives of elders to ensure one’s peace of mind.

Time Orientation

For representatives of this cultural community, concentration on what is happening with parallel references to analogies of the past is very important. Given the belief in ancestral spirits and the importance of their previous generations, there is a noticeable tendency to repeat others’ deeds or beliefs within the boundaries of their tribe’s legends (1). Accepting death or illness as part of the cycle can be detrimental to healing and contribute to one’s opposition.

Nutritional Patterns

The food habits of the communities in question significantly impact the identity of these communities and the development of their culture. Food can be seen as a way of expressing cultural identity in addition to the means of subsistence (Warne & Wescott, 2019). Moreover, in many tribes, certain foods or plants are inextricably linked to notions of healing and ritual socialization (Warne & Wescott, 2019). This is why many Native Americans prefer natural foods and do not like to eat alone.

Pain Responses

Traditional treatments for pain attacks may include herbalistic, meditative, and physiological practices. Each person’s experience is very important to Native Americans and should be considered in treatment in medical settings. Specifics of marking and demonstration rules may also vary greatly by tribe and location. Indigenous peoples have historically viewed pain as an expected part of the natural course of life.

In Native American culture, giving birth and assisting in the perinatal process is often considered a sacred rite of passage. Having a partner at childbirth as an aid or midwife and using phytotherapy is still very common. Moreover, due to the negative experiences of the past, some modern isolated communities prefer to avoid state and professional childbirth assistance, which does not benefit the process.

Perinatal Care

Because of mistrust, Native American communities have much lower infant weights and high mortality rates. Moreover, the closed nature of such communities limits access to public health resources and provokes higher rates of maternal morbidity (Blue Bird Jernigan et al., 2020). Commitment to traditional practices contributes to delays in seeking routine medical care and can be detrimental to the health of newborns and women in labor.

Death and Dying

Death is a natural part of the life process in many Native American cultures. Traditional rituals and customs are often highlighted in the care and burial of the dying, and such ceremonies should not take place in a hospital setting. Such cultural sensitivities in caregiving must be understood in order to show respect and provide peace of mind to the relatives of the dying person.

Spirituality, Religion, and Faith

Spirituality is in many ways synonymous with Native American culture and implies that they are developed in this regard. Their beliefs include animalism, connection to nature, and adherence to centuries-old customs. Much of this can manifest itself in their superstition and refusal of certain medical procedures at certain times. In order to establish a trusting relationship, the interests of any patient must be considered, and the necessary level of spirituality must be maintained.

Prayer and Meditation

These practices are often the standard in continental indigenous cultures and are designed to promote healing in all aspects of the human condition. In many ways, they can be used in parallel with traditional therapies, phytotherapy, and modern, advanced medicine. Moreover, such practices are very important to patients, especially older patients, and should be respected by anyone interacting from the outside.

New Knowledge about the Group

The enormous diversity within the Native American group becomes evident when studying them in detail. However, it is possible to highlight common factors which were listed earlier. Spirituality, traditionalism, commonality, and distrust of the descendants of colonialists are among the unifying indicators of this cultural and ethnic group. In order to comply with the information received and to approach any patient appropriately, it is necessary to be aware of their spiritual and cultural practices and to give each person the right to their beliefs ( Cultural diversity , 2021).

The Knowledge Impact on the Cultural Group Care

The change in attitudes toward this cultural group could only have occurred in the deepening direction, as all ethnic groups are entitled to equal respect. The understanding of traditionalism and spirituality was reinforced, and the high birth of rituals and ceremonies in the lives of many group members was examined. The legacy of historical trauma, which may have distorted some perceptions and diminished trust in medicine, should not be forgotten. Moreover, basic knowledge about Native Americans emphasizes the depth of each individual and the need for more research on a case-by-case basis with the utmost respect and tolerance.

Blue Bird Jernigan, V., D’Amico, E. J., Duran, B., & Buchwald, D. (2020). Multilevel and community-level interventions with native Americans: Challenges and opportunities . Prevention Science: The Official Journal of the Society for Prevention Research , 21 (S1), 65–73. Web.

Carter, R. T., Johnson, V. E., Kirkinis, K., Roberson, K., Muchow, C., & Galgay, C. (2019). A meta-analytic review of racial discrimination: Relationships to health and culture . Race and Social Problems , 11 (1), 15–32. Web.

Cultural diversity in nursing: Understanding its importance . (2021). Regis College Online. Web.

Marion, L., Douglas, M., Lavin, M. A., Barr, N., Gazaway, S., Thomas, E., & Bickford, C. (2016). Implementing the new ANA standard 8: Culturally Congruent Practice . Online Journal of Issues in Nursing , 22 (1), 9. Web.

Ong-Flaherty, C. (2015). Critical cultural awareness and diversity in nursing: A minority perspective . Nurse Leader , 13 (5), 58–62. Web.

Warne, D., & Wescott, S. (2019). Social determinants of American Indian nutritional health . Current Developments in Nutrition , 3 (Suppl 2), 12–18. Web.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, February 27). Native American Cultural Values and Health Beliefs. https://ivypanda.com/essays/native-american-cultural-values-and-health-beliefs/

"Native American Cultural Values and Health Beliefs." IvyPanda , 27 Feb. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/native-american-cultural-values-and-health-beliefs/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Native American Cultural Values and Health Beliefs'. 27 February.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Native American Cultural Values and Health Beliefs." February 27, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/native-american-cultural-values-and-health-beliefs/.

1. IvyPanda . "Native American Cultural Values and Health Beliefs." February 27, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/native-american-cultural-values-and-health-beliefs/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Native American Cultural Values and Health Beliefs." February 27, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/native-american-cultural-values-and-health-beliefs/.

• Japan's Childbirth Delivery System
• Physical and Mental Effects of Childbirth
• Childbirth Options and Complications
• Painfulness and Happiness of Childbirth
• Childbirth Trauma and Its Effect on Breastfeeding
• Black Maternal Health, Safe Pregnancies and Childbirth
• The Depiction of Birth in Reality TV Show
• "Childbirth Fear and Sleep Deprivation in Pregnant Women" by Hall
• Mothers' Reasons to Return to Work After Childbirth
• Nutrition During Pregnancy and Childbirth
• People's Health in Ethiopia, Serbia, Portugal, and Nigeria
• Legal and Ethical Aspects of Healthcare: Employee with Tuberculosis
• Emergency Management Policy: Managing Tuberculosis
• Healthcare Regulatory Oversight: Federal and State Reference Guide
• A Proposal for a New Packaging of the Azores Bio Milk in the UAE