italian renaissance fashion essay

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Renaissance

Elegance Reborn: Unveiling the Splendor of Italian Renaissance Fashion

Hidden Splendor: Unveiling the Undergarments of the Renaissance

🎭 Unveiling the Enchanting World of Renaissance Masquerade 🎭

🌟 A Journey Through the Luxurious Fabrics of the Renaissance 🌟

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Imagine walking the cobbled streets of Florence in the 1500s, where the air buzzes with the whispers of change, art, and a newfound zest for life. The Italian Renaissance isn’t just a chapter in a dusty history book; it’s a vibrant, palpable era that redefined the world. And at the heart of this cultural whirlwind? Fashion – not just clothes, but statements, declarations of wealth, power, and artistic flair.

This isn’t a tale of mere garments. It’s a saga of opulence, where every stitch tells a story, every color whispers a secret. In the world of Italian Renaissance fashion, extravagance wasn’t just a choice; it was a language, a mode of expression as vivid and intricate as the era’s celebrated frescoes.

We’re diving into a realm where fashion was a playground for the elite, a battleground for societal norms, and a canvas for artistic expression. From the silken gowns of the nobility that flowed like liquid gold to the modest attire of the common folk, every thread weaves into the rich tapestry of history.

Prepare to embark on a journey back in time, where every corner turned unveils another layer of this fascinating era. We’ll unravel the elegance of the aristocrats, the subtler tones of the commoner’s garb, and everything in between. And in this exploration, we’ll find reflections of our own world, echoes of our modern fashion sensibilities that trace back to the vibrant streets of Renaissance Italy.

So, lace up your boots, fasten your doublets, and let’s step into the world of Italian Renaissance fashion – a world where elegance was reborn, and every garment had a story to tell.

The Essence of Italian Renaissance Fashion

Dive into the luxurious world of Italian Renaissance fashion, a realm where each garment tells a story of power, art, and innovation. This era was not just about covering up; it was about making a statement, where each piece of clothing was a brushstroke on the canvas of society.

The Fabric of Society: Picture the rustle of silk and the sheen of velvet as they pass by. These were not mere fabrics; they were symbols of wealth and influence. Silk, a prized possession imported at great expense, whispered of connections and power. Velvet, with its rich texture, was a tactile testament to affluence.

Colors and Patterns in a Social Tapestry: In the world of Renaissance Italy, colors spoke volumes. Rich blues and deep reds were more than mere shades; they were declarations of status. Patterns, whether geometric or floral, served as an unspoken language, a visual dialogue about taste, wealth, and ambition.

Intricate Detailing: The Art of Dress: The detailing in this era was nothing short of extraordinary. Embroidery was a display of skill and patience, a form of storytelling through thread and needle. Lace added a delicate edge to garments, a whisper of grace and sophistication. Every bead, every stitch, was a testament to the era’s relentless pursuit of beauty and craftsmanship.

In this extravagant era, fashion was a daily act of art, a living, breathing piece of a cultural revolution. Every outfit was a masterpiece, every choice a reflection of one’s place in the unfolding narrative of the Renaissance.

Fashion as a Reflection of Social Hierarchy

In the tapestry of the Italian Renaissance, fashion wasn’t just a matter of personal taste; it was a vivid reflection of the societal ladder. Every stitch, every fabric choice, was a subtle (or sometimes not-so-subtle) nod to one’s place in the grand scheme of things.

Nobility and Opulence: The Fashion of the Aristocrats

For the nobility, fashion was a game of one-upmanship, a dazzling display of wealth and power. Picture gowns that flowed like rivers of gold, doublets stitched with the dreams of artisans. These were not mere clothes; they were statements, each more elaborate than the last, screaming of status. For the elite, dressing was an art form, a daily ritual in showcasing superiority and grace.

The Contrast: Burghers and Commoners

Step away from the palaces and into the streets, and the fashion narrative changes. Here, the attire of the commoners and the emerging middle class – the burghers – speaks of practicality and modesty. But don’t be fooled; even in simplicity, there was a language of fashion. The cut of a tunic, the length of a skirt, all told tales of the wearer’s life and work. In these threads, we see the backbone of the Renaissance, the silent majority who kept the cities alive.

Sumptuary Laws: The Rulebook of Fashion

In a world obsessed with status, fashion became a matter of law. Sumptuary laws were the rulebooks of attire, dictating who could wear what. These laws were more than just dress codes; they were a reflection of the era’s social anxieties, an attempt to maintain the status quo in a rapidly changing world. Breaking these laws wasn’t just a fashion faux pas; it was a rebellion, a crack in the mirror of the societal structure.

In the Italian Renaissance, fashion was a mirror of society, reflecting everything from wealth and power to social anxieties and desires. It was a visible, vibrant part of the era’s ongoing narrative, a story told in silks and velvets, in cuts and colors.

Gender Dynamics in Fashion

In the Italian Renaissance, fashion was not just a reflection of wealth or social standing, but also a vivid expression of gender roles and expectations. The sartorial choices of men and women were not mere personal preferences; they were dictated by societal norms, each stitch a subtle nod to the era’s views on masculinity and femininity.

Women’s Attire: Gowns as Symbols of Grace and Status

For women, fashion was a complex language. Their gowns were not just garments; they were statements of family honor, personal virtue, and social status. Imagine dresses that sculpted the body, accentuating the natural form with an artistry that would make any sculptor envious. The headdresses, often elaborate and always telling, were crowns in their own right, each style speaking volumes about the wearer’s place in society.

Men’s Apparel: The Evolution of Masculine Fashion

Men’s fashion during the Renaissance was an intriguing mix of flamboyance and functionality. The doublet, a snug-fitting jacket, was more than just a piece of clothing; it was a symbol of masculinity, its cut and fit a testament to the ideal male form. Hose, often colorful and tight, were not just practical; they were a display of virility and status. The evolution of men’s fashion in this era was a dance between utility and exhibition, a balancing act between societal expectations and personal expression.

In the Renaissance, fashion was a canvas on which gender norms were painted vividly. Each garment, whether a gown or a doublet, was a piece in the complex puzzle of societal expectations, a tangible expression of the era’s ideals of femininity and masculinity.

Iconic Figures and Their Influence

In the Italian Renaissance, fashion wasn’t just shaped by trends; it was molded by the hands of iconic figures. These were the trendsetters, the influencers of their day, whose sartorial choices echoed through the streets and across the ages.

The Medici Family: Patrons of Elegance

Take the Medici, for instance. This powerhouse family didn’t just bankroll the Renaissance; they dressed it. Their influence in fashion was as profound as their patronage of the arts. Every gown, every doublet worn by a Medici was a statement piece, a trend in the making. They were the embodiment of Renaissance fashion, setting the bar for extravagance and elegance.

Artists as Fashion Icons

Then, there were the artists – the da Vincis, the Michelangelos. These weren’t just painters and sculptors; they were the architects of beauty, both in their art and in their personal style. Their influence extended beyond the canvas, shaping the fashion sensibilities of their time. An artist’s attire was often as scrutinized as their art, each a masterpiece in its own right.

In the Renaissance, these iconic figures were more than just people; they were the embodiment of an era’s aesthetic ideals. Their influence on fashion was profound, shaping not just the styles of their time but leaving an indelible mark on the fabric of history.

Artistic Intersection: Fashion and Renaissance Art

The Italian Renaissance was a symphony of art and fashion, each influencing and enhancing the other. This era, celebrated for its artistic achievements, also witnessed a fusion of fashion with the fine arts, creating a visual feast that continues to captivate us to this day.

Fashion Immortalized in Paintings

Renaissance art wasn’t just about capturing faces and landscapes; it was also about immortalizing the fashion of the era. The paintings of this time are a treasure trove of historical fashion, offering us glimpses into the styles and trends that defined the era. Artists like Botticelli and Titian didn’t just paint people; they painted silks, velvets, and brocades, meticulously capturing the elegance and opulence of Renaissance attire.

Influence of Art on Fashion Trends

Art and fashion were in a constant dance, each influencing the other. The flowing robes in a Raphael painting, the intricate lace in a portrait by Leonardo da Vinci – these were not just artistic choices; they were fashion statements. The artists of the Renaissance were trendsetters, their canvases a preview of the styles that would soon sweep through the streets of Italy.

In the Renaissance, art and fashion were two sides of the same coin, each reflecting and shaping the other. This era’s legacy is not just in its paintings and sculptures, but also in the fashion trends that those artworks immortalized and inspired.

The Legacy of Italian Renaissance Fashion in Modern Times

As we step out of the gilded frames of the Renaissance and into the modern world, the echoes of its fashion still resonate around us. The legacy of Italian Renaissance fashion is not confined to history books; it lives on, breathing inspiration into modern design and culture.

Influence on Modern Fashion Design

Today’s fashion designers frequently dip their brushes into the rich palette of the Renaissance. The opulent fabrics, the intricate detailing, the bold use of color and pattern – these elements find their way into modern runways, infusing contemporary designs with a touch of historical grandeur. Renaissance fashion speaks of a time when clothing was about more than utility; it was about artistry, and this philosophy continues to inspire designers today.

Renaissance-Inspired Trends in Contemporary Fashion

The influence of Renaissance fashion can be seen in the resurgence of corseted silhouettes, puffed sleeves, and ornate embroidery in modern apparel. These nods to the past are not mere imitations; they are reinterpretations, blending historical elements with contemporary sensibilities. The Renaissance taught us that fashion could be a form of expression, a canvas for creativity, and this lesson remains relevant in the fashion world today.

As we draw the curtains on our journey through the luxurious and intricate world of Italian Renaissance fashion, we’re left with a profound appreciation of how deeply this era has woven its threads into the fabric of modern style.

A Timeless Tapestry of Style

The Italian Renaissance was more than a period of artistic and cultural rebirth; it was a revolution in fashion, a time when dressing became an art form. The elegance, the opulence, and the sheer creativity of this era’s fashion were not fleeting trends; they were the birth of a style narrative that continues to influence us today.

The Enduring Impact of Renaissance Fashion

The legacy of Italian Renaissance fashion is a story of enduring beauty and innovation. It reminds us that fashion is not just about clothing; it’s about expression, identity, and artistry. The Renaissance’s influence stretches beyond its time, inspiring modern designers and fashion enthusiasts to look back in order to move forward.

Fashion as a Historical Mirror

Our exploration of Italian Renaissance fashion is also a reminder of how fashion reflects the society and times it arises from. The intricate gowns, the structured doublets – they were not just about aesthetics; they were mirrors of societal norms, expressions of personal status, and symbols of cultural values.

In closing, the Italian Renaissance teaches us that fashion is a powerful language, a form of communication that transcends time and place. It’s a language that speaks of beauty, power, and societal change, a language that continues to resonate in every stitch of modern fashion. As we embrace the future of fashion, let’s not forget the opulent lessons from our Renaissance past.

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The Art of Renaissance Clothes

While Spanish Catholicism and reformatory Protestantism favored black clothing, much of the Renaissance happened in an explosion of color.

The well-dressed Renaissance figure was, argues historian Ulinka Rublack, a work of art, a form of “ polychrome sculpting .” Fashion, she continues, is “as important as painting for understanding the Renaissance as an aesthetic movement.”

Even artists such as Benevenuto Cellini understood the process of embedding a model in a mold for casting a bronze statue as “clothing” the core in earth. A “sense of tailoring as akin to sculpture and sculpting as resonant with dressing was embedded in a culture whose entire economy and everyday life were tightly interlinked with an ever increasing spectrum of textiles,” writes Rublack.

It was a spectrum of textiles and colors. Rublack quotes art historian Michael Baxandall, who describes the surfaces of polychromatic limewood sculptures as “ resonant with the marvelous gamut of Renaissance textile surface—satin, damask, camlet, velvet, silk, taffeta, tabby, brocade .” These materials, Rublack writes, called for “astonishing achievements in skill, imagination, and dexterity.”

“Royal, imperial, or papal” costumes highlighted the “magnificence of key figures through the fantastic wealth of their jewelry, silk garments, or fabrics made from gold or silver thread,” Rublack explains. The “luminescent splendor” of sacred art translated to the “embodiments of secular power.” Merchants wanted in on the glory, too. Gleaming, bright, reflective surfaces of “gold mosaics, glass windows, bejeweled reliquaries” had their counterparts on the light-reflecting properties of fabrics and vivid dyes. A fifteenth-century Sforza prince would have his clothed body compared to a “living sun.”

While Spanish Catholicism and reformatory Protestantism favored black clothing, the sixteenth century saw an explosion of the spectrum of color available for dying fabric. The New World didn’t just provide gold, silver, and fascinating new foods; there were all sorts of potential dyes as well. These source materials weren’t just minerals or plants: cochineal, or carmine red, the color of cardinals and Redcoats, came from the crushed bodies of cactus-feeding insects . Gioanventura Rosetti’s Plictho (1548), a groundbreaking manual on dye-making and leather tanning, included hundreds of recipes for colors.

“This was a society intimately involved with how things were made and what they were made from,” writes Rublack. One of the most extraordinary records of Northern European fashion of the sixteenth century is Matthäus Schwarz’s Klaidungsbüchlein or the Little Book of Clothes. This is an illustrated memoir in costumes, documenting what he wore from infancy to old age. “A loyal Catholic bourgeois,” Schwarz (1497–c. 1574) was an accountant for Jakob Fugger (one of the wealthiest people in Europe), and consciously used clothing to maintain, if not better, his position in society. With its 137 vivid images, the book has been hailed as the The First Book of Fashion .

Rublack and Maria Hayward put together the first English edition of Schwarz’s book . Part of the project was the commissioning of Jenny Tiramani of the London School of Historical Dress to make an interpretation of the bold red and yellow outfit Schwarz wore to the 1530 Imperial Diet in Augsburg.

The “collaborative process immediately made clear that to create such an outfit was a notable achievement in aesthetic production,” writes Rublack. (The book includes Tiramani’s bespoke pattern for contemporary makers; Rublack’s article includes pictures of the making and fitting.) Replicating the golden-yellow color of Schwarz’s deerskin hose (and sourcing from hides without the holes left by ticks) was just the first challenge. Initial efforts weren’t vibrant enough.

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“In Schwarz’s time, such faded hues of yellow could have negative associations of weakness and coldness, which is why they were used to stigmatize Jews,” Rublack notes. Color was as ideological as aesthetic.

Rublack describes the reproduction of Schwarz’s black hat, which wouldn’t have looked out of place atop Buster Keaton, writing that

like the doublet, the wide-rimmed plate bonnet wound up requiring further stiffening, with cotton, linen or animal hair, to perfectly stay in shape. It was tightly knit with fine merino-wool yarn on very thin needles to achieve a high stitch count and density of fabric. Then it was dyed and fulled with rough repeated immersion in hot, soapy water and repeated beating with a mallet as well as kneading and rolling.

The very influential religious/political maneuvering of that 1530 Imperial Diet in Augsburg, in which what attendees wore “was used symbolically to affect political strategies,” would make a hell of a miniseries—with much of the budget going to the costumes.

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Italian Renaissance Fashion: Clothing, Accessories, and Fabrics

Table of contents, clothing trends in italian renaissance fashion, popular accessories in italian renaissance fashion, luxurious fabrics used in italian renaissance fashion, influential designers of italian renaissance fashion.

“Reviving the elegance of Italian Renaissance fashion ”

Italian Renaissance fashion is known for its opulence, elegance, and attention to detail. During this period, clothing played a significant role in expressing one's social status, wealth, and taste. The clothing trends of the Italian Renaissance were influenced by a variety of factors, including art, culture , and trade.

One of the key features of Italian Renaissance fashion was the use of luxurious fabrics. Silk, velvet, and brocade were highly prized and often used to create elaborate garments for the wealthy elite. These fabrics were imported from the East and were considered symbols of wealth and status. The use of rich fabrics in clothing was a way for individuals to showcase their social standing and affluence.

In addition to luxurious fabrics, Italian Renaissance fashion also featured intricate embroidery and embellishments. Garments were often adorned with intricate patterns, gold thread, pearls, and gemstones. These embellishments added a touch of glamour and sophistication to the clothing, making them stand out from the rest. Embroidery was a highly skilled craft during this period, and artisans would spend hours creating intricate designs to adorn garments.

Another key aspect of Italian Renaissance fashion was the silhouette of the clothing. Women's fashion during this period was characterized by voluminous skirts, fitted bodices, and elaborate sleeves. The hourglass figure was highly prized, and women would wear corsets to achieve a small waist and accentuate their curves. Men's fashion, on the other hand, featured fitted doublets, breeches, and hose. The silhouette of men's clothing was more structured and tailored, emphasizing a strong and masculine physique.

Accessories also played a significant role in Italian Renaissance fashion. Women would often wear elaborate headdresses, jewelry, and fans to complement their outfits. Headdresses were particularly popular during this period, with women wearing intricate headpieces adorned with pearls, feathers, and jewels. Jewelry was also highly prized, with women wearing necklaces, earrings, and bracelets made from gold, silver, and precious gemstones.

Men's accessories were more understated but still played a crucial role in completing their outfits. Men would wear hats, gloves, and belts to add a touch of sophistication to their ensembles. Hats were particularly popular during this period, with men wearing a variety of styles, including berets, caps, and feathered hats. Gloves were also considered essential accessories, with men wearing leather gloves to protect their hands and add a touch of elegance to their outfits.

Overall, Italian Renaissance fashion was a reflection of the opulence and grandeur of the period. Clothing, accessories, and fabrics were used to showcase one's social status, wealth, and taste. The use of luxurious fabrics, intricate embroidery, and elaborate embellishments created a sense of glamour and sophistication that defined Italian Renaissance fashion. The silhouette of the clothing, the accessories worn, and the attention to detail all contributed to the overall aesthetic of this period. Italian Renaissance fashion continues to inspire designers and fashion enthusiasts today, with its timeless elegance and beauty.

One of the most iconic accessories of the Italian Renaissance was the ruff. This elaborate collar was made of fine linen or lace and was worn around the neck to frame the face. Ruffs were often starched to create a stiff, frilly appearance, and could be embellished with lace, embroidery, or even jewels. They were a symbol of wealth and status, as only the elite could afford such luxurious accessories.

Another popular accessory during the Italian Renaissance was the fan. Fans were not only practical for keeping cool in the hot Italian climate, but they were also a fashion statement. Fans were often made of delicate materials such as silk, lace, or feathers, and could be intricately decorated with paintings or embroidery. They were carried by both men and women and were considered a must-have accessory for any fashionable individual.

Handbags were also a popular accessory during the Italian Renaissance. Known as reticules, these small bags were used to carry personal items such as money, keys, or cosmetics. Reticules were often made of luxurious materials such as silk, velvet, or leather, and could be embellished with embroidery, jewels, or metalwork. They were a practical yet stylish accessory that completed any outfit.

Jewelry played a significant role in Italian Renaissance fashion, with both men and women adorning themselves with elaborate pieces. Necklaces, earrings, rings, and bracelets were all popular accessories, often made of gold, silver, or precious gemstones. Jewelry was a symbol of wealth and status, with the elite wearing extravagant pieces to showcase their social standing.

Hats were another essential accessory during the Italian Renaissance. Men wore a variety of hats, from simple caps to elaborate feathered creations. Women, on the other hand, wore veils, hoods, or elaborate headdresses adorned with jewels, feathers, or lace. Hats were not only a fashion statement but also served a practical purpose, protecting the wearer from the sun or rain.

Shoes were also an important accessory in Italian Renaissance fashion. Both men and women wore shoes made of leather, often embellished with embroidery, jewels, or metalwork. Heels were popular among both genders, with men wearing stacked heels and women wearing delicate, high-heeled shoes. Shoes were a status symbol, with the elite wearing the most luxurious and extravagant footwear.

In conclusion, accessories played a crucial role in Italian Renaissance fashion, with each item carefully chosen to make a statement. From ruffs and fans to handbags and jewelry, accessories were a way for the elite to showcase their wealth and status. Hats, shoes, and other accessories were not only fashionable but also served practical purposes, protecting the wearer from the elements. Italian Renaissance fashion was a time of extravagance and luxury, with accessories playing a key role in defining the style of the era.

The Italian Renaissance was a period of great cultural and artistic achievement in Italy, spanning from the 14th to the 17th century. One of the most notable aspects of this era was the fashion, which was characterized by luxurious fabrics, intricate designs, and a keen attention to detail. Italian Renaissance fashion was a reflection of the wealth and status of the elite class, who spared no expense in dressing themselves in the finest garments.

Silk was one of the most prized fabrics used in Italian Renaissance fashion. Imported from the East, silk was considered a symbol of wealth and luxury. It was used to create elaborate gowns, doublets, and hose for both men and women. The shimmering quality of silk added a touch of opulence to any outfit, making it a favorite among the nobility.

Velvet was another popular fabric during the Italian Renaissance. Made from silk or a blend of silk and wool, velvet was known for its soft texture and rich color. It was often used to create sumptuous gowns, cloaks, and doublets, adding a touch of elegance to any ensemble. Velvet was also favored for its ability to hold intricate embroidery and embellishments, making it a versatile choice for the fashion-conscious elite.

Brocade was a fabric that became synonymous with Italian Renaissance fashion. Made from silk, brocade featured elaborate patterns woven into the fabric using metallic threads. It was often used to create lavish gowns, doublets, and cloaks, adding a touch of glamour to any outfit. Brocade was a favorite among the nobility, who appreciated its intricate designs and luxurious feel.

Lace was another fabric that played a significant role in Italian Renaissance fashion. Made from delicate threads, lace was used to create intricate collars, cuffs, and trimmings for garments. It added a touch of femininity and sophistication to women's clothing, while also being used to embellish men's attire. Lace was a favorite among the elite class, who appreciated its delicate beauty and intricate craftsmanship.

In addition to these luxurious fabrics, Italian Renaissance fashion also featured a variety of embellishments and accessories. Jewelry was an essential part of any outfit, with pearls, gemstones, and gold being favored by the elite. Embroidery was another popular embellishment, with intricate designs adorning garments to showcase the wealth and status of the wearer. Accessories such as gloves, fans, and hats were also used to complete the look, adding a touch of elegance and sophistication to any ensemble.

In conclusion, Italian Renaissance fashion was characterized by luxurious fabrics, intricate designs, and a keen attention to detail. Silk, velvet, brocade, and lace were among the most prized fabrics used during this era, adding a touch of opulence to any outfit. Embellishments such as jewelry, embroidery, and accessories were also used to showcase the wealth and status of the elite class. Italian Renaissance fashion was a reflection of the cultural and artistic achievements of the era, with clothing serving as a symbol of wealth, power, and sophistication.

The Italian Renaissance was a period of great cultural and artistic achievement in Italy, spanning from the 14th to the 17th century. During this time, fashion played a significant role in expressing social status, wealth, and personal style. Influential designers of Italian Renaissance fashion were responsible for creating some of the most iconic and enduring styles of the era.

One of the most famous designers of Italian Renaissance fashion was Leonardo da Vinci. Known primarily for his contributions to art and science, da Vinci also had a keen interest in fashion design. He was known for his innovative use of fabrics and his attention to detail in creating garments that were both stylish and functional. Da Vinci's designs often featured intricate embroidery, rich colors, and luxurious fabrics such as silk and velvet.

Another influential designer of Italian Renaissance fashion was Isabella d'Este, a powerful and influential noblewoman who was known for her impeccable sense of style. D'Este was a trendsetter in her time, known for her bold fashion choices and her patronage of the arts. She was particularly fond of elaborate headpieces, intricate jewelry, and luxurious fabrics such as brocade and damask. D'Este's influence on Italian Renaissance fashion can still be seen today in the elaborate and ornate styles that were popular during her time.

One of the most iconic designers of Italian Renaissance fashion was Caterina Sforza, a noblewoman and military leader who was known for her fierce personality and her impeccable sense of style. Sforza was a trendsetter in her time, known for her bold fashion choices and her patronage of the arts. She was particularly fond of elaborate headpieces, intricate jewelry, and luxurious fabrics such as brocade and damask. Sforza's influence on Italian Renaissance fashion can still be seen today in the elaborate and ornate styles that were popular during her time.

In addition to these influential designers, there were many other talented individuals who played a significant role in shaping Italian Renaissance fashion. Artists such as Botticelli, Michelangelo, and Raphael were known for their innovative designs and their ability to create garments that were both beautiful and functional. These artists often collaborated with skilled craftsmen and tailors to bring their designs to life, creating garments that were works of art in their own right.

Italian Renaissance fashion was characterized by its opulence, luxury, and attention to detail. Garments were often embellished with intricate embroidery, lace, and beading, and were made from luxurious fabrics such as silk, velvet, and brocade. Accessories such as jewelry, gloves, and headpieces were also an important part of Italian Renaissance fashion, adding an extra touch of elegance and sophistication to an outfit.

Overall, the designers of Italian Renaissance fashion played a crucial role in shaping the styles and trends of the era. Their innovative designs, attention to detail, and use of luxurious fabrics helped to create some of the most iconic and enduring styles of the Italian Renaissance. Today, their influence can still be seen in the elaborate and ornate styles that continue to inspire designers and fashion lovers around the world.

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Italian Renaissance

By: History.com Editors

Updated: July 17, 2020 | Original: October 18, 2010

Toward the end of the 14th century A.D., a handful of Italian thinkers declared that they were living in a new age. The barbarous, unenlightened “ Middle Ages ” were over, they said; the new age would be a “rinascità” (“rebirth”) of learning and literature, art and culture. This was the birth of the period now known as the Renaissance. 

For centuries, scholars have agreed that the Italian Renaissance (another word for “rebirth”) happened just that way: that between the 14th century and the 17th century, a new, modern way of thinking about the world and man’s place in it replaced an old, backward one. In fact, the Renaissance (in Italy and in other parts of Europe) was considerably more complicated than that: For one thing, in many ways the period we call the Renaissance was not so different from the era that preceded it. However, many of the scientific, artistic and cultural achievements of the so-called Renaissance do share common themes, most notably the humanistic belief that man was the center of his own universe.

The Italian Renaissance in Context

Fifteenth-century Italy was unlike any other place in Europe. It was divided into independent city-states, each with a different form of government. Florence, where the Italian Renaissance began, was an independent republic. It was also a banking and commercial capital and, after London and Constantinople , the third-largest city in Europe. Wealthy Florentines flaunted their money and power by becoming patrons, or supporters, of artists and intellectuals. In this way, the city became the cultural center of Europe and of the Renaissance.

Did you know? When Galileo died in 1642, he was still under house arrest. The Catholic Church did not pardon him until 1992.

The New Humanism: Cornerstone of the Renaissance

Thanks to the patronage of these wealthy elites, Renaissance-era writers and thinkers were able to spend their days doing just that. Instead of devoting themselves to ordinary jobs or to the asceticism of the monastery, they could enjoy worldly pleasures. They traveled around Italy, studying ancient ruins and rediscovering Greek and Roman texts.

To Renaissance scholars and philosophers, these classical sources from Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome held great wisdom. Their secularism, their appreciation of physical beauty and especially their emphasis on man’s achievements and expression formed the governing intellectual principle of the Italian Renaissance. This philosophy is known as “humanism.”

Renaissance Science and Technology

Humanism encouraged people to be curious and to question received wisdom (particularly that of the medieval Church). It also encouraged people to use experimentation and observation to solve earthly problems. As a result, many Renaissance intellectuals focused on trying to define and understand the laws of nature and the physical world. 

Renaissance artist Leonardo Da Vinci created detailed scientific “studies” of objects ranging from flying machines to submarines. He also created pioneering studies of human anatomy. 

Likewise, the scientist and mathematician Galileo Galilei investigated one natural law after another. By dropping different-sized cannonballs from the top of a building, for instance, he proved that all objects fall at the same rate of acceleration. He also built a powerful telescope and used it to show that the Earth and other planets revolved around the sun and not, as religious authorities argued, the other way around. (For this, Galileo was arrested for heresy and threatened with torture and death, but he refused to recant: “I do not believe that the same God who has endowed us with senses, reason and intellect has intended us to forgo their use,” he said.)

However, perhaps the most important technological development of the Renaissance happened not in Italy but in Germany, where Johannes Gutenberg invented the mechanical movable-type printing press in the middle of the 15th century. For the first time, it was possible to make books–and, by extension, knowledge–widely available.

Renaissance Art and Architecture

Michelangelo’s “David.” Leonardo da Vinci’s “The Last Supper.” Sandro Botticelli’s “The Birth of Venus.” During the Italian Renaissance, art was everywhere. (Just look up at Michelangelo’s “The Creation” painted on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel!) Patrons such as Florence’s Medici family sponsored projects large and small, and successful artists became celebrities in their own right.

Renaissance artists and architects applied many humanist principles to their work. For example, the architect Filippo Brunelleschi applied the elements of classical Roman architecture–shapes, columns and especially proportion–to his own buildings. The magnificent eight-sided dome he built at the Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral in Florence was an engineering triumph–it was 144 feet across, weighed 37,000 tons and had no buttresses to hold it up–as well as an aesthetic one.

Brunelleschi also devised a way to draw and paint using linear perspective. That is, he figured out how to paint from the perspective of the person looking at the painting, so that space would appear to recede into the frame. After the architect Leon Battista Alberti explained the principles behind linear perspective in his treatise “Della Pittura” (“On Painting”), it became one of the most noteworthy elements of almost all Renaissance painting. Later, many painters began to use a technique called chiaroscuro to create an illusion of three-dimensional space on a flat canvas.

Fra Angelico, the painter of frescoes in the church and friary of San Marco in Florence, was called “a rare and perfect talent” by the Italian painter and architect Vasari in his “Lives of The Artists.” Renaissance painters like Giotto, Raphael and Titian and Renaissance sculptors like Donatello, Michelangelo and Lorenzo Ghiberti created art that would inspire generations of future artists.

The End of the Italian Renaissance

By the end of the 15th century, Italy was being torn apart by one war after another. The kings of England, France and Spain, along with the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor, battled for control of the wealthy peninsula. At the same time, the Catholic Church, which was itself wracked with scandal and corruption, had begun a violent crackdown on dissenters. In 1545, the Council of Trent officially established the Roman Inquisition . In this climate, humanism was akin to heresy. The Italian Renaissance was over.

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Italian Renaissance Learning Resources

In collaboration with the national gallery of art, presentation of self, portraiture, “painting . . . makes absent men present”.

The fifteenth century saw an explosion in the development of portraiture, part of a larger cultural phenomenon during which the arena for individual accomplishment expanded dramatically. The growth of trade, together with a new emphasis on self-governing in the political units of Italy, resulted in a sizable number of wealthy and powerful individuals who wanted to record their features for their own time and preserve them for posterity. Men of learning played a new and important role by also providing advice on the intricacies of self-fashioning. The range of possibilities was vast. A portrait could function as a way of announcing one’s piety, virtue, learning, and prosperity—or even one’s inner soul. In the early fifteenth century the value of portraiture was already being promoted through influential texts. Leon Battista Alberti ’s treatise on painting (c. 1435) strongly endorsed portraiture as a demonstration of the “divine force of painting”:

Painting contains a divine force which not only makes absent men present, as friendship is said to do, but moreover makes the dead seem almost alive. Even after many centuries they are recognized with great pleasure and with great admiration for the painter. . . . Thus the face of a man who is already dead certainly lives a long life through painting. 1

Pomponius Gauricus, writing in the early sixteenth century, refers to the enormous power that the sense of life in a portrait could convey:

Animation [in a portrait] . . . is capable of great power . . . realized so perfectly by Lysippus that Alexander forbade any other artist to portray him. 2

Ippolita, writing to her husband Baldassare Castiglione (Italian courtier, author, and diplomat) speaks of the living—and consoling—presence of his portrait, which Raphael...'>Raphael had painted c. 1514–5:

only your portrait, painted by Raphael’s hand, bringing back your features, comes near to relieving my sorrows. I make tender approaches to it, I smile, I joke or speak, just as if it could answer. . . . This is my solace, and thus I cheat the long days. 3

Separate portraiture styles developed in different parts of Italy. In Venice, Bellini, Giovanni...'> Giovanni Bellini developed a portrait type for upper-class Venetians in which the sitter was depicted bust length, in three-quarter view, dressed in standard patrician dress with a long black toga and beret-like head covering known as the beretto . The standard background for these portraits was a brilliant blue sky streaked with clouds, which suggested an outdoor setting, the sitter, as it were, belonging to the world at large.

This portrait type could be adapted in numerous ways. Painting the head of state, the doge...'> doge , Bellini imparted a quasi-divine aspect on the ruler of Venice. In the portrait of Doge oredan, Leonardo...'> Leonardo Loredan , which Bellini created probably soon after Loredan’s accession to ducal office in 1501, Loredan’s gaze is fixed on some distant object, which gives him the appearance of looking far into the future. He wears gleaming white robes brocaded with gold and silver thread, a ducal costume reserved for high feast days of the Christian calendar when associations between Christ and the doge were enacted. The background is now a uniform blue, lending the image a timeless quality.

Florence favored the sculpted portrait bust, with the sitter shown in a variety of costumes. The sculpted portrait of the Florentine banker Sassetti, Francesco...'> Francesco Sassetti , attributed to Rossellino, Antonio...'> Antonio Rossellino , conveys a forceful presence by incorporating a number of elements drawn from antique Roman portraiture. Sassetti’s features in this work are highly realistic—he has a large nose and a creased and jowly face. His pupils are inset with lead to give sharpness to his gaze, suggesting shrewdness. His hair is close-cropped, defined with incised chisel lines, as seen on busts of Roman Republicans. He is dressed in a way that summons up antiquity—his cloak suggests the toga worn by ancient upper-class Romans or the type of cloak thrown over armor by Roman military commanders. The stippling of the lower face to indicate the stubble of a beard is another aspect that links Sassetti to antique portraiture. An inscription on the underside of the bust, FRANC. SAXETTUS. FLORENT. CIVIS. ANN. XLIIII (Francesco Sassetti, citizen of Florence, in his forty-fourth year), places the portrait at approximately 1464. At this time Sassetti enjoyed great prominence, building a grand country estate outside the city and serving as chief administrator of the Medici bank. The antique persona he assumes in this portrait is that of a man of learning conversant with the style of antiquity, and of an individual with the probity and dignity of the ancient Romans—qualities of Roman Republicanism celebrated in contemporary Florentine texts. This savvy individual, the bust suggests, is the type of Florentine citizen who helps the state flourish.

The institution of marriage took on new emphasis in Renaissance Italy. Advantageous marriages were a way of advancing family fortunes and of ensuring the continuation of the family line. The Venetian painter Lotto, Lorenzo...'> Lorenzo Lotto was inventive in producing marriage portraits that dramatized the significance of the marriage union. In Lotto’s 1523 portrait of a couple from Bergamo in North Italy, Marsilio Cassotti, the son of a wealthy textile merchant, is about to place a ring on the finger of Faustina Assonica, his bride. The high status of bride and groom is indicated by their sumptuous clothing. Draped over the shoulders of the bride is a gold chain made up of many links, which was known as a “bond of love.” Around her neck is a cameo of the Roman empress Faustina the Elder, wife of the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius and famed in literature as a devoted wife. Both bride and groom look out directly at the viewer as if to call attention to the importance of the action taking place. The act of linking the pair is transmitted metaphorically by way of a smiling cupid, crowned with laurel and supplied with a well-equipped quiver that holds his bow and a good supply of sharpened arrows. To underscore the message that this union is one of promise and virtue, cupid positions a yoke—symbol of the union of marriage—behind the couple as he places a sprig of laurel—symbol of virtue—on the shoulder of each party.

The Renaissance, for the first time in history, saw a notable increase in portraits of women. Northern Italians excelled in portraits of beautiful women dressed in exquisite and costly clothing. Portraits of this type depicted women of various levels of social standing. Veronese ’s portrait of an upper-class Venetian woman, painted c. 1560, most likely would have been intended to decorate one of the public rooms of a family’s palace. Her dress is extraordinary: the velvet gown, of a rich, delicate blue, is adorned with gold ornaments at the shoulders and waist. The sleeves, a separate attachment, are of blue and white brocade. A string of large, perfectly matched pearls drapes around her neck, and more pearls are scattered in her hair and over the gold ornaments of her dress. Whoever this woman was, her wealth and social position are unmistakable. With her right hand placed on her heart, she appears to recommend herself to the viewer, as if to suggest that all the elegance of her person is at the service of the guest to her home.

A more ambiguous category of female portraiture originating in Venice presented women who relate to the viewer in a different way, looking out of the painting with an enticing gaze and catching the eye of the observer with a coquettish glance. Vincenzo Catena ’s Portrait of a Woman , c. 1520, falls into the category of female portraits with erotic overtones. In contrast to the averted, somewhat distant expression of the sitter in the Veronese portrait, this sitter tilts her head provocatively to catch the viewer’s eye. She is placed against a darkened background, and the emphasis here is entirely on the figure. Her carefully arranged golden tresses are held at the back in a snood, a rope of pearls crowns her hair, and she wears a camicia— an undergarment of a light, soft fabric that is embroidered at the neckline with gold thread. She holds a gold ornament, perhaps a locket, in her right hand, pressing it against her chest as if it were a treasured gift. An unusual feature is the rich brown fur shawl laid over her shoulders, uncommon in female attire and more frequently worn by men. Catena’s painting belongs to a category of portraiture depicting the famed courtesans—literally, “the ladies of the court”—of Venice, but implying both availability and an elevated level of social graces. Often (although not in this example) the garments are loosened or unfastened at the neckline to reveal part of the body. The courtesans of Venice were famed for being well turned out, wearing elegant clothing, demonstrating talent in playing musical instruments, and living in handsomely appointed apartments.

In contrast to the courtesan portraits were the portraits of women in the guise of religious figures, images in which an individual took on the positive virtues of the saint with whom she was associated. Sebastiano del Piombo ’s half-length portrait of a woman, shown simply but luxuriously dressed in an ice-blue satin gown, her sleeves rolled up above the elbow, presents the sitter in the guise of the Wise Virgin. The imagery comes from the parable of the Wise and Foolish Virgins in the Gospel of Matthew (Matthew 25:1–13). Speaking to his disciples, Christ uses the example of the ten maidens “who went to meet the bridegroom.” The five wise virgins brought an extra supply of oil in case of need; the five foolish virgins used up the oil in their lamps and had no refill at hand. The message of the parable is to be prepared and prudent if you seek to attend the marriage feast. The figure in the painting carefully holds her lighted oil lamp upright, looking sharply out of the painting and making eye contact with the viewer as if underscoring that the allusion to prudence is deliberate. In his painting of c. 1525 Bernardino Luini presents another version of the female portrait as saint type. Here the woman holds an ointment jar, raising its lid to call attention to the attribute. The ointment jar is the attribute of Mary Magdalen, who salved the wounds of Christ after he had been removed from the cross. The allusion in this portrait is to the religious devotion of the sitter and to the specific Christian virtue of charity .

In some instances several portraits of the same individual have come down to us, often in different media. The features of Filippo Strozzi, wealthy banker and member of a prominent Florentine family, are known from a number of versions. Particularly intriguing are two sculpted busts, both done around 1475 and close in size, one in terracotta, the other in marble. The terracotta bust shows a determined, slightly dour personality, the face marked with lines of worry and the brow knitted in an expression of concern. This expression accords with the personality of Strozzi that emerges from letters and from a biography written by his son. Filippo was an individual whose dominant characteristics were discretion, prudence, and restraint. Details such as the mole at the side of Strozzi’s nose appear to be a close recording of what he actually looked like. The head is turned slightly, giving the impression of a living presence. The creased and careworn features shown here are close to those seen in the medal of Strozzi made by Niccolò Fiorentino (Niccolò di Forzore Spinelli) in the late 1480s, which seems also intended to render Strozzi’s actual appearance. In the marble version of the portrait that Strozzi wanted placed in his funeral chapel in the church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence (instead, it remained at the family palace until it was sold in the nineteenth century), all vestiges of the sitter’s likeness have been smoothed away. Wrinkles have been erased, the line of the brow has been smoothed, and a composed expression replaces the tense, preoccupied gaze of Strozzi in the terracotta bust. The marble bust has been termed the “official” version of Filippo Strozzi—the image he wanted to project to posterity. A comparison between the two busts reveals that a Renaissance artist routinely transformed the real features of an individual to achieve an elevated statement, indicative, perhaps, of how the sitter wished to be remembered by future generations. Strozzi was intensely aware of the image he would project into the future, as is suggested by a line in one of his letters emphasizing that he wanted to leave behind something “that would be worthy to remember.”

The Roman banker Bindo Altoviti was depicted by Raphael as a young man, with flowing golden locks, an unlined face, and full, sensuous lips, turning to look over his shoulder at the viewer with a self-confident, even provocative gaze. The painting was done c. 1515, when Bindo was in his early twenties, and shows him in the full flush of life. He was heir to a large fortune, manager of the family’s banking business, and already an important patron of the arts. His dress is generalized and somewhat eccentric: he wears a loose overblouse or cape that leaves the upper back bare, a type of casual dress that only a young man would attempt. It has been suggested that the painting was done to celebrate Altoviti’s marriage in 1511 to a young lady of a well-connected Florentine family, Fiammetta Soderini. Many years later, around 1550, when Altoviti was almost sixty years old, he commissioned a portrait bust from the Florentine sculptor Benvenuto Cellini, who had made his reputation working for rulers and popes.

The bust was placed in Altoviti’s private study, in company with a collection of antique pieces representing Roman emperors. His glance now turns inward. The advanced age of the sitter is indicated by a full beard. Instead of the flowing golden locks of Raphael’s portrait, here Altoviti’s head is covered by a close-fitting mesh cap, a fashion adapted from wealthy German merchants and taken up in the Veneto. The contrast between the two portraits is pointed: one shows the sitter at the height of youth, emphasizing his beauty and sensuous appeal, the other shows the reserve and reflective aspect of an individual who has experienced life’s vicissitudes. The impression left by these two magnificent portraits, in which Altoviti seems to have been an active participant, is one of distinct life stages being laid out, the older man looking back at the image of his younger self and answering with a statement of seasoned life experience.

In the fifteenth century portraiture was considered a vehicle for presenting not simply the features but also the innermost character of an individual. Bartolomeo Facio , writing in the mid-fifteenth century, underscored this point:

And certainly the esteem in which painting has been held has always been great, and not undeserved; for it is an art of great talent and skill . . . it requires the representation not only of the face or countenance and the lineaments of the whole body, but also, and far more, of its interior feelings and emotions. 4

A highly idealized portrait bust, sometimes attributed to Donatello and likely created in the early 1450s, includes the depiction of a large cameo hanging around the sitter’s neck and resting against his chest. The image on the cameo is of two horses, one moving forward with deliberate speed, the other rearing back with unbridled energy. In the chariot behind the horses, a winged charioteer—an allegorical representation of the human soul—holds the reins. The horses stand for opposing forces of the human soul. The rearing horse represents irrational desire and the controlled horse represents reason. The charioteer is the intellect that must control these forces. The image is a representation of the human soul as it was presented by Socrates in one of the Platonic dialogues, the Phaedrus , a text well known in the Renaissance. In placing the cameo on the chest of the sitter, the sculptor reveals an interior resolve: the force of will in this individual who strives for equilibrium. The depiction on the cameo spoke to the self-conscious Renaissance individual, and it was copied in various media, as on a bronze plaquette of roughly the 1450s to which one may give the expanded title “Cupid Driving the Chariot of the Human Soul.” In the bust, the appearance of a portrait has been deliberately minimized. The eyes are uncarved and the face is unlined, with no distinguishing marks but for the throbbing vein on the forehead, which suggests deep thought. The message here is not about the personality of a specific individual but about the goal to achieve harmony for all.

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Weddings in the italian renaissance.

Feste nelle nozze de don Francesco Medici gran duca di Toscana; et della ... sig. Bianca Cappello, Florence, October 14, 1579

Written by Raffaello Gualterotti

Polychrome velvet with a variation on a Medici emblem

The Story of Esther

• Marco del Buono Giamberti

Roundel (tondo)

possibly workshop of Giovanni Maria Vasaro

Armorial dish: Supper at the House of Simon the Pharisee

workshop of Maestro Giorgio Andreoli

Deborah L. Krohn The Bard Graduate Center

November 2008

Many official descriptions of weddings between wealthy or important people survive. Wedding celebrations could go on for several days, involving a succession of parades, processions, spectacles, performances, games, and meals. Beginning in the fifteenth century, the ancient Roman practice of declaiming custom-written poems celebrating the union was revived. Wedding poems, called epithalamia, are full of references to the purpose of marriage: to perpetuate the civic and political institutions that maintain a stable society. The humanist writers of the wedding poems generally shared the “family values” expressed by Leon Battista Alberti and others who extolled the civic virtues of marriage.

The wedding procession was the most public part of the marriage , and provided an opportunity for the entire community to share in the celebration and thus ratify the marriage. The ritual actions of the father handing the daughter to the husband, expressed in the Latin phrase tradere filiam suam (to hand over his daughter), and of the husband taking the woman into his house, uxorem ducere (to lead a woman), were the essence of the ceremony. Like the many gifts exchanged before and after the ceremony, the bride herself was an object handed from one owner to another.

Wedding processions became more elaborate during the Renaissance period. Marriages, which were also mergers, were potentially explosive moments, and lavish festivities may have diffused some of the tensions that might arise between families over dowry arrangements and other touchy subjects. The bridal procession might even face dangers from hostile mobs or individuals, as suggested by a Florentine statute from 1415, which forbade the throwing of stones or garbage at the home of the couple. Wedding processions were often compared to ancient triumphal processions. The idea of the wedding as a triumph is reflected in the imagery on cassoni (marriage chests) panels such as Apollonio di Giovanni’s Triumph of Scipio Africanus , known in several versions.

Descriptions of fabulous scenery and floats for the great Medici weddings of the sixteenth century are well known through Giorgio Vasari’s Lives and other sources. In his account of the life of the versatile designer Il Tribolo, Vasari describes the 1539 wedding, in Florence, of Cosimo I de’ Medici and Eleonora di Toledo: “Tribolo was given the charge of constructing a triumphal arch at the Porta al Prato, through which the bride, coming from Poggio, was to enter; which arch he made a thing of beauty, very ornate with columns, pilasters, architraves, great cornices, and pediments. The arch was to be all covered with figures and scenes, in addition to the statues by the hand of Tribolo.” Vasari catalogues the allegorical figures on this arch as well as the decorations in the Medici palace, in the Piazza San Marco, and the scenery for theatrical events staged during the wedding festivities. Other descriptions of entire cities being transformed into stage sets for the performances of great court weddings tantalize the imagination, yet little visual evidence remains.

Wedding feasts were among the most lavish of meals, featuring entertainment as well as many courses of specialty foods for both eating and beholding. When Eleanor of Aragon arrived in Ferrara in 1473 for her multiday wedding, she was greeted by a parade of allegorical floats, followed on subsequent days by a fifty-six-course feast, and dances and jousts, during which sugar sculptures were displayed. The humanist Filippo Beroaldo reported that the 1487 wedding of Lucrezia d’Este and Giovanni Bentivoglio in Bologna featured giant sugar sculptures of castles, ships, people, and animals , and a flaming wheel of fireworks that accidentally ignited some of the wedding guests. Contemporary handbooks provide specific instructions on wedding planning and menus, such as Domenico Romoli’s 1560 Singolare dottrina , which contains a section instructing the steward on how to lay the tables with embroidered tablecloths. In his spalliera painting The Banquet in the Pinewoods , one of four grand panels for a wedding chamber based on Giovanni Boccaccio’s dark moralizing tale, in The Decameron , of Nastagio degli Onesti, Botticelli illustrated a feast gone awry. The potential bride being wooed by the hapless Nastagio has been invited to a banquet, where she bears witness to a spectral reluctant bride pursued to the death by her spurned lover —a knight—and his dogs. As the naked woman is nipped by dogs in the foreground prior to being eviscerated at the hands of the knight, the carefully laid table is thrown into disorder by the agitated guests, overturned glasses staining the tablecloths and gleaming vessels clattering to the ground. In its remarkable detail and psychological poignancy, this image conveys both the highest aspirations and the greatest fears of any bride on her wedding day.

Krohn, Deborah L. “Weddings in the Italian Renaissance.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wedd/hd_wedd.htm (November 2008)

Further Reading

Blumenthal, Arthur R. Italian Renaissance Festival Designs . Exhibition catalogue.. Madison: Elvehjem Art Center, University of Wisconsin, 1973.

Brucker, Gene A. Giovanni and Lusanna: Love and Marriage in Renaissance Florence . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.

D'Elia, Anthony F. The Renaissance of Marriage in Fifteenth-Century Italy . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004.

Dean, Trevor, and K. J. P. Lowe, eds. Marriage in Italy, 1300–1650 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Krohn, Deborah L. "Marriage as a Key to Understanding the Past." In Art and Love in Renaissance Italy , edited by Andrea Bayer. Exhibition catalogue.. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2008. See on MetPublications

Additional Essays by Deborah L. Krohn

• Krohn, Deborah L.. “ Birth and Family in the Italian Renaissance .” (November 2008)
• Krohn, Deborah L.. “ Courtship and Betrothal in the Italian Renaissance .” (November 2008)
• Krohn, Deborah L.. “ Nuptial Furnishings in the Italian Renaissance .” (November 2008)

Related Essays

• Art and Love in the Italian Renaissance
• Courtship and Betrothal in the Italian Renaissance
• Lovers in Italian Mythological Prints
• Nuptial Furnishings in the Italian Renaissance
• Profane Love and Erotic Art in the Italian Renaissance
• Animals in Medieval Art
• Architecture in Renaissance Italy
• Birth and Family in the Italian Renaissance
• Botanical Imagery in European Painting
• Burgundian Netherlands: Court Life and Patronage
• Burgundian Netherlands: Private Life
• Commedia dell’arte
• English Embroidery of the Late Tudor and Stuart Eras
• Food and Drink in European Painting, 1400–1800
• Intentional Alterations of Early Netherlandish Painting
• Japanese Weddings in the Edo Period (1615–1868)
• Manuscript Illumination in Italy, 1400–1600
• The Nude in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
• Paintings of Love and Marriage in the Italian Renaissance
• Petrus Christus (active by 1444, died 1475/76)
• Poets in Italian Mythological Prints
• The Rediscovery of Classical Antiquity
• Florence and Central Italy, 1400–1600 A.D.
• Florence and Central Italy, 1600–1800 A.D.
• Rome and Southern Italy, 1400–1600 A.D.
• Rome and Southern Italy, 1600–1800 A.D.
• Venice and Northern Italy, 1400–1600 A.D.
• Venice and Northern Italy, 1600–1800 A.D.
• 15th Century A.D.
• Ancient Roman Art
• Eros / Cupid
• Florentine School
• High Renaissance
• Italian Literature / Poetry
• Literature / Poetry
• Maiolica / Majolica
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Artist or Maker

• Apollonio di Giovanni di Tomaso
• Maestro Giorgio Andreoli
• Nicola da Urbino
• Vasari, Giorgio
• Vasaro, Giovanni Maria

• Getting involved

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When moscow viewed creative marxism as heresy.

The tormented and tortuous publication history of Dialectics of the Ideal by Soviet philosopher Evald Vasilyevich Ilyenkov brings to mind the sagas of other great underground Soviet era classics such as those by Boris Pasternak and Alexander Solzhenitsyn.

Corinna Lotz reflects on a publishing landmark

Some characterise Marxism as a mechanically-determined approach to human nature and activity. And yet, at the heart of Marx’s methodology and his critique of the capitalist system was the dynamic and open-ended spring of dialectics – or, put another way, its soul.

Marx and Engels’ dialectical approach, drawn from Hegel and taken up by later revolutionary thinkers, made it possible to understand both the determined aspects of human life and activity and the moments of revolutionary possibility, choice, freedom and social emancipation.

One thinker who took this side of Marx’s vast contribution to heart as no other was the Soviet philosopher Evald Vasilyevich Ilyenkov (1924-1979). His 56-page essay The Dialectics of the Ideal is the focal point of a new book by Canadian scholar Alex Levant and the Finnish philosopher Vesa Oittinen.

Ilyenkov’s legacy remained buried in various archives in the former Soviet Union until the early 1980s, just preceding (and heralding) Gorbachev’s perestroika and glasnost. He was brought to the attention of revolutionary activists by British Trotskyist leader Gerry Healy when Dialectical Logic and The Abstract and Concrete in Marx’s Capital first reached England via Progress books during the early 1980s. (These books, which became classics for creative Marxists, were available in Italian and German much earlier, as Levant and Oittinen’s amazingly comprehensive polyglot bibliography reveals).

Just as the Soviet Union was disappearing from history, Ilyenkov was again rescued from obscurity, at least for English-speaking readers, by British-Canadian philosopher David Bakhurst in his 1991 book, Consciousness and Revolution in Soviet Philosophy .

The publication history of Dialectics of the Ideal is tortuous and tormented beyond belief. Indeed, it brings to mind the sagas of other great underground Soviet era classics such as those by Boris Pasternak and Alexander Solzhenitsyn which only reached readers through smuggled samizdat manuscripts and risk-taking journalists.

The manuscript was completed in the mid-1970s but it was not published in its complete form until 2009, some 30 years after the death of its author. In the realm of philosophical writing it was perhaps comparable to another volume said to be “forged in hell”, as a tract published some 300 years earlier, was described by the religious authorities of the day. That was Baruch Spinoza’s Theological-Political Treatise of 1670.

But why did Ilyenkov’s “Ideal”, apparently a work of “pure theory”, prove so troubling to the Stalinist authorities? What enraged the bureaucrats of the Brezhnev years was that Ilyenkov advanced his work on materialist dialectics in opposition to officially-sanctioned positivists from the standpoint of developing Marxism itself. He openly built on the work of those who had gone before, most notably Lenin.

By implication, he was accusing the Soviet philosophical establishment and their supporters in the state, of being non-Marxist. Of course, Ilyenkov was right. The bureaucracy used Marxist phraseology in order to kill Marxism off. In their hands, it became the worst kind of dogma. Ilyenkov’s attack hit the jugular.

“To be a creative, thinking Marxist, in a state at the head of which were Marxists, was the most dangerous thing of all,” notes post-Soviet Marxist Vadim Mezhuev, quoted in Levant’s introduction.

When Ilyenkov and his comrades, encouraged by the Khrushchev thaw, put their heads above the parapet, they were spurred on by that moment of freedom (described by some as a philosophical renaissance in the Soviet Union) 1 , just as Spinoza had been by the humanist, cosmopolitan spirit afoot in Amsterdam, within the newly-independent Netherlands. But the authorities throughout 17 th century Europe immediately bore down hard against Spinoza’s “intolerably licentious book”. And so it turned out to be in the post-Khrushchev period. 2

The connection between Ilyenkov and Spinoza runs deep as Oittinen explains in his essay Evald Ilyenkov, the Soviet Spinozist : ”It is just [in] the concept of the ideal , the kernel of Ilyenkov’s own philosophical commitment, where Spinoza’s influence is strongest.”

While Spinoza was a pivotal figure in the 1920s debates, during the later Stalin era, Soviet philosophy fell largely silent about him. 3 But in the post-World War II period, Ilyenkov turned to him again and again, in lectures, articles and in his book Dialectical Logic . So much so that Oittinen describes Spinoza as a “guarantor for the concept of the Ideal”. He examines how Ilyenkov read him “as a philosopher of identity, as a thinker foreshadowing Hegel. Where Spinoza ‘sublated’ the Cartesian dualism, so in a like manner Hegel ‘sublates’ Kant’s dualism”.

Oittinen shows how Ilyenkov has adopted Spinoza’s monism and his concept of an active body, developing these in the light of Hegel and Marx.  For Spinoza what “unites thought and matter was the Substance, in Hegel it was the Spirit, and for Ilyenkov it was the concept of activity”. For him, the figure of action was in bodily movements which “generate thought, and the action is the mediating link between thought and body, rising above their dualism”. Following Marx, Ilyenkov adds the social character of human life to the activity paradigm “and even the ideality must be seen in this light”, Oittinen asserts.

Cartesian dualism had an afterlife in the positivist reductionism of official Soviet philosophy with which Ilyenkov locked horns in what turned out to be mortal combat. Levant’s closing essay returns to this issue and how Ilyenkov’s outlook can help overcome important dualist hurdles in today’s revolutionary practices.

It was not by chance that Ilyenkov so wholeheartedly espoused the heretical Jewish philosopher’s holistic view of the world, in which nature, god and spirit are connected through the concept of substance. It was Spinoza’s approach that allowed Ilyenkov to “cut the Gordian knot”, the conunundrum of Cartesian dualism in which mind and matter are eternally in opposition to each other. Ilyenkov deploys this understanding in his consistent rebuttal of the crude physiological reductionism of Soviet theoreticians like Alexander Bogdanov, Ilya Narsky and David Dubrovsky.

Dubrovsky’s 1968 attack on Ilyenkov’s concept of the Ideal and the ensuing controversy is documented in Andrey Maidansky’s fascinating and thoughtful contribution, Reality of the Ideal . Maidansky’s writings and online archive have in recent years provided an invaluable resource for all those researching Ilyenkov’s ideas.

Like Spinoza, Ilyenkov developed a philosophy that abolished the seemingly insurmountable barrier between ourselves and our Other(s) – the natural and physical world of which we are a part, including that of our fellow human beings. In his Dialectics of the Ideal , as in his other writings, Ilyenkov deconstructs Cartesian-Kantian dualism’s anxiety about accepting the evidence of our sensations and its scepticism about our ability to cognise the world.

This much of Ilyenkov’s contribution to philosophy was familiar since the 1980s to non-Russian readers through those of his books translated and published by Progress as well as New Park Publications ( Leninist Dialectics and the Metaphysics of Positivism 1982). But now, thanks to Levant’s fluent translation of the restored full essay, we can explore the dynamic nature and revolutionary potential of Ilyenkov’s view of the Ideal.

Levant, Oittinen, Mareyev, Maidansky and their colleagues provide an expanded and cross-fertilised understanding of the historical setting of his work, placing it in the context of contemporary Soviet philosophical culture. They show how his contribution has enriched key concepts in psychology, political economy and the theory of knowledge.

The theoretical potential as well as the practical value of Ilyenkov’s notion of the Ideal for in human psychology are outlined by cultural-historical theorist and educationalist Birger Siebert in Prospects for a Cultural-Historical Psychology of Intelligence . Tarja Knuuttila of Helsinki university’s Collegium of Advanced Studies in an intriguing contribution notes that Umberto Eco’s A Theory of Semiotics and Ilyenkov’s Dialectical Logic and Dialectics of the Ideal were written contemporaneously and discovers common ground between them. She critiques both Peter Jones and David Bakhurst. She challenges the hypostatisation of “meaning” and the use of the idea of “representation” or “image” in connection with the Ideal, insisting on its continuous movement and activity.

Oittinen and Paula Rauhala’s discussion of the value-form debate and Ilyenkov’s first book The Dialectics of the Abstract and Concrete in Thought (1960) is an eye-opener, especially for all those who are familiar with the 1982 Progress translation. It now turns out this was heavily edited and truncated.  

Although Ilyenkov eventually received the prestigious Chernyshevsky Prize for the book in 1965, it had taken nine years to get it into print, due to opposition from the top ideology bureaucrats in the Soviet Union. In 1958, Ilyenkov finally consented to edit the manuscript radically and shorten it by almost half. Even the title was changed from “in thought” to “in Marx’s Capital”.  But so strong was Ilyenkov’s message that even this stark re-editing could not erase it.

Oittinen and Rauhala go on to provide a sweeping overview of Ilyenkov’s ideas in the light of international discussions and controversies about Marx’s method, the nature of value and the logic of capital from the 1960s to the present day. They contrast Ilyenkov’s dialectical and historical, law-governed but contradictory understanding of value as a concrete system of interacting phenomena with those of German theorists Hans-Georg Backhaus and Michael Heinrich.

Ilyenkov’s creative form of Marxism has languished like a buried jewel in the subterranean vaults of the former Soviet Union for too long. His powerful connection with the early Soviet period through the influence of the brilliant psychologist Lev Vygotsky (who died in 1935, aged only 38) was first documented for non-Russian readers by Bakhurst.  Now, thanks to Levant and Oittinen’s dedicated efforts, his significance for today can and should be explored.

In his closing essay, Emancipating Open Marxism: E.V. Ilyenkov’s Post-Cartesian Anti-Dualism, Levant flings open a door, not only on to a hidden history but to the relevance of Ilyenkov’s ideas. He proposes that there is a significant legacy of creative Soviet Marxism of the post-Stalin period which can enrich the debates of the Open Marxism movement associated with Werner Bonefield, John Holloway, Richard Gunn and Kosmos Pschopedis, amongst others.

Levant considers that Ilyenkov’s dialectical concept of the Ideal can help overcome the objectivism that prevails in some Marxist approaches, while also avoiding the subjectivism that often weakens Open Marxism. 

Alongside Open Marxism we have the challenge of taking his ideas forward in relation to the major ideological and political issues of our own times. His approach in Dialectics of the Ideal can offer a deeper grasp of today’s ideological crises, as we have argued elsewhere. 4 Ilyenkov’s Ideal comprises all humanly constructed things and activities, including their origins in human aspirations and practices.  It is a “concrete universal” but in a vanishing, negative form which has its Other in the realm of economic and political reality.

Thus understood, like Spinoza’s “blasphemies”, Ilyenkov’s philosophical penetration into the dialectics of social and individual human thought and practice had the potential to break up and expose the ideologies that keep women and men chained to the system. Ilyenkov did this under the most difficult conditions of the Soviet Union, driven first by hope and then extinguished by ideological repression. Ilyenkov directed his energies at restoring the revolutionary dynamic of the Soviet Union but was short-circuited in his mission. The climate at the Institute of Philosophy where he worked worsened in the 1970s. He was prevented from travelling to philosophical conferences abroad and a former KGB operative Elena Modrzhinskaya persecuted him. 5  With nowhere to turn, he took his own life in 1979.

Today, at least in some countries, we are lucky enough to have the freedom to discuss, exchange and publish ideas as well as organise. The challenge is to deconstruct the painfully negative forms of the Ideal in today’s world – the power of reactionary ideologies, east, west, north and south. What lies behind the violent break-up of nation states and the exploitation of globalisation’s extreme discontents and alienation by atavistic forces, for example? They are a distorted reflection in the Ideal world of the deep and insoluble contradictions of a dying system.  The challenge is to widen and concretise Ilyenkov's approach as a collective political enterprise.

27 June 2014

More on Ilyenkov

Ilyenkov – A philosopher under suspicion : A profile of Ilyenkov's life and work by philosophy scholar Sergei Mareyev.

The ‘heretic’ philosopher who challenged Stalinism : a paper on the contemporary significance of both Ilyenkov and Spinoza presented by A World to Win at an international conference in Helsinki.

Dialectics of the Ideal, Evald Ilyenkov and Creative Soviet Marxism , edited by Alex Levant and Vesa Oittinen, is published by Brill, 2014.

1 Guseinov, A and Lektorsky V.A., Philosophy in Russia: History and Present State , Diogenes 56, 2009

2 A Book Forged in Hell: Spinoza’s Scandalous Treatise and the Birth of the Secular Age by Stephen Nadler, Princeton University Press 2011

3 The tragic history of Soviet philosophy in the 1920s and 1930s has been documented by, amongst others, Yehoshua Yakhot in The Suppression of Philosophy in the USSR . English translation, Mehring Books 2012

4 Contradictions within the Ideal , Mediation and Transformation in Global Capitalist Society by Corinna Lotz, Paul Feldman, Penny Cole and Gerry Gold. Presented at University of Helsinki April 2014.

5 Interview with David Bakhurst

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Is Humanity Out of Fashion?

Designer change at Valentino and Dries Van Noten raises the question.

By Vanessa Friedman

Ever since news broke last week that Pierpaolo Piccioli, the designer of Valentino, was leaving the brand, paeans to his talent have been flowing on both social and fashion media. But of all the words used to describe Mr. Piccioli’s work — its “genius” and “magic” and “vision,” its “dreaminess” and “beauty” — the one that most stands out to me is “humanity.”

Not because of the looming threat of A.I., and whatever that means when it comes to clothes, but because Mr. Piccioli is not the only designer leaving fashion in the last six months whose “humanity” was part of their calling card. In fact, he’s the third.

The first was Sarah Burton, the designer of Alexander McQueen. Ms. Burton departed that brand in October, 13 years after taking the reins as creative director following the death of its founder and more than 20 after joining as an assistant to Mr. McQueen.

The second was Dries Van Noten, who announced his retirement after 40 years in the business only a few days before the Valentino news. And now Mr. Piccioli, who was at Valentino for 25 years, eight as sole creative director.

It is possible, of course, to see this as a coincidence. Fashion is in a period of uncertainty because of broader political and economic forces, after a time of relative stability (at least in terms of personnel), and insecurity can breed a desire for change. It is also possible that this shift is simply a generational passing of the torch. Mr. Van Noten is 65; Mr. Piccioli, 56; Ms. Burton, was 49 when she left McQueen. It’s rare for designers to last more than 10 years at one brand, unless they own it, as Mr. Van Noten did until 2018, when he sold a majority stake to the Spanish group Puig.

Yet according to the rules of fashion, three makes a trend — and Mr. Piccioli, Mr. Van Noten and Ms. Burton were otherwise not really similar, in background or aesthetic. So what does it say, exactly, that three designers most known for their humanity are no longer in fashion?

What does humanity in this context even mean?

It’s a strange thing to call out as special in an industry in which products are (at least theoretically) made by humans, for humans, but think of it as a sort of fashion version of renaissance humanism. One marked by a certain generosity of spirit that infused everything these designers did, from the clothes they designed to the way they conducted business; a sense that they cared not just for what they made but also the emotional inner lives of people who wore it. And those who helped to make it. That they understood they were standing on the shoulders of the giants who had come before and the many who made their work possible. That they had a responsibility for and to them.

Ms. Burton, for example, took on McQueen in a period of extreme trauma, when conventional wisdom said that the house should be shuttered; that no one could step into the shoes of Mr. McQueen and that no one should even try.

She not only held the atelier and staff together but continued Mr. McQueen’s legacy of extraordinary creativity and wild imagination, and injected a note of gentleness and grace, tempering the fury with kindness. She collaborated with mills and craftspeople across the United Kingdom, using her show notes to give them credit. She also featured an array of bodies on her runway long before size inclusivity became a fashion issue.

Not to mention becoming, effectively, the closest thing to an in-house couturier that Catherine, Princess of Wales, has had. Ms. Burton made not only her wedding dress but, most recently, her coronation gown and that of her daughter, Princess Charlotte, helping give modern expression to historical pageantry.

When Mr. Van Noten was given a retrospective at the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in 2014, he used the opportunity not to create a celebration of himself but rather to share the spotlight with the people and works that had inspired him, including the Indian embroiderers with whom he had worked for decades. Likewise, for his 100th show in 2017, rather than throw a big party in his honor, he used his budget to fly in assorted models who had walked in his shows so they could share the moment. When he sold his brand to Puig in 2018, he said it was as much to ensure the continued employment of everyone who worked there as it was to create a retirement fund.

And Mr. Piccioli made a tradition of bringing his couture atelier out on the runway with him to take their bow after every show. He named his couture dresses after the women and men who made them (and sometimes empowered those women and men to name them in turn). In 2019, he reimagined Cecil Beaton’s famous photograph of society women in Charles James ball gowns with only Black models and made that the basis of his show.

In 2022, when he unveiled his couture on the Spanish Steps, worn smooth over the centuries and famously slippery, he offered every model a choice among flat shoes, platforms and heels. He eschewed “diversity,” which he saw as an industry buzz word, in favor of “individuality.”

It’s not that Mr. Piccioli and company didn’t believe in the bottom line. But they believed that business and beauty and creativity and functionality were of equal value, and could coexist, and they infused everything they did with that belief system. It’s weird to say you could see it in a skirt, but you could — in the generosity of the folds, the ease of access. In a world that loves a dictator, self-care and customer autonomy were part of what they were selling.

Whether in the end they were fired or simply agreed to disagree with their employers (and at least in Mr. Van Noten’s case, he seems to have been planning his departure for a while), it is clear that each of these designers sensed that the currents of fashion were not moving in their direction. Emotion and sentimentality is out; cool and meme-able is in. Rather than compromise, they departed. They will be fine.

But they leave a hole behind. On Monday Mr. Piccioli posted a farewell photograph of his staff, all wearing black T-shirts reading “Thank you PP” and gathered under a sign with a Pasolini quote that read (in Italian), “We don’t want to be so suddenly without dreams.”

Vanessa Friedman has been the fashion director and chief fashion critic for The Times since 2014. More about Vanessa Friedman

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Italian Renaissance masterpieces brought to Moscow for special exhibition

The paintings of Italian Renaissance masters are gracing Moscow in a new exhibition.

This includes the works of Titian, Tintoretto, and Veronese.

Twenty-three paintings from Italian museums and churches were transported to the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts.

Some of these pieces have never left Italy before.

“Despite the fact that Italy is full of art. This is a huge storage house of art. Nevertheless, they are very careful. Italian directors are very reluctant to give things, especially important things from their own collection,” said Marina Loshak, director of the museum.

One highlight of this exhibition is Titian’s painting “Venus and Adonis.”

This piece is in Russia for the first time. For many years it was considered only a copy.

The curator of the Moscow exhibition discovered it was the original when she was asked for an consultation on the piece a year ago.

Previously, the original was thought to be the version in the Prado Museum in Madrid, Spain.

“Now Prado has admitted that their picture was made later. Also it was drawn from our picture. It is obvious. In it’s manner, style, color—this picture was painted at least 10 years before the Prado’s painting,” said Victoria Markova, curator of the exhibition.

Tintoretto and Veronese are the younger contemporaries of Titian and his unofficial followers. But they each have their own distinctive style as well.

Tintoretto worked mainly for the churches. His work work is very dramatic.

“As soon as you come to the painting in which you see monochrome, a special drama, tension, inner concentration—you understand: this is Tintoretto,” said Loshak.

Veronese was a secular man. His customers were the wealthiest families of Venice, who commissioned paintings for decorating their homes.

“He was younger and he was nice. Accommodating. And Titian liked him. He was more of a narrative painter. He liked to tell stories by his paintings,” said Bernard Aikema, a professor at the University of Verona.

Because of the humid climate in Venice, painters didn’t paint on the walls or create frescoes like in Florence and Rome.

The paintings in city of water were created exclusively on canvas. But they can rival frescoes in size.

“The pictures are really huge. I was interested to see in person such a size picture of the XVI century. What is represented in our museums – they are much smaller. What was bought from abroad usually was pretty small,” said Catherine, an antiquarian who visited the exhibition.

“Interestingly, it’s half of one thousand years in fact, five hundred years—you can see here. As I walk through, get acquainted with this, it’s as if I’m communicating with those people who lived 500 years ago,” said Alexandra, another visitor.

The exhibition is open until the end of August.