how to write a philosophy paper nyu

2.6 Writing Philosophy Papers

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Identify and characterize the format of a philosophy paper.
• Create thesis statements that are manageable and sufficiently specific.
• Collect evidence and formulate arguments.
• Organize ideas into a coherent written presentation.

This section will provide some practical advice on how to write philosophy papers. The format presented here focuses on the use of an argumentative structure in writing. Different philosophy professors may have different approaches to writing. The sections below are only intended to give some general guidelines that apply to most philosophy classes.

Identify Claims

The key element in any argumentative paper is the claim you wish to make or the position you want to defend. Therefore, take your time identifying claims , which is also called the thesis statement. What do you want to say about the topic? What do you want the reader to understand or know after reading your piece? Remember that narrow, modest claims work best. Grand claims are difficult to defend, even for philosophy professors. A good thesis statement should go beyond the mere description of another person’s argument. It should say something about the topic, connect the topic to other issues, or develop an application of some theory or position advocated by someone else. Here are some ideas for creating claims that are perfectly acceptable and easy to develop:

• Compare two philosophical positions. What makes them similar? How are they different? What general lessons can you draw from these positions?
• Identify a piece of evidence or argument that you think is weak or may be subject to criticism. Why is it weak? How is your criticism a problem for the philosopher’s perspective?
• Apply a philosophical perspective to a contemporary case or issue. What makes this philosophical position applicable? How would it help us understand the case?
• Identify another argument or piece of evidence that might strengthen a philosophical position put forward by a philosopher. Why is this a good argument or piece of evidence? How does it fit with the philosopher’s other claims and arguments?
• Consider an implication (either positive or negative) that follows from a philosopher’s argument. How does this implication follow? Is it necessary or contingent? What lessons can you draw from this implication (if positive, it may provide additional reasons for the argument; if negative, it may provide reasons against the argument)?

Think Like a Philosopher

The following multiple-choice exercises will help you identify and write modest, clear philosophical thesis statements. A thesis statement is a declarative statement that puts forward a position or makes a claim about some topic.

• How does Aristotle think virtue is necessary for happiness?
• Is happiness the ultimate goal of human action?
• Whether or not virtue is necessary for happiness.
• Aristotle argues that happiness is the ultimate good of human action and virtue is necessary for happiness.
• René Descartes argues that the soul or mind is the essence of the human person.
• Descartes shows that all beliefs and memories about the external world could be false.
• Some people think that Descartes is a skeptic, but I will show that he goes beyond skepticism.
• In the meditations, Descartes claims that the mind and body are two different substances.
• Descartes says that the mind is a substance that is distinct from the body, but I disagree.
• Contemporary psychology has shown that Descartes is incorrect to think that human beings have free will and that the mind is something different from the brain.
• Thomas Hobbes’s view of the soul is materialistic, whereas Descartes’s view of the soul is nonphysical. In this paper, I will examine the differences between these two views.
• John Stuart Mill reasons that utilitarian judgments can be based on qualitative differences as well as the quantity of pleasure, but ultimately any qualitative difference must result in a difference in the quantity of pleasure.
• Mill’s approach to utilitarianism differs from Bentham’s by introducing qualitative distinctions among pleasures, where Bentham only considers the quantitative aspects of pleasure.
• J. S. Mill’s approach to utilitarianism aligns moral theory with the history of ethics because he allows qualitative differences in moral judgments.
• Rawls’s liberty principle ensures that all people have a basic set of freedoms that are important for living a full life.
• The US Bill of Rights is an example of Rawls’s liberty principle because it lists a set of basic freedoms that are guaranteed for all people.
• While many people may agree that Rawls’s liberty principle applies to all citizens of a particular country, it is much more controversial to extend those same basic freedoms to immigrants, including those classified by the government as permanent residents, legal immigrants, illegal immigrants, and refugees.

[ANS: 1.d 2.c 3.c 4.a 5.c]

Write Like a Philosopher

Use the following templates to write your own thesis statement by inserting a philosopher, claim, or contemporary issue:

• [Name of philosopher] holds that [claim], but [name of another philosopher] holds that [another claim]. In this paper, I will identify reasons for thinking [name of philosopher]’s position is more likely to be true.
• [Name of philosopher] argues that [claim]. In this paper, I will show how this claim provides a helpful addition to [contemporary issue].
• When [name of philosopher] argues in favor of [claim], they rely on [another claim] that is undercut by contemporary science. I will show that if we modify this claim in light of contemporary science, we will strengthen or weaken [name of philosopher]’s argument.

Collect Evidence and Build Your Case

Once you have identified your thesis statement or primary claim, collect evidence (by returning to your readings) to compose the best possible argument. As you assemble the evidence, you can think like a detective or prosecutor building a case. However, you want a case that is true, not just one that supports your position. So you should stay open to modifying your claim if it does not fit the evidence . If you need to do additional research, follow the guidelines presented earlier to locate authoritative information.

If you cannot find evidence to support your claim but still feel strongly about it, you can try to do your own philosophical thinking using any of the methods discussed in this chapter or in Chapter 1. Imagine counterexamples and thought experiments that support your claim. Use your intuitions and common sense, but remember that these can sometimes lead you astray. In general, common sense, intuitions, thought experiments, and counterexamples should support one another and support the sources you have identified from other philosophers. Think of your case as a structure: you do not want too much of the weight to rest on a single intuition or thought experiment.

Consider Counterarguments

Philosophy papers differ from typical argumentative papers in that philosophy students must spend more time and effort anticipating and responding to counterarguments when constructing their own arguments. This has two important effects: first, by developing counterarguments, you demonstrate that you have sufficiently thought through your position to identify possible weaknesses; second, you make your case stronger by taking away a potential line of attack that an opponent might use. By including counterarguments in your paper, you engage in the kind of dialectical process that philosophers use to arrive at the truth.

Accurately Represent Source Material

It is important to represent primary and secondary source material as accurately as possible. This means that you should consider the context and read the arguments using the principle of charity. Make sure that you are not strawmanning an argument you disagree with or misrepresenting a quote or paraphrase just because you need some evidence to support your argument. As always, your goal should be to find the most rationally compelling argument, which is the one most likely to be true.

Organize Your Paper

Academic philosophy papers use the same simple structure as any other paper and one you likely learned in high school or your first-year composition class.

Introduce Your Thesis

The purpose of your introduction is to provide context for your thesis. Simply tell the reader what to expect in the paper. Describe your topic, why it is important, and how it arises within the works you have been reading. You may have to provide some historical context, but avoid both broad generalizations and long-winded historical retellings. Your context or background information should not be overly long and simply needs to provide the reader with the context and motivation for your thesis. Your thesis should appear at the end of the introduction, and the reader should clearly see how the thesis follows from the introductory material you have provided. If you are writing a long paper, you may need several sentences to express your thesis, in which you delineate in broad terms the parts of your argument.

Make a Logical and Compelling Case Using the Evidence

The paragraphs that follow the introduction lay out your argument. One strategy you can use to successfully build paragraphs is to think in terms of good argument structure. You should provide adequate evidence to support the claims you want to make. Your paragraphs will consist of quotations and paraphrases from primary and secondary sources, context and interpretation, novel thoughts and ideas, examples and analogies, counterarguments, and replies to the counterarguments. The evidence should both support the thesis and build toward the conclusion. It may help to think architecturally: lay down the foundation, insert the beams of your strongest support, and then put up the walls to complete the structure. Or you might think in terms of a narrative: tell a story in which the evidence leads to an inevitable conclusion.

Connections

See the chapter on logic and reasoning for a developed account of different types of philosophical arguments.

Summarize Your Argument in the Conclusion

Conclude your paper with a short summary that recapitulates the argument. Remind the reader of your thesis and revisit the evidence that supports your argument. You may feel that the argument as written should stand on its own. But it is helpful to the reader to reinforce the argument in your conclusion with a short summary. Do not introduce any new information in the conclusion; simply summarize what you have already said.

The purpose of this chapter has been to provide you with basic tools to become a successful philosophy student. We started by developing a sophisticated picture of how the brain works, using contemporary neuroscience. The brain represents and projects a picture of the world, full of emotional significance, but this image may contain distortions that amount to a kind of illusion. Cognitive illusions produce errors in reasoning, called cognitive biases. To guard against error, we need to engage in effortful, reflective thinking, where we become aware of our biases and use logical strategies to overcome them. You will do well in your philosophy class if you apply the good habits of mind discussed in this chapter and apply the practical advice that has been provided about how to read and write about philosophy.

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• Program of Study
• Course Offerings

Program of Study (CAS Bulletin)

Philosophy (2022 - 2024), major in philosophy.

A major in philosophy requires ten 4-point courses (40 points) in the department. These ten courses must include the following:

• One (and only one) introductory course (PHIL-UA 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8)
• Logic (PHIL-UA 70)
• Ancient Greek and Roman Philosophy (PHIL-UA 20)
• Early Modern European Philosophy (PHIL-UA 21)
• Ethics (PHIL-UA 40) or Nature of Values (PHIL-UA 41) or Political Philosophy (PHIL-UA 45)
• Epistemology (PHIL-UA 76) or Metaphysics (PHIL-UA 78) or Philosophy of Science (PHIL-UA 90)
• Philosophy of Mind (PHIL-UA 80) or Philosophy of Language (PHIL-UA 85)
• One topics course (PHIL-UA 101, PHIL-UA 102, PHIL-UA 103, or PHIL-UA 104)
• The remaining two courses may be chosen from any philosophy departmental offerings, except introductory courses.

All students must begin with one (and only one) of the introductory courses. Satisfactory completion of any one course at the introductory level is a prerequisite for all of the other courses required for the major, except Logic. It is recommended that those considering a major take Logic as soon as possible.

No credit toward the major is awarded for a course with a grade lower than C. Courses graded Pass/Fail do not count.

Joint Major in Language and Mind

This major, intended as an introduction to cognitive science, is administered by the Departments of Linguistics, Philosophy, and Psychology. Ten courses (40 points) with a grade of C or higher are required (four in linguistics, one in philosophy, four in psychology, and one additional course). Courses graded Pass/Fail do not count. Joint majors should consult with the directors of undergraduate studies of the three participating departments for advisement.

The linguistics component consists of these four courses:

• Language and Mind (LING-UA 3; identical to PSYCH-UA 27) or Language (LING-UA 1)
• Introduction to Semantics (LING-UA 4)
• Phonological Analysis (LING-UA 12)
• Grammatical Analysis (LING-UA 13)
• Psycholinguistics (LING-UA 5; identical to PSYCH-UA 56)
• Patterns in Language (LING-UA 6)
• Formal Languages (LING-UA 7)
• Sound and Language (LING-UA 11)
• Advanced Semantics (LING-UA 19)
• Propositional Attitudes (LING-UA 35)
• The Syntax/Semantics Interface Cross-linguistically (LING-UA 37)
• Neural Bases of Language (LING-UA 43; identical to PSYCH-UA 300)
• Linguistics as Cognitive Science (LING-UA 48; identical to PSYCH-UA 48)
• Machine Learning for Language Understanding (LING-UA 52; identical to DS-UA 203)
• Learning to Speak (LING-UA 54)
• Introduction to Morphology at an Advanced Level (LING-UA 55)
• First Language Acquisition (LING-UA 59; identical to PSYCH-UA 59)

The philosophy component is a choice of one of the following three courses:

• Minds and Machines (PHIL-UA 5)
• Philosophy of Language (PHIL-UA 85)

The psychology component consists of four courses:

• Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (PSYCH-UA 10) or Advanced Psychological Statistics (PSYCH-UA 11)
• Cognition (PSYCH-UA 29)
• Psycholinguistics(PSYCH-UA 56; identical to LING-UA 5)
• Language Acquisition and Cognitive Development (PSYCH-UA 300)
• Neural Bases of Language (PSYCH-UA 300; identical to LING-UA 43)
• Speech: A Window into the Developing Mind (PSYCH-UA 300)
• Perception (PSYCH-UA 22)
• Cognitive Neuroscience (PSYCH-UA 25)
• Laboratory in Cognition and Perception (PSYCH-UA 46)
• Psycholinguistics (PSYCH-UA 56; identical to LING-UA 5)

The tenth course will be an additional course from the lists above that has not already been taken to satisfy the departmental components.

Minor in Philosophy

A minor in philosophy requires four 4-point courses (16 points) in the department. These four courses must include one (and only one) introductory course (PHIL-UA 1-8), and one course from each of the department’s three subject groupings:

• Group 1: History of Philosophy
• Group 2: Ethics, Values, and Society
• Group 3: Logic, Epistemology, Metaphysics, Mind and Language

No credit toward the minor is awarded for a course with a grade lower than C.

Independent Study

A student may register for an independent study course (PHIL-UA 301, 302; 2 or 4 points per term) if he or she obtains the consent of a faculty member who approves the study project and agrees to serve as adviser. The student must also obtain the approval of either the department chair or the director of undergraduate studies. The student may take no more than one such course in any given semester and no more than two such courses in total, unless granted special permission by either the department chair or the director of undergraduate studies.

Honors Program

Students majoring in philosophy who will have completed at least five philosophy courses by the end of the first semester of their junior year and have a GPA of 3.65 or higher, both in philosophy and overall, may apply to the director of undergraduate studies for admission to the departmental honors program. Students should apply when requesting registration clearance for the Spring semester of their junior year. Honors in philosophy will be awarded to philosophy majors who successfully complete the honors program with a GPA of 3.65 or higher both in philosophy and overall. The honors program requires at least eleven courses in philosophy (44 points). These courses must (1) satisfy the requirements for the major and (2) include both the Junior Honors Proseminar (PHIL-UA 201) and the Senior Honors Thesis Workshop (PHIL-UA 202). (For purposes of the major requirements, one of these two courses may be counted as an elective.) Together, the two honors courses constitute a two-semester honors thesis capstone experience. Students must be accepted into the honors program before taking the Junior Honors Proseminar in the spring of the junior year; the Senior Honors Thesis Workshop is then taken in the fall of the senior year. Students who wish to join the honors program and to study away from New York in their junior year should consult early on with the director of undergraduate studies to find a suitable arrangement.

The Writing Place

Resources – how to write a philosophy paper, introduction to the topic.

The most common introductory level philosophy papers involve making an original argument (“Do you believe that free will exists?”) or thinking critically about another philosopher’s argument (“Do you agree with Hobbes’ argument about free will?”). This short checklist will help you construct a paper for these two types of assignments.

The Basics of a Philosophy Paper

1. introduction and thesis.

There is not a need for a grand or lofty introduction in a philosophy paper. Introductory paragraphs should be short and concise. In the thesis, state what you will be arguing and how you will make your argument.

2. Define Terms

It is important to define words that you use in your argument that may be unclear to your reader. While it may seem like words like “morality” and “free will” have an obvious definition, you need to make clear to your audience what those words mean in the context of your paper. A generally useful rule is to pretend that your reader does not know anything about your course or the subject of philosophy and define any words or concepts that such a reader may find ambiguous.

In a philosophy paper, you need to give reasons to support the argument you made in your thesis. This should constitute the largest portion of your paper. It is also important here to name preexisting conditions (premises) that must exist in order for the argument to be true. You can use real-world examples and the ideas of other philosophers to generate reasons why your argument is true. Remember to use simple and clear language and treat your readers as if they are not experts in philosophy.

4. Objections and Responses to Objections

Unlike other types of persuasive essays, in a many philosophy papers you should anticipate criticisms of your argument and respond to those criticisms. If you can refute objections to your argument, your paper will be stronger. While you do not have to address every potential counterargument, you should try to cover the most salient problems.

5. Conclusion

Like the introduction, you should be simple and concise. In the final paragraph you should review and summarize what your paper has established. The conclusion should tell readers why your argument is relevant. It answers the question, “Why do I care?”

General Tips

• Do not overstate or over generalize your ideas.
• Do not try to argue for both sides of an issue. Be clear about where you stand or your reader will be confused.
• Be specific. Do not try to tackle a huge issue, but rather, aim to discuss something small that can be done justice in just a few pages.
• Be wary of using religious or legal grounds for your argument.

A Quick Practice Exercise...

Practice: what is wrong with this paragraph.

This paragraph contains 5 major errors that you should try to avoid in a philosophy paper. Can you find them all?

“In his argument from design, Paley uses the example of a watch that he finds upon a road that has dozens of pieces that work together to make the clock function.  He asserts that this watch is too perfect of a creation not to have a creator and that it would be obvious to conclude that the timepiece must have a maker. Similarly, the Bible proves that God must exist because he made the world beautiful in seven days.  Paley notes, “There cannot be design without a designer; contrivance, without a contriver; order, without choice; arrangement without anything capable of arranging” (Paley 49). This reasoning is strong because it is apparent that beings found in nature have a complex design.  For example, the iris, retina, lens and ocular muscles of the eye all work together to produce sight in the human eye and without any one of these mechanisms, one would be blind.  For all of these tiny pieces that are required for a functioning eye to have randomly come together seems impossible. Therefore, it is logical that there had to be a designer who created a world in which DNA replicates and dozens of small parts create a functioning human or animal.  By simply viewing the natural world, it is highly plausible to see that Paley’s theory is correct.”

1.  “Similarly, the Bible proves that God must exist because he had the power to make the flood happen in Noah’s Ark.”  Arguments based off religious texts, such as the Bible, are generally frowned upon and only weaken an essay.

2. The writer does not define what he means by “God.” Is God a benevolent overseer of the earth? Or is God a vengeful figure? Although it may seem as though everyone knows who God is, in reality, people have different perspective and the writer needs to define God’s character for the reader.

3.  “For all of these tiny pieces that are required for a functioning eye to have randomly come together seems impossible.”  The phrase “ seems impossible ” is weak and unclear. In a philosophy paper, you should take a strong stance and avoid words that weaken your argument like “probably” or “seem.” Additionally, the phrase “ highly plausible ” appears at the end of the paragraph, which is also a phrase that weakens the argument.

4. The writer gives not premises for Paley’s argument to be true. A stronger paper would name the preexisting conditions that must exist in order for the argument to stand.

5. The “real world” example of the human eye is not the best. The writer neglects strong counterarguments such as evolution and the existence of blindness in humans. A good philosophy paper would be more careful when considering real world examples.

Developed by Ann Bruton

Adapted from:

Harvard University’s Short Guide to Philosophical Writing

Kenneth Seeskin’s “How to Write a Philosophy Paper,” Northwestern University

Click here to return to the “Writing Place Resources” main page.

PHIL 310: Philosophy of Mental Illness: Writing a Philosophy Paper

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• Using Open Access Sources
• Writing a Philosophy Paper

Writing Center

For face to face help with your citations, stop by the Library Research Help Desk or the University Writing Center , located on the second floor of the Academic Commons.

Guidelines on Writing a Philosophy Paper

• Guidelines on Writing a Philosophy Paper Guidelines from Jim Pryor, a philosophy professor at NYU.
• A Brief Guide to Writing the Philosophy Paper From the Harvard College Writing Center.
• How to Write a Philosophy Paper From Shelly Kagan, a philosophy professor at Yale.
• << Previous: Using Open Access Sources
• Last Updated: Aug 8, 2022 8:43 AM
• URL: https://libraryguides.salisbury.edu/philmental

Sam Berstler's Teaching Page

How do i write a philosophy paper.

Here are some excellent guides from around the web.

Guidelines on Writing a Philosophy Paper , Jim Pryor (NYU)

A Brief Guide to Writing the Philosophy Paper , Simon Rippon (Harvard)

Tackling the Philosophical Essay: A Student Guide, Claire Benn et al (Cambridge)

Here is a sample paper that I wrote for Introduction to Ethics.

Intro to Philosophical Terms & Methods

• Reading Philosophy
• Writing a Philosophy Paper
• Writing a Thesis
• Applying to Grad School
• Graduate Writing
• Applying for Jobs in Philosophy

Links for Budding Philosophers

Past courses.

These sites should be barely functional, but expect them to have many broken links. I'll fix them when I have the time...

Baruch college | Newman Library -->

• Newman Library
• Research Guides
• Writing Your Paper
• Getting Started
• Finding Philosophical Works
• Understanding Philosophy
• Scholarly Community

Guides to Writing

• A Brief Guide to Writing the Philosophy Paper A guide from the Writing Center at Harvard College.
• Guidelines on Writing a Philosophy Paper Jim Pryor, a professor of philosophy at NYU, offers very practical advice.
• Philosophy A guide to writing philosophy papers from the Writing Center at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill.

Citations and Bibliographies

• MLA Formatting and Style Guide Start with this overview of MLA style first. Created by the Online Writing Lab at Purdue University.
• MLA Tutorial Guide to adding to citations to your paper using MLA format. Created by Hunter College.
• Writing--Citing Your Sources Overview of how to format MLA citations.

Writing Center @ Baruch College

• Hours, Location, Policies
• Make an appointment
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• Last updated: Mar 5, 2024 4:23 PM

Philosophy Resources: Writing philosophy

• Getting Started
• How to read philosophy
• Philosophy Sources
• Primary and Secondary Literature
• Finding books
• Finding Journal Articles
• Writing philosophy
• Citing your sources
• Philosophy on the Internet
• Evaluating Web Resources
• Off-Campus Access
• Getting Help

Getting help

Need help finding philosophy sources?

Contact the Philosophy Liaison , Kathleen McElhinney at [email protected] or 605-658-3370.

Need Help with Writing?

Contact the Writing Center .

Writing guides

Need more detail? 

Check out these writing guides.

George Washington University's Guide to Writing a Philosophy paper

Writing a philosophy paper, from Simon Frasier University

NYU's Guidelines on Writing a Philosophy Paper

North Carolina's How to Write a Philosophy Paper

General writing process

Writing a philosophy paper will probably be quite different from any other paper you've ever written.

A philosophy paper is about presenting an argument.  Argue for or against something, and support your position with logical reasons.

Pretend the person reading your paper will be a reasonably-intelligent person who does not know any philosophy, not your professor.  The point is to demonstrate what you know, not what your professor knows.

In philosophy, the structure of an argument is important.  Before writing sentences, thinking about the structure of your paper.  What is your thesis?  What points will you use to support your thesis?  Create an outline before starting to write and use it to guide your writing.  Your reader will be able to understand your argument much easier if the structure is obvious.

First Draft

Write a draft of your paper.  Let others read it. If they do not understand your argument, then you need to rewrite it. The goal is for a non-philosopher to understand your arguments.  Though your professor may be an expert on the subject you're writing on, s/he is looking for evidence that you understand the subject and your argument. 

Principle of Charity

When attempting to understand the viewpoints of others, if something is open to interpretation, choose the strongest possible interpretation.  This usually ends up working out in your favor.

Final rewrite

Once you have the basic argument, work on making your explanations complete but concise, and your grammar correct.

For more details on writing a philosophy paper, check the writing guides on this page.

What to avoid

Avoid falling into these traps:

• Do not simply assert your opponent is wrong.   Explain why with reasons.
• Do not appeal to emotion, tradition or faith.
• Argue for or against something. No fence sitting.
• Do not use long quotes.  Keep quotes short and explain why they are relevant to your argument.
• Keep your introduction short and focus on the arguments.   A long introduction just pads your paper's length.
• << Previous: Finding Journal Articles
• Next: Citing your sources >>
• Last Updated: Sep 22, 2023 1:04 PM
• URL: https://libguides.usd.edu/philosophy

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Doing Student Writing

One of the very most important skills for lawyers is writing well. In order to graduate, you must do one "substantial writing" paper. You should always look for opportunities to write and improve your writing. You will need a good writing sample for many jobs. And published writing on any lawyer’s CV is impressive.

The faculty and administrators have put enormous work into improving the writing experience.

The primary place in which we expect you to write is seminars. We have increased significantly the number of seminars. It is our expectation that most students will take a seminar and begin their substantial writing paper in their second year of law school . One advantage of this is that it gives you time to write a good paper; another is that many employers, and particularly judges if you are seeking a clerkship, will want that writing sample by the summer after the second year. Think seriously about taking a writing seminar in the first semester of the second year.

Students can also work directly with faculty doing directed research, the end result of which is a written work. This, however, is not the place for most students to do their substantial writing. Faculty are not compelled to do directed research, and we have ample seminar slots (in many different areas) for papers. Directed research is most often valuable if you plan to write an additional paper in a specialized area.

See More about Writing a Student Note

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How to Craft a Teaching Philosophy Statement