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Tips for Writing Your Political Candidate Biography

By Shane Daley

Anyone running for office needs to write a political candidate biography . A good story adds a personal touch to your campaign. It provides information about your background, qualifications, and positions on important issues.

Your candidate biography is a profile about yourself. It’s where you introduce yourself as a political candidate and persuade voters that you are not only on the right side of the issues but also the right person for the elected position. Your bio should provide both a compelling story and an interesting read. Done properly, it will help establish credibility and legitimacy, which are important in convincing voters to support you.

If you want to learn how to write a solid political profile or candidate statement, read on!

How to introduce yourself as a political candidate

Who are you? Begin with some background information about yourself. Try to include some qualities that separate you from your opposition. Keep your political bio positive and touch on some issues that are of concern to voters.

[bctt tweet=”Your candidate biography should provide a compelling story and be an interesting read. via @onlinecandidate”]

Describe your personal experience

What experiences in your personal, professional, or within a member organization have helped shape you and made you the person you are today? Discuss your education, job titles, community and civic work, awards, and other offices you’ve held. How do those experiences translate into being a better candidate for the position you are running for?

Don’t just create a laundry list of accomplishments, but work your experience into a larger narrative. You control the narrative, so make your biography statements informative, interesting, and educational.

Add relevant details about yourself

A little bit about you personally goes a long way. Voters want to know about you, but maybe not every detail of your life. Include photos or even video from member organization events or initiatives you’ve been a part of. Both personal and professional content helps provide a rounded idea of who you are. It’s a bit like writing an autobiography, but just using the good stuff.

Include any endorsements you’ve secured. Have you won awards or been recognized by community organizations? Use those outside sources to help sell you on your desired position or office. It’s easy to say great things about yourself, but when others do it, that carries a lot more weight.

What is it that you want to accomplish in office?

What do you want to accomplish during your time in office? Perhaps your goals can relate to previous accomplishments in your life. Use specific examples in your profile. Take a situation, describe how you effectively handled it, and use it as a template for this section.

• Take a stand on your most important issue and expand on it.
• What are your solutions or plans for tackling the issue?
• How do your plans differ from those of your opponent or from the way the issue is being handled currently?

Even more importantly, what’s in it for the voter? For example, how will your policies make a difference in the community and the lives of the voters? What will inspire people to join and support your cause? Be detailed in your initiatives and spell out how they relate to the voter.

What makes you the right person for the elected position?

This is where it all comes together . A political biography does not have to be particularly long. 400-500 words should be long enough to get the major points across. Here are some questions you should answer:

• You know the issues, and you have the background, but what makes you the right person for the job?
• How does your experience relate to the elected position? Have you worked with organizations or other government entities?
• What skills can you apply toward your goals? Showcase personal, organizational, or professional skills that will help you perform your duties.
• Back up your claims. This is a good place to reveal endorsements from community organizations or influential people. Have you won awards or professional achievements?

End your candidate statement on a strong note

Finish your candidate election biography with a strong statement about your purpose for running and what you hope to accomplish in the office you seek. Be inspirational in your summary. Be specific about the issues you hope to tackle. Leave the reader knowing that you deserve their vote on Election Day.

Find sample biography examples at OnlineCandidateResources.com.

First or third person presentation for the web?

Some candidates prefer to write their bios in the third person, others in the first. While the first person may come across as more personal, that format is not very useful if you are trying to optimize your content for the search engines. Google doesn’t know who “I” and “me” are. Writing in the third person gives your candidate statement plenty of opportunity to use your full name, which can help the material appear in search engine results for people searching for your name.

Candidate video presentation

A written bio can be translated into video. Many candidates create an introduction video, speaking directly to voters about their vision for the office, who they are, and why they want to represent the people. Videos can be added to their website and shared on social media accounts including Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, and even segments on TikTok.

Another example is a replay of a “meet the candidate” event, where the video includes your introduction and some questions and answers that help tell your story. This should be edited to make it more concise.

Have your candidate’s biography proofread

Have others you trust read drafts of all your site content to check for grammar, spelling, and content. Others will see your work with fresh eyes and will be able to provide valuable feedback.

Break your bio down for your elevator pitch

Now that you have written a full candidate biography, it’s time to break it down . You should create a concise version for your “elevator pitch”. An elevator pitch is a short description of yourself that explains who you are so that a listener will learn the basics about you very quickly. It should be no longer than 20 to 30 seconds long. It should basically state who you are and what you want to do.

You can also take written sections of your bio and rework them for use in other campaign materials, such as brochures, flyers, mailings, and your website’s media kit . You will even want to incorporate elements into your speeches and public presentations.

In conclusion

These steps will help you write a great campaign biography. A strong candidate statement is the cornerstone of informing the voting public of your background, beliefs, and goals.

Now, get writing!

Recommended Reading: Political Candidate Profile and Biography Worksheet [PDF]

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How to Write the Political and Global Issues College Essay

Essays are one of the best parts of the college application process. With your grades in, your test scores decided, and your extracurriculars developed over your years in high school, your essays are the last piece of your college application that you have immediate control over. With them, you get to add a voice to your other stats, a “face” to the name, so to speak. They’re an opportunity to reveal what’s important to you and what sets you apart from other applicants and tell the admissions committee why you’d be an excellent addition to their incoming student class.

Throughout your college applications process, there are many different types of essays you’ll be asked to write. Some of the most popular essay questions you’ll see might include writing about an extracurricular, why you want to matriculate at a school, and what you want to study.

Increasingly, you might also see a supplemental college essay asking you to discuss a political or global issue that you’re passionate about. Asking this type of question helps colleges understand what you care about outside of your personal life and how you will be an active global citizen.

Some examples from the 2019-2020 cycle include:

Georgetown University’s Walsh School of Foreign Service : Briefly discuss a current global issue, indicating why you consider it important and what you suggest should be done to deal with it.

Yeshiva University Honors Programs : What is one issue about which you are passionate?

Pitzer College : Pitzer College is known for our students’ intellectual and creative activism. If you could work on a cause that is meaningful to you through a project, artistic, academic, or otherwise, what would you do?

Your GPA and SAT don’t tell the full admissions story

Our chancing engine factors in extracurricular activities, demographics, and other holistic details. We’ll let you know what your chances are at your dream schools — and how to improve your chances!

Our chancing engine factors in extracurricular activities, demographic, and other holistic details.

Our chancing engine factors in extracurricular activities, demographic, and other holistic details. We’ll let you know what your chances are at your dream schools — and how to improve your chances!

Tips for Writing the Political and Global Issues College Essay

Pick an issue close to your life.

When you first see a political and global issues prompt, your gut reaction might be to go with a big-picture topic that’s all over the news, like poverty or racism. The problem with these topics is that you usually have a page or less to talk about the issue and why it matters to you. Students also might not have a direct personal connection to such a broad topic. The goal of this essay is to reveal your critical thinking skills, but the higher-level goal of every college essay is to learn more about who you are.

Rather than go with a broad issue that you’re not personally connected to, see if there’s just one facet of it that you  can  contend with. This is especially important if the prompt simply asks for “an issue,” and not necessarily a “global issue.” While some essay prompts will specifically ask that you address a  global  issue (like Georgetown’s School of Foreign Service), there are still ways to approach it from a more focused perspective.

For example, if you were to talk about world hunger, you could start with the hunger you see in your community, which is a food desert. For your solution, you can discuss your plan to build a community garden, so the town is able to access fresh produce. Food deserts, of course, aren’t the only reason world hunger exists; so, you should also explore some other reasons, and other solutions. Maybe there is a better way to prevent and recuperate produce currently being wasted, for instance. If the prompt doesn’t specifically ask for a global issue, however, you could simply focus on food deserts.

For another example, maybe you want to talk about climate change. A more personal and focused approach would deal with happenings in your community, or a community you’ve had contact with. For instance, perhaps your local river was polluted because of textile industry waste; in this case, it would be fitting to address fast fashion specifically (which is still a global issue).

Remember your audience

As you’re approaching this essay, take care to understand the political ramifications of what you’re suggesting and how the school you’re addressing might react to it. Make sure you understand the school’s political viewpoints, and keep in mind that schools are hoping to see how you might fit on their campus based on your response.

So, if you’re applying to a school known for being progressive, like Oberlin or Amherst, you might not want to write an essay arguing that religious freedom is under threat in America. Or, if you’re applying to Liberty University, you should probably avoid writing an essay with a strong pro-LGBTQ stance. You don’t have to take the opposite position, but try picking a different issue that won’t raise the same concerns.

If you have no political alignment, choose economics

If you find yourself applying to a school with which you share no political viewpoints, you might want to consider if the school would even be a good fit for you. Why do you really want to go there? Are those reasons worth it? If you think so, consider writing about an economic issue, which tend to be less contentious than social issues.

For instance, you could write about the impact of monopolies because your parents own an independent bookstore that has been affected by Amazon. Or you could discuss tax breaks for companies that keep or move their production domestically, after seeing how your town changed when factories were moved abroad. Maybe tax filing is a cause you’re really passionate about, and you think the government should institute a free electronic system for all. No matter what you write about here, the key is to keep it close to home however you can.

Pick the best possible framing

When you’re writing an essay that doesn’t fully align with the political views of the school you’re applying to, you’ll want to minimize the gap between your viewpoint and that of the school. While they still might disagree with your views, this will give your essay (and therefore you) the best possible chance. Let’s say you’re applying to a school with progressive economic views, while you firmly believe in free markets. Consider these two essay options:

Option 1:  You believe in free markets because they have pulled billions out of terrible poverty in the developing world.

Option 2:  “Greed is good,” baby! Nothing wrong with the rich getting richer.

Even if you believe equally in the two reasons above personally, essay option 1 would be more likely to resonate with an admissions committee at a progressive school.

Let’s look at another, more subtle example:

Option 1:  Adding 500 police officers to the New York City public transit system to catch fare evaders allows officers to unfairly and systematically profile individuals based on their race.

Option 2:  The cost of hiring 500 additional police officers in the New York City public transit system is higher than the money that would be recouped by fare evasion.

While you might believe both of these things, a school that places a lower priority on race issues may respond better to the second option’s focus on the fallible economics of the issue.

Structuring the Essay

Depending on how long the essay prompt is, you’ll want to use your time and word count slightly differently. For shorter essays (under 250 words), focus on your personal connection rather than the issue itself. You don’t have much space and you need to make it count. For standard essays (250-500 words), you can spend about half the time on the issue and half the time on your personal connection. This should allow you to get more into the nuance. For longer essays, you can write more on the issue itself. But remember, no matter how long the essay is, they ultimately want to learn about you–don’t spend so much time on the issue that you don’t bring it back to yourself.

Want help with your college essays to improve your admissions chances? Sign up for your free CollegeVine account and get access to our essay guides and courses. You can also get your essay peer-reviewed and improve your own writing skills by reviewing other students’ essays.

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How To Write My Political Profile Essay Properly: Basic Tutorial

If you are tasked with the exciting assignment of a profile essay this means that you have the opportunity to examine a particular individual or a particular event. The profile, by definition is somewhat similar to a biography in the sense that it provides your readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

If you are struggling to create your political profile essay properly follow the tips below:

• First of all your paper should not only interview the person but have a full profile. The goal is to really create a biographical sketch that shows your readers the accomplishments of this person, the appearance of this person, the character, and behavior. When you are interviewing your political person you want to observe all of these things and ask the right questions so that you can truly answer every one of these topics.
• In order to make your profile more effective you should focus on one of the attributes which is incredibly exciting to your readers for which is very interesting. No matter your subject your goal here is to bring out the uniqueness of that political person or what is fascinating about it.
• When you interview the person you want to make sure you have the questions before the interview. Do some homework and figure out why that person is special, who they are, what they do, and where they are located. Think about interview questions that would help you investigate their accomplishments, their hobbies, or their interests in a much more effective manner. You want to observe their behavior and their appearance while also investigating new information that you can use for your thesis.
• When you start writing you want to first open with the biographical sketch that answers all of the questions your readers might have such as who they are, what they do, where they are located, and why they should care. You want to hook your readers by offering an introduction to their unique attribute and their biography.
• After this you should use the inverted pyramid to organize your information. You want to decide on the number of body paragraphs you need for this particular assignment, based on the length of your full paper. If your focal point is the unique career path that your person took then you might want to divide your body paragraphs into two or three phases of that person's career.
• Finally close with a very effective conclusion which recaps the unique high points you presented in the body of your paper.

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14 Personality Profiles of Political Elites

David G. Winter is a Professor of Psychology at the University of Michigan. Within the field of personality and social psychology, his research focuses on power and power motivation, the motivational bases of leadership, and the psychological aspects of conflict escalation and war. He is the author of Personality: Analysis and Interpretation of Lives, as well as numerous articles in professional journals. He has been president and councilor of the International Society of Political Psychology, and has received the society's Lasswell Award for scientific contributions.

• Published: 16 December 2013
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Personality can be understood as including four distinct elements: demographic characteristics and other embodied social contexts, traits, cognitions and beliefs, and implicit motives. Because political leaders and elite groups are not available for direct assessment, measuring their personalities usually requires indirect methods. This chapter reviews a variety of such at-a-distance methods for measuring the elements of personality, citing landmark studies of each: psychobiography, theory-based ratings and rating scales, and content analysis of speeches, interviews, documents, and other text material. Multivariate ways of combining or integrating the separate personality elements are also discussed. Finally, attention is given to the circumstances under which leaders’ personalities are relevant to outcomes, and the opportunities, perils, and limits of predicting political behavior from personality.

One of the central axioms of political psychology is that political outcomes are shaped and channeled by personalities of leaders and other significant elite groups—that is, by their individually patterned integration of perceptions, memories, emotional reactions, judgments, goal seeking, and choices. History, institutions, structures of allies and opponents, and the characteristics of their own people furnish opportunities and set limits on what leaders can do. However, in the end “the goals, abilities, and foibles of individuals are crucial to the intentions, capabilities, and strategies of a state” ( Byman & Pollack, 2001 , p. 109; emphasis added). As former US secretary of state Henry Kissinger put it in an interview with journalists, “as a professor, I tended to think of history as run by impersonal forces. But when you see it in practice, you see the difference personalities make” ( Isaacson, 1992 , p. 13).

Whenever an unexpected crisis develops or a new leader emerges, diplomats, military planners, and even heads of government want information about the characteristics and personalities of the key players ( Carey, 2011 ). Even journalists sometimes need assistance from psychology; thus in reviewing two biographies of Mao Zedong, Burns (2000) confessed:

For myself, I wish now that in covering China, South Africa under apartheid, the Soviet Union and wars in Afghanistan and the former Yugoslavia, among other places—scars, all, on the conscience of the 20th century—I had made fuller allowance for, or understood better, the role of wounded psyches in producing the Maos, Stalins, Vorsters, Najibullahs, Karadzics and Arkans I wrote about along the way. (p. 7)

Policymakers need personality profiles of living foreign leaders, often in urgent contexts where the usual kinds of information may be sparse, such as North Korean leader Kim Jong-un. Thus in 1960, Wedge (1968) prepared a profile on Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev for incoming US president Kennedy, while Soviet psychologists ( Egorova, 1982 ) prepared profiles of American leaders. To assist President Carter’s successful management of the Camp David summit, Post (1979) prepared profiles of Egyptian president Sadat and Israeli prime minister Begin.

Finally, policymakers prefer and often expect unambiguous answers to specific questions about leaders’ future actions. These requirements impose special constraints and obstacles on the profiler who would prefer to make “if/then” statements and probabilistic predictions in a complex and multivariate world.

In contrast, academic political psychologists are driven more by intellectual curiosity and questions of historical interest than by the needs of government policy. They are certainly interested in working out the puzzling personality dynamics of leaders from the past, but there are no longer pressing policy reasons for rushing the job. For example, Leonardo da Vinci—perhaps the first person studied by a psychologist at a distance—had been dead almost 400 years when Freud ([1910] 1957) published his landmark analysis.

For all their importance to policymakers and academic researchers, however, leaders’ personalities are not accessible to the usual psychological methods of assessment and measurement. The important leaders of history are dead and (adapting a quotation from Glad, 1973 ) they have taken their personality characteristics—Oedipus complexes, authoritarianism, or power motivation—with them. Living leaders are protected from direct intrusions of psychological inquiry, so that one cannot even imagine giving them standard personality tests, questionnaires, surveys, or even psychological interviews. For these reasons, this chapter focuses on ways of measuring leaders’ personalities indirectly, at a distance (see Winter, 2003a , for a review of the history of this academic enterprise). After a brief prologue discussing when and how personality might be expected to affect political outcomes, I survey the major methods political psychologists have employed to study the personalities of individual actors. I use a fourfold framework of the different elements or variables of personality to discuss the many specific variables commonly used in these at-a-distance studies, focusing particularly on successful leadership and conflict escalation.

1. Prologue: When Does Personality Affect Politics?

It seems easy to give examples of the effect of personality on politics: thus Woodrow Wilson lost the peace in 1919 because he negotiated ineptly, confused rhetoric with substance, and refused to compromise. Adolf Hitler set Europe aflame with a foreign policy rooted in personal pathology. The grandiose self-conceptions of Saddam Hussein and Mu’ammar al-Gaddafi brought cruel oppression to their own people and trouble to their neighbors. Perhaps driven by a “Nobel Prize complex” ( Post, 2004 , p. 269), Egypt’s Anwar Sadat was able to do the unthinkable—visiting Jerusalem and making peace with Israel. Bill Clinton’s inability to control himself jeopardized his presidential accomplishments. In each case, the intrusion of a leader’s personal appetites, needs, aspirations, fears, and obsessions shaped highly consequential public actions—in ways that were sometimes self-defeating or violently aggressive and sometimes brave and heroic. Other cases where personal characteristics of leaders clearly affected international relations outcomes are cited by Byman and Pollack (2001) , Kennedy (1982) , Hamby (1991) , and Friedlander and Cohen (1975) .

Yet even as we recognize the importance of individual leaders and their personalities, we should be cautious about neglecting the importance of constraints and opportunities in the roles and situations in which leaders operate. Thus in 1918 Americans wanted to “bring the troops home” and were reluctant to cede national sovereignty to a League of Nations, which made Wilson’s weakness a matter of position as much as personality. And whatever the role of Hitler’s personal demons in the origins of the Holocaust, without the support of many other persons and institutions (see Kershaw, 1999 ) he would have remained a failed artist haunting the streets and opera house of Vienna. Events in Iraq since the removal and execution of Saddam Hussein suggest that he was not the sole source of cruelty and oppression in that country. Even Anwar Sadat’s heroic peacemaking depended on Menachem Begin being a willing (if suspicious) counterplayer and Jimmy Carter a mediator.

Thus the scholarly terrain of this chapter is defined by two boundaries: on the one hand the naive view of political outcomes as merely the projection of leaders’ personalities, and on the other the equally simplistic view that individual personalities have no effect. Charting a course between these extremes, Greenstein ([1969] 1987 , chap. 2) and Byman and Pollack (2001) suggest that the personalities of political leaders are likely to be especially important under certain conditions: when power is concentrated; when leaders occupy strategic positions; when institutions are in conflict; when the situation is novel, ambiguous, unstable, or complex (without clear precedents, expectations, or routine role requirements); and when the situation is laden with symbolic and emotional significance. These conditions tend to hold when the leader first organizes the administrative apparatus after assuming power, during crises (especially foreign policy crises involving “enemy” nations), and whenever events pose a threat to deeply held values. For this reason, personality and political behavior studies typically involve topics such as how leaders structure their advising staff and organize the process of making decisions, how they act during escalating crises and war, and how they respond to threats.

In these situations, personality factors affect the arousal and weighting of leaders’ goals and preferences, as well as conflicts and fusions among their different goals. They affect how leaders respond to (or resist) cues, symbols, and signs; how they seek out and interpret “stimuli” and then transform them into “information.” Finally, personality affects leaders’ persistence, endurance, and management of emotions. Seen in this way, “personality” explanations do not replace “rational choice” explanations, but rather supply the coefficients necessary to fill out the abstract terms of rational choice (nature of goals, choice of maximizing strategy, information-seeking style, and time span).

2. What Is Personality?

2.1. a conception of personality.

It is easy to think of people’s personalities as a “thing”—a set of fixed qualities based on a genetic blueprint and developed by life experience. A more complex conception would recognize that people have many “possible selves”; thus “personality” ought to be viewed as an array of capacities or dispositions that may be engaged, primed, or brought forward depending on the demands of the situation and the person’s own “executive apparatus.” On this view, personality is like a personal computer: there are some relatively fixed “hardware” characteristics, but also many “software” applications, each of which can be “opened” or “closed” by the operator. Some of these applications typically run in a prominent “window” at the center of the screen; others are available in the immediate background “windows,” and a few run almost undetected in “deeper” background.

Two political examples will illustrate how this conception of personality can be useful in understanding some otherwise complicated and perplexing actions of political leaders. For example, as mentioned above, US president Woodrow Wilson is usually described as an idealistic, highly moral, and inflexible political leader—repeatedly sabotaging his goals and programs by his stubborn refusal to compromise. On the other hand, Wilson often displayed extraordinary flexibility and leadership skill, as in 1912 when he ran for governor of New Jersey as a “reform” candidate while at the same time securing the support of the state’s political bosses. George ([1971] 1987) reconciled these seemingly inconsistent styles as consistent responses (“software programs,” in the above terminology) to different situations: flexible when he was seeking power , and stubborn when he encountered opposition while exercising power . Wilson’s personality did not “change” back and forth from flexibility to inflexibility; rather, his adult personality always included both patterns, each primed by different social contexts.

The political career of Italian fascist dictator Benito Mussolini furnishes another example of situations priming different software programs. From 1922 through 1937, he “recorded an impressive string of accomplishments, including creating an empire and improving Italy economically” (N. Winter, 1992 , p. 2). After meeting with Hitler in Berlin for several days in September 1937, however, he returned to Italy a changed man—adopting Nazi policies, alienating many supporters, and ultimately ruining Italy economically and militarily. Winter suggested that meeting Hitler primed in Mussolini a pattern of “powerful and grandiose leader” (reflected in sharp increases in power motivation), crowding out his prior pattern of “achieving leader who improves things” (decreases in achievement motivation). Rather than saying that Mussolini changed, our understanding might be enhanced by viewing this sequence as the emergence of an alternative that was always present in Mussolini’s enduring personality, primed by a specific set of circumstances—a context skillfully planned and manipulated by Nazi officials ( Kershaw, 2000 , pp. 44–45).

2.2. Four Elements of Personality

What are these “software applications” of personality? Some theorists have argued that personality consists only of traits ( Allport, 1961 ) or motives ( Murray, 1938 ), but most consider that personality is made up of several fundamentally different kinds of variables ( Winter, 1996 ; see also Barenbaum & Winter, 2008 ; Winter, John, Stewart, Klohnen, & Duncan, 1998 ). For convenience, I divide personality into four elements or classes of variables, as illustrated in table 14.1 : social contexts, traits, cognitions, and motives. While some writers use the word “trait” to cover different elements—for example, power motivation, cognitive complexity, or authoritarianism—I suggest that analytic precision will be enhanced by using different words for things that are essentially different.

The four elements can be described in terms of two dimensions: ( a ) whether they are public and observable, or else “inner” and therefore inferential; and ( b ) whether they are relatively stable across situations and can therefore be described in terms of “typical” levels, or else are highly dependent on situations and contexts. (The difference is relative: probably all aspects of personality are affected to some extent by situations.) The table lists major theorists and typical personality variables associated with each element.

Social contexts include both immediate or short-term situations and also broader and enduring environments such as gender, social-economic class, race and ethnicity, culture, history, religion, family, and significant institutions such as universities, corporations, and the military. These are usually assessed from traditional sources of biographical information. Some readers may find it strange to consider social contexts as an element of personality. Usually, these contexts are conceived as marking the field on which personality plays out, rather than as dispositions within the person. While social contexts do channel the expression of personality by furnishing opportunities and constraints, they also become internalized as aspects of personality itself (see Moen, Elder, & Lüscher, 1995 ; also Winter & Stewart, 1995 ). In fact, personality can be viewed as a series or accumulation of past “embodied contexts ”; once formed, these internalizations are resistant to change (or at least harder to change than to acquire).

Traits are the public, observable element of personality, consistencies of style readily noticed by other people. They reflect the language of “first impressions,” the adjectives and adverbs of everyday language that we use to describe other people. Thus traits are usually assessed by means of observers’ ratings. (Self-reports are also widely used, but they run the danger of confounding people’s beliefs about themselves with the impressions that others have of them.) While the number of separate “traits” is only limited by the number of person-descriptors in the language ( Allport and Odbert, 1936 , identified 4,504 trait words in English), over the past few decades personality psychologists have settled on a few basic trait clusters or factors—the “Big Five”—that seem to emerge in most cultures, at least those using an Indo-European language: extraversion (or surgency), agreeableness , conscientiousness , emotional stability (or its opposite, neuroticism ), and openness to experience (but see Ashton, Lee, & Goldberg, 2004 , on the possibility of additional factors).

Cognitions include a wide variety of mental representations: beliefs, values, and attitudes; more technical psychological concepts such as categories, schemas, and models; representations of the self and “personal identity,” as well as of other people, groups, and social-political systems; and for political leaders especially beliefs about the scope and nature of politics.

Motives involve the anticipation goals, or desired end states. Over time, they organize and guide actions in pursuit of goals (or avoidance of undesired states and negative goals). Motives are latent dispositions: over time, they wax and wane in response to internal states and external opportunities. When and how any given motive is expressed depends on the perceived situation: think of the variety of ways in which we satisfy our hunger motive, depending on available food resources, the time of day, and the physical and social setting. Thus any particular motive does not always drive one consistent pattern of action. Moreover, people’s motives are often not apparent to other people (particularly if they have not observed the person over time), or even to themselves. Thus motives are implicit and are assessed through indirect means such as content analysis of imaginative texts (see Schultheiss & Bronstein, 2010 , for a review of implicit motives).

3. How Can We Measure Personality without Direct Access?

Some traditional direct methods for assessing personality apparently can be used only up to a certain level of power or prominence—for example, state legislators in the United States ( Altemeyer, 1996 )—or under unusual circumstances, such as the Rorschach testing of indicted Nazi war criminals during the Nuremberg trials ( Zillmer, Harrower, Ritzler, & Archer, 1995 ). For almost all significant living or dead political leaders, however, these methods cannot be applied. In consequence, political psychologists have developed a variety of indirect measurement techniques that can be applied at a distance.

3.1. Political Psychobiography

Assessment without access can lead to undifferentiated and unhelpful clichés, speculation (e.g., Frank, 2004 , on George W. Bush), or in extreme cases character assassination (e.g., a poll of US psychiatrists about Barry Goldwater’s fitness to be president; see Boroson, 1964 ). Several political psychologists have formulated principles of constructing political psychobiography (see Schultz, 2005 ; Renshon, 2003 ; Walter, 2007 ). Thus Greenstein ([1969] 1987 , chap. 3) described three stages of the process: (1) Identify and describe the phenomenology ; that is, the particular actions or outcomes that are to be explained by the use of psychology. Typically these are surprising and unusual actions, not explicable by the routine requirements of the leader’s role or the logic of the situation. (2) Formulate a dynamic explanation for these actions or outcomes. What psychological mechanisms can best “explain” the phenomenology? (3) As an optional further step, identify the genesis or origin of the dynamic in the leader’s childhood experiences (see Elms, 1994 ; Schultz, 2005 ; and Winter, 2003a ; but also see the critical comments by Walter, 2007 for discussions of the history, methods, and issues of psychobiography as well as extensive references).

Drawing on conceptions of personality (usually psychoanalysis, object relations theory, or the work of Erikson) and clinical experience, many psychobiographers (e.g., Post, 2004 ) often select whatever concepts seem most promising for the explanation of the person whose actions they are studying. Others draw on everyday language to design more idiographic concepts to explain particular leaders (e.g., Hargrove, 2008 ). In recent years, however, some psychobiographers have introduced systematic conceptual frameworks. In his studies of American presidents, for example, Greenstein (2009a ; 2009b ; 2013 ) identified six dimensions of analysis and comparison: communication to the public , organizational capacity , political skill , policy vision , cognitive style , and emotional intelligence . Other systematically applied concepts include level of activity and positive/negative affect ( Barber, 1992 ; see also Henderson, 2001 ), extent of desired change and breadth of scope ( Blondel, 1987 ; see also Fukai, 2001 ), and personalization of leadership ( Blondel & Thiébault, 2010 ).

3.2. Theory-Based Rating Scales

Several political psychologists have adapted some of the ordinary techniques of personality measurement to at-a-distance assessment of theoretically important leader personality characteristics. The trait domain of personality, for example, is usually measured by adjective checklists or rating scales filled out either by the person or by someone who knows that person well, as in Simonton’s (1986 , 1988 ) studies of US presidents. Rubenzer and Faschingbauer (2004) asked experts who knew a lot about presidents—115 authors of book-length presidential biographies, and authors of reference books on the presidency—to fill out standard measures of the five trait factors (the Revised NEO Personality, Costa & McCrae, 1992 ; phrases from the California Q-Sort, Block, 1961 ; 2010 ; and clusters of ordinary English adjectives, Goldberg, 1990 ).

Immelman (1993) developed a more elaborate inventory of personality ratings, based on Millon’s (1990) theoretical conception of personality as involving syndromes or prototypes—eight “normal” patterns (e.g., forceful, confident, sociable, cooperative) and corresponding “pathological” patterns (e.g., sadistic, narcissistic, histrionic, dependent). One or more people familiar with the leader codes the presence or absence of various diagnostic criteria according to a manual developed by Immelman (2004) . Millon’s theory and the specific descriptors are derived from the psychiatric Diagnostic and Statistical Manual , which means that many of its concepts reflect a medical or psychopathology orientation.

Some researchers use the Q-sort technique ( Block, 2010 ; see also Brown, 1986 ), in which knowledgeable experts are asked to sort a large number of adjectives or statements into a forced-normal distribution of several categories, ranging from “applying” to “not applying” to the leader ( Kowert, 1996 ).

3.3. Content Analysis

While past and present political leaders are not accessible to direct methods of personality measurement, they do talk , and the words of their speeches, news conferences, and often their informal remarks are preserved and archived, in great abundance. Content analysis exploits this resource and has become one of the most widely used techniques for measuring personality at a distance. The essential feature of content analysis is coding for the presence of certain categories in written text or transcriptions of verbal text. Many other kinds of documents can be scored: personal letters and diaries, diplomats’ reports and summaries, government-to-government communications, parliamentary debates, media commentary, and works of fiction.

Some sets of content analysis categories are drawn from theory (e.g., the operational code coding system; see Walker, 1990 ), whereas other are developed through experimental manipulation of the relevant personality variable (see Winter, 1998b ). Some content analysis systems can be used after minimal preparation; others require considerable training of scorers and monitoring of interscorer reliability. Many content analysis systems are applied manually (e.g., integrative complexity, see Suedfeld, Guttieri, & Tetlock, 2003 ; motive imagery, see Winter, 2003b ). Some use computer-assisted manual scoring (e.g., the Verbs in Context System developed to score operational codes; see Schafer & Walker, 2006 ; Walker et al., 2003 ). A few systems have been fully automated (e.g., the DICTION system developed by Hart, 2001 ; the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count [LIWC] system developed by Pennebaker, Booth, and Francis, 2007 ; frame analysis developed by Sanfilippo et al., 2008 ; and Leadership Trait Analysis developed by Hermann, 2003 ). Detailed discussions of methods and issues of psychological content analysis can be found in Schafer (2000) , Walker (2000) , Winter (1992) , and Winter and Stewart (1977) .

Making personality assessments of political leaders based on content analysis of their spoken or written words raises a major issue: do the results reflect the personalities of the leaders themselves or of their speechwriters? This issue has led some researchers to prefer “spontaneous” rather than “prepared” material; this distinction tends to break down as leaders are extensively prepared for “spontaneous” remarks and press conferences. Other researchers ( Winter, 2002 , pp. 46–47; Suedfeld, 2010 , pp. 1677–1678) argue that although speechwriters may draft the words and images, leaders select their speechwriters and review and edit their work. Furthermore, good speechwriters know how to adapt to the goals and style of their clients, to craft words that seem “natural” to both speaker and audience. However, as an alternative interpretation, it is possible to view the speeches (and assessments) as actually reflecting the personalities of the loose collectivity that is often called “the administration” or “the government.” For many purposes the conceptual status of assessments derived from content analysis may not be important if the resulting scores lead to accurate predictions about the leaders’ actions and political outcomes.

4. Social Contexts and Political Elites

In constructing a personality profile of any person—leader, follower, cabinet minister, diplomat, legislator, protest organizer, or voter—it is advisable to begin with a description of that person’s social contexts. Since people exist in particular social contexts, the meaning of their behavior and its diagnostic relevance cannot be fully understood without considering these contexts. Actions that to observers might appear to reflect individual personality may to the actor seem compelled by the immediate political, economic, diplomatic, or military microcontexts. More broadly, actions or words that are really characteristic of entire groups—the “macrocontext” of cultures or ethnicities, socialeconomic classes, genders, religions, or members of particular institutions—may be inappropriately taken as signs only of individual personality characteristics. Thus when studying leaders from outside one’s own country, or leaders from a variety of countries, it is even more important to begin with their social contexts.

Fortunately, the social contexts of political leaders can usually be described by drawing on accessible sources such as biographies and histories, supplemented by concepts from anthropology and sociology, gender studies, and other disciplines such as comparative religion.

4.1. Culture

Culture provides shared meanings and a shared sense of what is “normal” or “pathological.” Much of the influence of culture can be seen in language . Consider the concept of power, fundamental to any political system. The Russian language uses a single word— vlast —to mean both “power” and “authority.” Perhaps this linguistic fact is related to alleged Russian cultural themes identified by Ihanus (2001 , pp. 131–134) of absolute autocracy, the “ecstasy of submission” to charismatic leaders, and leader transition by overthrow. Shestopal (2000a , 2008 ) has used survey data to study contemporary images of power in Russia. In the Western political tradition and perhaps especially in the United States, “power” means making decisions. In China, however, power has the connotation of being spared the burden of decision-making. It is bound up with themes of patron/client dependency, consensus versus competition, and matters ethical propriety as well as practical instrumentality ( Pye & Pye, 1985 ).

Abstractions such as “honor” and “freedom” have very different meanings and importance in different cultures. In many cultures, an insult to religious or family honors “requires” aggressive public punishment or even killing. One example is the 2005 controversy about cartoons published in a Danish newspaper: Muslims found them offensive and blasphemous; to many westerners they represented freedom of expression. Nisbett and Cohen (1995) documented the existence of an aggressive “culture of honor” in the US South. In Japan, however, “honor” has a different meaning: a dishonored leader may resign or in an extreme case commit suicide.

While the every culture may have its own unique configuration, Hofstede (2001) has proposed several dimensions useful for comparing cultures, thus cultural backgrounds of different leaders: power distance (i.e., power inequality), individualism (vs. collectivism), uncertainty avoidance , future time orientation , and gendering. (Hofstede’s label is “masculinity,” but since he means differentiation between women and men in roles, socialization, and occupations, “gendering” seems a more accurate label.)

4.2. History

Every leader is from a particular nation, and every nation has constructed a particular history. Often these accounts—sometimes shrouded in the dim mists of history—are constructed around memories of defeats or other traumatic events, as Volkan (2001) points out. Thus for thousands of years, Jews have commemorated (with the traditional hope of “next year in Jerusalem”) their Exodus from oppression in Egypt. Shite Muslim history is focused on the assassination of Ali, son of the Prophet, in 661 b.c.e . The 1389 defeat at Kosovo is the defining episode of Serbian identity. In South Africa, the Great Trek of 1835–1840, in which over 10,000 Boers left Cape Colony to escape British domination, became the foundation of Afrikaans identity.

The Arab historical narrative involved rapid initial success, followed by “crusades” and defeats by the West, compounded by forced conversions and expulsions in Spain after the Reconquest ( Carr, 2009 ), and broken Allied promises of independence after World War I. The historical narrative of Armenians focuses on the genocidal events of 1915–1918. Nazi leaders fanned and then exploited German humiliation growing out of the sudden military defeat in 1918 and the Versailles Treaty. For many Palestinians, the Nakba or “catastrophe” associated with expulsions and departures during the 1947–1948 Arab-Israeli conflict is the defining trauma that has dominated their history for more than six decades (see Nets-Zehngut, 2011 ). What makes this conflict intractable is that these events are also associated with the 1948 creation of Israel, which is—for its Jewish citizens—closely related to the trauma of the 1933–1945 Holocaust.

Leaders come in a wide range of ages. Since 1900, for example, US presidents ranged from age 45 (Theodore Roosevelt) to 69 (Reagan) when they assumed office; British prime ministers from 43 (David Cameron) to 69 (Henry Campbell-Bannerman). Prime ministers of India showed an even greater age-range: 40 (Rajiv Gandhi) to 81 (Morarji Desai). Young leaders may be less experienced and mature, whereas older leaders are vulnerable to the physical and psychological effects of aging ( Post, 1980 ; see also Gilbert, 2006 ).

Perhaps even more important than chronological age, however, is the leader’s age in relation to the culture’s conception of stages of life. Erikson’s (1982) familiar framework of eight life stages, each with its own crisis and source of strength, can be applied to European and North American leaders—for which the middle-adulthood concept of generativity ( Erikson, Erikson, & Kivnick, 1986 ; McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1998 ; de St. Aubin, McAdams, & Kim, 2003 ) may be especially relevant to the study of political leaders. Other cultures, however, may have different conceptions of the human life cycle ( Kakar, 1968 ).

4.4. Generation

Generation is the intersection of individual age and collective history. Leaders are often marked by their generation—a component of social identity formed around whatever events occurred during their transition to adulthood. Mannheim ([1928] 1952) introduced “generation” as an important concept in social science (see also Kertzer, 1983 ). Stewart and Healy (1989) have elaborated the concept into a general model for understanding the effects of historical events and social trends occurring at different ages. Using survey research, Shestopal (2000b) has analyzed generational differences in Russia on key variables of political experience and perception, as shown in table 14.2 , which locates Russian leaders since the break-up of the Soviet Union in their appropriate generational row.

Russian survey results reported by Evgenieva (2008) suggest an important generational difference about what people think the boundaries of Russia “should” be. Older people would include all of the former Soviet Union; younger people would also add Finland, Poland, Turkey, Afghanistan, Mongolia, and Alaska.

4.5. Hegemony: Social Class, Ethnicity, and Discrimination

Societies are organized in hierarchies or structures of power—economic or social power, hierarchies of relative ethnic prestige, in extreme cases even the power to imprison. In the course of growing up, and then in their adult lives, leaders occupy locations in these hierarchies. The resulting experiences of hegemony —whether of being on top or being on the bottom of a power hierarchy—can play a critical role in determining a leader’s personality and future actions. For example, growing up in a privileged position at the top of a hierarchy, or even having everyday experiences of wielding power over others, may affect how a leader handles power. Power can increase the power holder’s psychological distance from “subordinate” persons and groups—creating the sense that they are not fully human. From there, it is only a short step to moral indifference and exploitation (see Kipnis, 1976 ; Winter, 2010a ).

Note: Adapted from Shestopal (2000b) .

On the other hand, experiences at the bottom of a hegemonic hierarchy can drive a variety of later responses: from sheer reactance and revenge (“fighting back”), to identification with the aggressor, or transcendence and efforts to reduce or eliminate power hierarchies. Which response leaders display may have enormous consequences for themselves and their country. For example, consider the enormous difference in the responses of Robert Mugabe and Nelson Mandela, both of whom were imprisoned for years by a white government for struggling against racial oppression. Decades after becoming leader of an independent Zimbabwe, Mugabe (2008) continued to blame Zimbabwe’s enormous economic and social problems on the original white colonizers, the British— “who planted their children here to oppress us,” “are planning to plunder our country,” and “are now using local puppets that they fund to fight us.” In contrast, Nelson Mandela assumed the office of president of a transformed South Africa with words and deeds of reconciliation ( Mandela, 1994 ): “We speak as fellow citizens to heal the wounds of the past with the intent of constructing a new order based on justice for all.”

4.6. Gender

History, age, generation, and social class are all sharply differentiated by another aspect of social context, namely gender. The impact of history, cultural conceptions of the life cycle, and the sense of generational identity are often very different for women and men. Consider how their lives and political roles might have turned out if Eleanor Roosevelt had been born 80 years later (in 1964 instead of 1884), if Margaret Thatcher had been the child of an Afghan family, or if Indira Gandhi had been born into a low-caste poor South Indian family instead of a Kashmiri Brahman family. A broad discussion of the importance of gender in political psychology can be found in Sapiro (2003) . Eagly and Carli (2007) discuss issues of gender and leadership, while Steinberg (2001 ; 2008 ) has studied particular women heads of government. Traister (2010) provides a gender perspective on the landmark 2008 US presidential campaign of Hillary Rodham Clinton.

4.7. Social Contexts of Particular Leaders

The importance of social contexts as well as the range of their variation can be demonstrated with sketches of three world leaders of major powers in the early years of the 21st century.

Vladimir Putin , president (1999–2008 and 2012–) and prime minister (1999–2000 and 2008–2012) of Russia . Although Putin was born in the former Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) in 1952, seven years after the end of World War II, the “Great Patriotic War” (as it is called in Russia) was for him an important historical context. His family lived through the terrible 900-day siege of Leningrad. Over a million Russians in that city died from starvation, freezing, or combat—including Putin’s older brother, who died of diphtheria; his father was severely injured in the fighting. Thus he was in effect an only child. Although his family was not prominent, they did have low-level family connection to the Communist regime: his grandfather had been a cook for Lenin and later Stalin, and his father did sabotage work for the NKVD (now the KGB) behind German lines. After law studies at Leningrad State University, Putin served in the KGB. He was stationed in Dresden in the former East Germany at the time of the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of East Germany.

Mariano Rajoy , prime minister of Spain (2011–) . Rajoy’s cultural and historical heritage encompasses the Golden Age of 16th-century Spain—a superpower at the center of a vast world economic and religious empire—and its subsequent decline, a vicious civil war in the 1930s, the Franco dictatorship and diplomatic isolation, and finally a return to constitutional democracy in the 1970s. His father was a judge in the Franco era, which suggests high social status, but within a now-discredited dictatorship tradition. Rajoy served in both the bureaucracy and the parliament. He said his military experience, involving cleaning duties, taught him “pride in a job well done,” and made him “a real expert” in cleaning ( Minder, 2011 ). Rajoy became prime minister in the immediate context of Spain’s severe economic difficulties and the ongoing eurozone debt crisis.

Barack Obama , president of the United States (2009–). For Obama, as the first African American president, race —with all that means in terms of history, discrimination, social change, and finally how he is perceived by majority and minority Americans—is a supremely important social context. Yet his social contexts are actually many and varied. He is of mixed race. He lived in Indonesia for four years, then from the age of 10 he lived in Hawaii with his maternal (white) grandparents. He attended colleges in California and New York, worked as a community organizer in Chicago, and then graduated from Harvard Law School. Thus by the age of 30, Obama—with cultural roots in both white America and Africa—had lived in the eastern, midwestern, and Pacific regions of the United States, as well as in Hawaii and Asia. Finally, his adult political skills were honed in the legendary crucible of the Chicago Democratic political “machine” (see Winter, 2011 ).

4.8. The Importance of Social Contexts

Social contexts were placed first and treated at length because they establish and channel other elements of personality. They can affect the levels of certain personality variables. For example, certain religious beliefs and practices, by influencing independence training or permissiveness, can affect the development of achievement or power motives ( McClelland, 1985 , pp. 255–265, 325–328). Contexts also provide networks of meanings , customs, and relationships in which personality and behavior are embedded, which determine whether actions and dispositions are considered “normal” or pathological. For example, many Americans consider extraversion to be healthy and well adjusted, but to many Chinese introversion is normal and high levels of extraversion slightly abnormal. Third, certain personality characteristics may be unique or at least widespread (thus “typical”) in certain cultures. For example, “amok” (a state of destructive, maddened excitement) in Southeast Asia and “amae” (a sense of entitled dependency) in Japan (see Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen, 1992 , pp. 89–93).

Finally, social contexts channel the expression of all personality characteristics. For example, extraversion is associated with drinking coffee and smoking—but extraverted people who are also devout Mormons are unlikely to smoke or drink coffee because these actions are proscribed by their religion. As a “thought experiment,” consider some clearly defined and familiar personality variables such as power motivation, optimistic explanatory style, extraversion, and conscientiousness. Each is associated with a recognized and characteristic set of observable behaviors. Yet imagine how differently each would have been expressed on the morning of June 6, 1944, by (1) a 20-year-old white American man storming “Utah Beach” during the World War II invasion of Normandy in France, and (2) a middle-aged Japanese American woman in an internment camp set up in the Utah desert at the beginning of the war by the US government for citizens and residents of Japanese ancestry. Clearly there would be enormous context effects on the expression of these four personality variables, such that predicting actions only from these variables would be difficult if not impossible, though a careful observer would probably be able to “recognize” expressions of the variables in the two different contexts.

Many structural and political variables also channel the expression of political leaders’ personalities: the structure of the particular political system, the array of supporting and opposing political forces, the nature and tractability of social, economic, and political issues, and the existence and nature of external enemies and allies.

5. Traits and Political Elites

Because traits can be observed in a person’s public behavior, they are encoded or represented in the adjectives and adverbs of everyday language. As a result, most traits can be assessed by asking those who know the person. As mentioned above, the current consensus in personality research is that trait terms cluster into five factors—often called the “Big Five” (see Wiggins, 1996 ). While the five factors are fairly robust across Indo-European languages ( McCrae & Costa, 1997 ), some differences do emerge in studies based on languages such as Mandarin, especially when the researchers begin with indigenous adjectives rather than translations of imported words (see, for example, Cheung, Zhang, & Cheung, 2010 ). Table 14.3 presents the most common labels for the five trait factors, along with a brief description of politically relevant behaviors of people who score high and low on each factor.

5.1. Measuring Traits at a Distance

To measure traits at a distance, many political psychologists use raters—sometimes experts, sometimes college undergraduates, sometimes simply “raters.” Expert raters—those with extensive knowledge of the person or persons to be rated—are asked to draw on their knowledge. Less knowledgeable raters are usually supplied with standardized information or biographical sketches on which to base their ratings, as in the work of Simonton (1986 ; 1988 ). In the research of Rubenzer and Faschingbauer (2004) cited above, only openness to experience was significantly related to presidential success (as rated by historians in a prior study by Murray and Blessing, 1994 ), while extraversion showed a positive but nonsignificant trend. Perhaps there are many different styles of successful leadership. Alternatively, variation in other personality characteristics, as well as the situations, problems, and opportunities leaders face, may wash out the effects of broad trait factors.

Leaders’ traits can also be assessed by analyzing how other people describe them, using everyday conversational or written language (see Winter, 1996 , pp. 481–485, for an example). While it may be cumbersome to assemble a panel of experts to fill out personality questionnaires about leaders, for most leaders there is no shortage of descriptions by people who know and observe them—associates, friends, rivals, clients, enemies, journalists, and of course historians. The first step in such an analysis is to extract adjectives and adverbs that are described as “characteristic” or “typical” of the person. The contribution of each word or phrase to the leader’s “score” on any given trait factor can be determined by tables that group adjectives into the five trait factors (see Goldberg, 1990 ; 1992 ; also Ashton et al., 2004 , for factor loadings of 1,719 English descriptor root words, and Lee & Ashton, 2008 , for loadings of 449 English adjectives). Descriptions drawn from ordinary language can also be mapped on the three factors of descriptive meaning (evaluation, potency, and activity) identified by Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum (1957) by using the tables in Heise (1965) .

The five-factor model of traits is intended as a universal framework applicable to all persons, leaders and ordinary people alike. Some political psychologists have identified and measured more specific traits especially relevant to leadership and political elites. As discussed above, Greenstein and Barber each developed their own list of characteristics relevant to the performance of US presidents. Sigelman (2002) developed a content-analysis measure of Barber’s “activity-passivity” dimension. Other political psychologists have adapted conventional psychological traits and concepts to at-a-distance measurement: for example, charismatic style ( House, Spangler, & Woycke, 1991 ), proactivity ( Deluga, 1998 ), and rigidity versus pragmatism ( Keller, 2009 ). Simonton (2006) reported measures of IQ, “intellectual brilliance,” and openness to experience of US presidents.

5.2. Traits as Perceived by Other Leaders

Do the five trait factors identified by psychologists have anything to do with the actual language that political leaders actually use to describe other leaders? Swede and Tetlock (1986) studied the memoirs of Henry Kissinger, former US national security adviser and secretary of state under presidents Nixon and Ford. First, they extracted Kissinger’s descriptions of several other leaders. Then, rather than simply “mapping” the adjectives that Kissinger used to describe each leader onto the five-factor framework, as discussed in the previous paragraph, they used clustering procedures to identify the implicit dimensions that Kissinger himself used to describe other leaders. The results, presented in table 14.4 , show that he did indeed use five clusters or factors. Some seem close to the standard five factors; others involved combinations of two or more factors. Swede and Tetlock then used their analysis to show how Kissinger described individual leaders, differentiated among different leaders, and organized leaders into implicit types. This technique suggests a way of assessing the cognitive dimensions of leaders’ person-perceptions.

As a limitation broad trait factors, it is worth noting that when Kissinger described leaders he knew really well, he used exquisitely subtle and differentiated phrases that go well beyond trait factors. For example, he described former French president Charles de Gaulle as having “the natural haughtiness of a snow-capped Alpine peak,” and former US president Lyndon Johnson as a “caged eagle” ( Swede & Tetlock, 1986 , p. 641).

5.3. Problems with Trait Descriptions of Leaders

Rubenzer and Faschingbauer (2004) described US president Abraham Lincoln as scoring high on openness to experience and low on emotional stability. These scores were based on biographers’ judgments, which were in turn based on their knowledge of the facts of Lincoln’s life. In other words, the trait “scores” are really summary descriptions of Lincoln’s consistent public behavior. If we then use these scores to explain specific Lincoln behaviors—for example, that some neurotic action, such as calling off his initial engagement with Mary Todd, was “caused” by Lincoln’s low emotional stability—we are in danger of circular reasoning.

Note: Based on Swede and Tetlock (1986) .

Furthermore, does a trait-factor description of Lincoln, for all its “scientific” basis, really tells us anything about him that we didn’t already know—that he was curious and read widely, and that he suffered inner torments? And wouldn’t such a description apply to a very large number of people in the United States—calculating from his percentile scores and the size of the US population, perhaps over 300,000 in Lincoln’s time and 3 million in the second decade of the 21st century? We have surely not achieved any deep understanding of Lincoln’s personality by analyzing his trait factors. As McAdams (1992) wrote, the five-factor trait model uses the language of first impressions and provides only the “psychology of the stranger.” It is a useful starting point in describing Lincoln to someone who doesn’t know him, but there must be more to the personality of Abraham Lincoln or any other leader.

6. Cognitions and Political Elites

The cognitions of personality include specific and general beliefs (what is the case) and values (what ought to be; what is worth struggling and sacrificing to get or keep). Beliefs involve conceptions of human nature, morality, society, and the world order, as well as images of the self, one’s associates, the nation, and the international system. Cognitions have both content (particular beliefs and values) and structure (how the individual cognitive elements are arranged and integrated).

6.1. Operational Code

One of the most widely used cognitive variables in elite personality profiles is the operational code . The concept was originally introduced by Leites (1951) as a way of organizing his Cold War–era study of Soviet leaders in terms of a “code” or set of operational rules that could supply coherent explanations of the Soviet behavior. George (1969) reframed the concept in terms of two kinds of beliefs: philosophical beliefs about the nature of political life (harmony or conflict), the predictability of the future, optimism versus pessimism, and the relative influence of human control versus chance on outcomes; and instrumental beliefs about selecting goals (maximizing or satisfying), tactics in pursuit of these goals (words versus deeds, rewards versus sanctions), and controlling risks. Walker and his colleagues ( Schafer & Walker, 2006 ; Walker et al., 2003 ) have further refined the concept and developed methods of measuring operational codes through content analysis of texts, culminating in the quantitative computer-assisted Verbs In Context System (VICS), which calculates quantitative measures of operational code components as well as overall patterns ( Schafer, 2000 ).

Using VICS, several researchers have constructed operational codes for leaders such as British prime ministers Margaret Thatcher ( Crichlow, 2006 ) and Tony Blair ( Schafer & Walker, 2001 ), US presidents George W. Bush ( Renshon, 2008 ; Robison, 2006 ), Theodore Roosevelt, and Woodrow Wilson ( Walker & Schafer, 2007 ), Cuban leader Fidel Castro and North Korean leader Kim Il Sung ( Malici & Malici, 2005 ), leaders of the People’s Republic of China ( Feng, 2006 ), and terrorists ( Lazarevska, Sholl, & Young, 2006 ). The usefulness of the operational code concept is not restricted to political leaders: thus Thies (2006) analyzed bankers during the 1997–1999 Asian financial crisis.

Other researchers have studied variation of operational codes within individual political leaders; for example, the difference between John F. Kennedy’s “public” and “private” operational codes during the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis ( Marfleet, 2000 ; see also Renshon, 2009 ), differences across domains ( Walker & Schafer, 2000 ), and consistency over time ( Schafer & Crichlow, 2000 ; Dille, 2000 ).

6.2. Cognitive Complexity

The cognitive elements of personality include not only the content of specific beliefs, but also how they are arranged. Do leaders process information in simplistic ways, focusing only on a single perspective or black-and-white alternatives; or do they recognize different points of view and integrate them into broader complex perspectives? The content analysis measure of integrative complexity developed by Suedfeld and his colleagues ( Suedfeld, 2010 ; Suedfeld et al., 2003 ) reflects these two processes of differentiation and integration . Suedfeld suggests that integrative complexity can reflect stable individual differences among leaders, but also more variable states brought on by external factors such as threats, dangers, and time pressure, as well as internal factors such as stress or emotional arousal.

Researchers have studied integrative complexity in several different groups of political leaders: members of the British House of Commons ( Tetlock, 1984 ); Canadian prime ministers ( Suedfeld, Conway, & Eichhorn, 2001 ), US presidents ( Thoemmes & Conway, 2007 ) and Supreme Court justices ( Tetlock, Bernzweig, & Gallant, 1985 ), traditionalist and reformist Soviet politicians during the 1980s ( Tetlock & Boettger, 1989 ), Soviet and American foreign policy elites during the 1970s and early 1980s ( Tetlock, 1985 ), and successful versus unsuccessful revolutionaries ( Suedfeld and Rank, 1976 ). Specific individuals whose levels of integrative complexity have been assessed include Saddam Hussein ( Suedfeld, 2003 ), Soviet president Gorbachev ( Wallace, Suedfeld, & Thachuk, 1996 ), British prime ministers Neville Chamberlain ( Walker & Watson, 1994 ) and Winston Churchill ( Tetlock & Tyler, 1996 ), and US presidents Barack Obama ( Suedfeld, Cross, & Brcic, 2011 ) and Bill Clinton ( Suedfeld, 1994 ; Suedfeld & Tetlock, 2003 ). Suedfeld, Leighton, and Conway (2006 ) reported a parallel study of British prime minister Neville Chamberlain and German Führer Adolf Hitler during the fateful negotiations for the Munich agreement of 1938. Perhaps because of his ambivalence about reconciling conflicting imperatives of “standing up” to the Nazi leader and yet avoiding war, Chamberlain’s level of complexity was almost twice as high as that of the single-minded and relentless Hitler. The Munich example suggests that high integrative complexity does not always lead to good decisions and political success. (Shakespeare’s Hamlet was arguably too complex for his own good!)

6.3. Explanatory Style

How people explain events—particularly bad events and outcomes—reflects their balance of optimism and pessimism and may affect how long they persist after failure. Peterson, Seligman, and their colleagues (see Peterson, 1992 ) developed a measure of optimistic explanatory style based on explaining bad outcomes as the result of external (versus internal), specific (versus global), and temporary (versus enduring) factors. Among major world leaders, such optimism is associated with crisis escalation and aggression ( Satterfield & Seligman, 1994 ; Satterfield, 1998 ), perhaps because it renders leaders vulnerable to misperceptions typically associated with starting wars (see White, 1990 ). More broadly, optimistic people are more comfortable with rejecting the status quo in ordinary politics ( Niven, 2000 ). For US presidential candidates, optimism tends to predict victory ( Zullow & Seligman, 1990 ).

6.4. Specific Cognitive Variables

Authoritarianism . The concept of authoritarianism is one of the most widely studied personality variables. It involves a set of beliefs about power, morality, and the social order, emphasizing obedience to authorities and the norms of conventional morality, as well as aggression toward those who are perceived as “different.” Authoritarianism is measured by a self-report questionnaire, usually Altemeyer’s (1996) measure of rightwing authoritarianism , which has replaced the classic but flawed F-scale originally developed by Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson, & Sanford (1950) . The concept of authoritarianism is undoubtedly relevant to the study of many political elites and leaders. Judging by their actions, for example, it seems quite likely that among leaders of the former Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev would have scored lower in authoritarianism than his predecessor Leonid Brezhnev, and Nikita Khrushchev (at least after 1953) lower than Joseph Stalin (see Naumov, 2000 ). However, without a validated at-a-distance measure, we cannot be sure. Molano and Winter (1998) used three content analysis measures developed by Hermann (1980b) —ethnocentrism, low cognitive complexity, and distrust—as a proxy measure for authoritarianism in their study of ethnopolitical war.

Cognitions related to the self . Self-esteem or self-confidence is an important feature of the self-concept. People will sometimes go to extraordinary lengths to preserve a high estimation of themselves along whatever dimensions are important to them and their culture. Threats to that self-esteem may be felt as an insult, requiring retaliation. Thus upon learning about the Soviet missiles in Cuba, John F. Kennedy responded with startled anger: “He can’t do that to me !” ( Neustadt & Allison, 1971 , p. 122). Shortly thereafter, he told his advisers that “we’re going to take out these missiles.” Fortunately for the peace of the world, however, Kennedy’s cooler instincts prevailed and war was avoided. In February 2011, as NATO forces launched air attacks on his military forces, Libyan leader Mu’ammar al-Gaddafi(2011) made extravagant public claims: Referring to himself as “a fighter” who would “die a martyr at the end,” he claimed that “I am an international leader and millions defend me. I will extend a call to millions from the Sahara to the Sahara and we will march, I and the millions, to cleanse Libya inch by inch.” Sometimes the maintenance of self-esteem pushes the leader to suicide. In April 1945, as the Red Army was conquering Berlin, Adolf Hitler (1945) decided to stay in the German capital and kill himself, “in order to escape the disgrace of deposition or capitulation” and because “I do not wish to fall into the hands of an enemy who requires a new spectacle.”

In extreme cases, grandiose self-images, along with lack of empathy and rage in the face of frustration of self are signs of narcissistic disorder and “malignant narcissism” ( Post, 1993a ), concepts drawn from psychoanalytic theory (especially the work of Kohut, 1985 ). Narcissism is clearly relevant to the understanding of many leaders— perhaps especially as they age ( Post, 1993b ). For example, Mao Zedong ( Sheng, 2001 ) was a highly successful strategist during his early and middle years, but as his grandiosity increased in his midsixties, he overestimated resources and ignored difficulties. The result was a series of ill thought-out and unrealistic plans, such as the breakneck industrialization of the “Great Leap Forward” of 1958–1960 or the Taiwan Straits crisis of 1958. The inevitable failures increased his paranoia and grandiosity, culminating in the Cultural Revolution of 1966–1976.

More quantitative content analysis measures have been developed for narcissism ( Deluga, 1997 ) and the related “normal” concept of self-confidence ( Hermann, 1980b ). Schütz (1993 ; 2001 ) developed content analysis measures of the related concepts of assertive, aggressive, and defensive styles of self-presentation to analyze German political leaders of the 1990s.

Values . Values are those goals or standards of judgment that people refer to as if selfevidently desirable ( White, 1951 , p. 13). Because values are consciously endorsed and held, they are usually measured by asking people directly, for example with the widely used Schwartz Value Inventory (1992) . However, White developed a content analysis system for scoring 50 values in written or spoken text. Eckhardt (1965) applied this system to political speeches and documents, and Eckhardt and White (1967) used it to compare value profiles of Khrushchev and Kennedy. More recently, Smith (2004) adapted White’s coding system in a study comparing matched terrorist and nonterrorist groups and leaders (see also Smith, Suedfeld, Conway, & Winter, 2008 ).

7. Implicit Motives and Political Elites

Motives involve tendencies to approach desired goals or end-states, or avoid undesired or feared end-states. While the number of different human goals is potentially without limit, many psychologists have followed Murray (1938) in identifying 20 broad classes of goals as able to account for the major trends or strivings in people’s lives. Drawing on theory and a variety of studies, Winter (1996 , chaps. 4 and 5) argued that Murray’s “catalog” of motives can be represented in spatial terms, organized by three dimensions of motivated behavior —achievement (forward/backward), affiliation (near/far), and power (up/down).

Since the best way to reach a goal depends on the opportunities and obstacles at the moment, any particular goal is likely to be associated with a wide variety of different actions, depending on the situation. (In contrast, traits involve consistency of action across situations.) Moreover, motives often operate at an implicit or even unconscious level: partly because of social desirability and defense mechanisms, but also because people may not attend to or verbalize the long-term trends of their actions. When asked about their motives, people often reply with cognitions or beliefs about what led them to act. For these reasons, implicit motives are usually measured through content analysis of verbal or written texts, using empirically derived scoring systems (see Winter, 1994 ; 1998b ; 2003b ; also Smith, 1992 ).

7.1. Studies of Political Leaders

Using content analysis of speeches, interviews, and other texts, researchers have studied the achievement, affiliation, and power motives of several key groups of US political leaders: presidents ( Winter, 2002 ) and presidential candidates ( Winter, 1995 ), Supreme Court justices ( Aliotta, 1988 ), and state governors ( Ferguson & Barth, 2002 ). Other studies produced motive profiles of southern Africa political leaders in the 1970s ( Winter, 1980 ), candidates in the 1996 Russian presidential election ( Valenty & Shiraev, 2001 ), key figures in the Northern Ireland peace talks that led to the 1998 Good Friday Agreement ( Valenty & Carroll, 2002 ), and matched terrorist and nonterrorist groups ( Smith, 2008 ; see also Smith et al., 2008 ). Hermann included an adaptation of the power and affiliation motive measures in her studies of world leaders ( Hermann, 1980b ), members of the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in the 1970s ( Hermann, 1980a ), and sub-Saharan Africa leaders ( Hermann, 1987 ).

Several studies have constructed motive profiles of individual leaders in order to understand their past actions or make predictions about future actions. Thus Winter and Carlson (1988) used the motive profile of former US president Richard Nixon to resolve several of the apparent paradoxes of his political career. For example, his changing political beliefs (“almost populist” during college, conservative “Redhunter” as a new member of Congress in 1947, and presidential guest of Communist Chinese leader Mao Zedong in 1972) arguably reflect the tendency of people who, like Nixon, score high in achievement motivation to modify their actions on the basis of feedback. And his bizarre behavior on the night of May 8–9, 1970—an aggressive press conference, followed by 51 telephone calls and finally a 4:30 a.m. visit to protesting college students at the Lincoln Memorial—can be understood as a reflection of his very high affiliation motive finally prevailing over his more moderate level of power motivation. Winter (1998a) related the increase of Bill Clinton’s level of power motivation (relative to achievement) to the dramatic turnaround of his political fortunes from the early years of his first term to his landslide re-election in 1996. Hermann produced a profile of former Syrian president Hafiz al-Assad ( Hermann, 1988 ). Suedfeld, Bluck, Ballard, and Baker-Brown (1990) analyzed the motives and integrative complexity of rival party leaders in Canadian general elections from 1945 to 1974. More recently, Winter analyzed motives and made predictions about George W. Bush (2001; 2005) and Barack Obama (2009; 2011; 2012).

Overall, these studies suggest that leaders scoring high in power motivation are inclined toward strong, forceful actions; as a result, they may be charismatic to their followers ( House et al., 1991 ), but aggressive and warlike to opponents ( Winter, 1980 ; 1987 ; 2004 ). Affiliation-motivated leaders, in contrast, are more peaceable and cooperative—so long as they are surrounded by like-minded others, and do not feel threatened. Achievement motivation, which is usually associated with entrepreneurial success, does not appear to make for success in politics, particularly if it is higher than power motivation ( Winter, 2010b ). Achievement-motivated leaders tend to become frustrated by some many inherent features of political life: for example, one leader’s conception of “the best” is likely to be disputed or opposed by others, it will likely cost too much, and its implementation usually depends on bureaucrats whom the leader did not select and cannot dismiss.

7.2. Leader-Society Motive Congruence

Several studies have examined the relationship between motives of a leader (measured through content analysis of speeches) and motives of that leader’s society (measured through content analysis of popular literature). Winter (1987 ) found that the closer the president’s motive profile to that of US society at the time, the higher that president’s margin of victory—thus supporting theories of leadership that emphasize psychological congruence between leaders and followers. Ethington (2001) found a similar relationship in a study of short-term fluctuations of candidate speeches and polling data during the 2000 US presidential campaign. Schmitt and Winter (1998) studied leaders and society in the Soviet Union between 1924 and 1986 and found a different kind of leader-society congruence: the motive profile of Soviet society came to resemble that of the leader during the years after the leader’s accession.

8. Toward a Multivariate, Integrative Study of Personality

While personality researchers are still looking for the ideal research strategy and statistical algorithms for dealing with the complexity of personality, one general guideline seems important: if personality comprises different independent elements, it follows that the most complete personality assessments and the most accurate predictions from personality to political behavior will use combinations of multiple variables, preferably reflecting the four elements of personality described in this chapter.

As an example, Hermann (2003) developed a method for assigning leaders to one of six integrated orientations on the basis of their scores on several different motivational, cognitive, and trait-style component variables. Hermann’s system has been used in numerous comparative studies: world leaders ( Hermann, 1980a ), Soviet Politburo members during the mid-1970s ( Hermann, 1980b ), British and German prime ministers ( Kaarbo, 2001 ; Kaarbo & Hermann, 1998 ), British leaders’ decisions to stay out of Vietnam but participate in the Iraq war ( Dyson, 2007 ), Lyndon Johnson and the Vietnam war ( Preston & t’Hart, 1999 ), and former Iranian president Khatami ( Taysi & Preston, 2001 ).

Another promising development is the appearance of collaborative studies, in which different political psychologists join together—employing their own methods for studying leaders and elites at a distance—to produce an integrative profile. For example, Winter, Hermann, Weintraub, and Walker (1991b ; 1991a ) applied their own methods of personality measurement to make comparative assessments of US president George H. W. Bush and Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev. Post (2003) brought together a group of political psychologists who carried out parallel and comparative assessments of Bill Clinton and Saddam Hussein, using their different methods and measures (political personal profiling, verbal behavior assessment, scoring for motive imagery and integrative complexity, operational code analysis, and Hermann’s multivariate profiling). As mentioned above, Smith et al. (2008) used their individual content analysis measures to compare terrorist and nonterrorist groups. Expanded versions of these studies were published in 2011 in a special issue of Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict (volume 4, issue 2).

9. The Future of At-a-Distance Assessment: A Lesson in Humility

With the growing use of digitally based systems for the analysis of verbal content, we may expect that computerized scoring procedures for many more personality characteristics will be developed in the future, although on account of the incredible subtlety and complexity of human language, such goals may be farther away and more difficult to achieve than “cyber-optimists” imagine.

At the same time, we must recognize that even with the best measures, predictions of political leaders’ behavior must always be phrased in contingent or conditional, “if/then” terms ( Wright & Mischel, 1987 ; 1988 ). For example, Winter et al. (1991b) described George H. W. Bush as a “peacemaker, concerned with development and not prone to seek political ends through violence and war” (p. 237). Yet during the autumn of 1990 Bush threatened military action against Iraq, and in January 1991, this affiliation-motivated president began a devastating (if mercifully short) war. Of course the proximate cause of Bush’s aggressive policy was the August 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, which certainly could not have been predicted from any knowledge of Bush’s personality. That conceded, however, many features of Bush’s policy and conduct of the war can be derived from the personality portrait sketched by Winter et al. (1991b) : impulsivity, angry, and defensive reactions to perceived threat, demonizing dissimilar others, and alliance-building with similar others via extensive communication.

The effects of leaders’ personalities always depend on the situations in which they find themselves—and by itself personality profiling cannot precisely predict those situations. Nevertheless, in most situations we can trace the effects of personality. Perhaps a certain amount of humility is appropriate to the task of profiling leaders and elite groups, with predictions “conditionally hedged,” to take account of unpredictable changes in the situation.

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Profile Essays: Overview

Introduction to the profile essay.

The purpose of a profile is to give the reader new insight into a particular person, place, or event. The distinction between a profile and, for example, a memoir or a biography is that a profile relies on newly acquired knowledge. It is a first-hand account of someone or something as told by the writer. You have probably read profiles of famous or interesting people in popular magazines or newspapers. Travel and science publications may profile interesting or unusual places. All of these are, in effect, observation essays. A curious writer gathers as much information as s/he can about a subject, and then presents it in an engaging way. A good profile shows the reader something new or unexpected about the subject.

Dialogue, description, specific narrative action, and vivid details are all effective means of profiling your subject. Engage your reader’s senses. Give them a sense of what it’s like to be in a particular place. Try to show your reader what’s behind the scenes of a familiar place or activity, or introduce them to someone unique.

A profile is not strictly objective. Rather than merely reporting facts, a profile works to create a dominant impression. The focus of a profile is on the subject, not on the writer’s experience. However, the writer is still “present” in a profile, as it is s/he who selects which details to reveal and decides what picture they want to paint. It is the writer’s job to use the information and writing strategies that best contribute to this dominant impression, which was a concept discussed in the narrative introduction as well.

Above all, a profile should have a clear angle. In other words, there should be an idea or purpose guiding it. Why do you think your subject is something other people will be interested in reading about? What is the impression you hope to convey? The answer to these questions will help you discover your angle.

Writing Strategies for Profiles

Conducting research.

Observation

The best way to conduct research about your subject is to observe it firsthand. Once you have decided on a topic, you should spend some time gathering information about it. If you decide to profile a place, pay a visit to it and take notes. Write down everything you can; you can decide later whether or not it’s relevant. If you have a smartphone, take pictures or make recordings to refer to later. Most people think of observing as something you do with your eyes, but try to use of all of your senses. Smells, sounds, and sensations will add texture to your descriptions. You may also spend time observing your subject at his/her work or in different contexts. Again, write everything down so you don’t forget the key details. Remember, it’s the specific details that will distinguish the great profiles from the merely proficient ones.

Interviewing If you choose to profile a person, you will want to conduct an interview with him/her. Before doing so, plan what you are going to ask. You probably have a good idea of why this person will be a good subject for a profile, so be sure your questions reflect that. Saying “tell me about yourself” is unlikely to get your subject talking. Saying, “tell me what it was like to be the first person in your family to go to college,” will get a much more specific answer.

Organizing your profile Once you have gathered all of your information, it’s time to start thinking about how to organize it. There are all different ways to write a profile, but the most common organizational strategies are chronological, spatial, and topical. Most profiles are some combination of the three.

Chronological order  is presenting details as they happened in time, from start to finish. A chronological profile of a person might talk about their past, work up to their present, and maybe even go on to plans for the future. A chronological profile of an event might begin and end when the event itself does, narrating the events between in the order they happened. If you’re profiling a place, a chronological profile might begin with your first impressions arriving there and end with your departure. The advantage to writing in chronological order is that your writing will unfold naturally and transition easily from start to finish. The disadvantage, though, is that strict chronological order can get tedious. Merely recounting a conversation or experience can be dry, and can also pull focus from the subject onto the writer’s experience.

Spatial organization  is presenting information as it occurs in space or by location. This is a great choice if you’re writing about a place. Think of it as taking your reader on a tour: from room to room of a house, for example. For an event, you might move your reader from place to place. If you are writing about a concert, for instance, you might describe the venue from the outside, then the seating area, then the stage. Spatial organization can even work for a person, depending on your focus. Try profiling a person at home, work, and school, for example.

Topical organization  is just what it sounds like: one topic at a time. Think first of what you want to say about a person or place and organize details and information by subject. A profile of a person might talk about their home life, their work, and their hobbies. A topical profile of a place might focus on the physical space, the people who inhabit it, its historical significance, etc. Look at the information you gather from observation and/or interviewing and see if any topics stand out, and organize your paper around them. Most profiles are some combination of chronological, spatial, and topical organization. A profile might begin with a chronological narrative of a hockey game, and then flashback to provide some background information about the star player. Then it might go on to talk about that player’s philosophy of the sport, returning to the narrative about the game later on. As you read the sample essays, notice how the writers choose details and arrange them in order to create a specific impression.

Using description Vivid descriptions are key in a profile. They immerse your reader in the subject and add texture and depth to your writing. However, describing something is more than deploying as many adjectives as possible. In fact, the best descriptions may not have any adjectives at all. They rely instead on sensory detail and figurative language. Sensory detail is exactly what it sounds like: appealing to as many of the reader’s senses as possible. Adjectives can be vague, and even subjective. Think about this example:

“My grandmother always smelled good.”

What does good mean? What does good smell like? Do we even agree on what kinds of things smell good? Instead, try this:

“My grandmother always smelled good: like Shalimar, Jergen’s lotion, and menthol cigarettes.”

Now your reader knows much more. Perhaps they are even familiar enough with those scents that they can imagine what that combination would smell like. Moreover, you have delivered some emotional information here. Not every reader would agree that the smell of cigarettes is “good,” but perhaps that smell is comforting to you because you associate it so strongly with someone you care about. Of course, smell is not the only sense you can appeal to. Sights, sounds, temperatures and tastes will also enliven your writing.

Figurative language can add depth and specificity to your descriptions. Use metaphors, similes, comparisons and images creatively and purposefully. Consider the following:

“She was so beautiful.”

“Beautiful” just doesn’t tell us much. It is, like “good,” both vague and subjective. We don’t all have the same standards of beauty, nor is beauty one particular quality. Try a comparison instead:

“She was so beautiful that conversation stopped every time she entered a room.”

True, we don’t know much about what she looks like, but we do know that nearly everyone finds her striking.

Similes (comparisons using like or as) are not only efficient, but are also more vivid than adjectives. Compare these two sentences:

“He was short and muscular.”   vs.   “He was built like a bulldog.”

Write With Clarity

Considering point of view Because a profile is a first-hand account, you will need to consider point of view carefully. Many profiles are written entirely in third person. Others use first person. Different instructors may have different expectations, so be sure to consult your assignment guidelines to see what your options are. In a third-person profile, the writer is not “present” in the writing. S/he does not refer to his/her own actions or use first-person pronouns, but is more of an objective observer or “fly on the wall.” Most journalistic profiles are written from this point of view. The advantage of using third person is that it places your subject firmly at the center of your paper. In a first-person profile, the writer is an active participant, sharing his/her observations with the reader. First person narration closes the distance between writer and reader and makes the subject feel more personal. On the downside, it can pull focus from your subject. If you use first person, be sure you’re not intruding on your subject too much or making the piece about you.

Using appropriate verb tense Often, profiles will be written in present tense. This gives the reader the sense that s/he is “there,” experiencing the subject along with the writer. Present tense lends a sense of immediacy and intimacy that past tense may not. It may also help the writer stay focused on the “here and now,” rather than reflecting on the past, as s/he might in a memoir. Other times, writers may need to shift tenses to talk about previous events or background information. Be sure to use verb tenses carefully, shifting only purposefully, correctly, and when the subject demands it. You can read more on tense shifts here.

Finding a topic and an angle Virtually anything can be the subject of a profile. What matters is that you have something to say about it. People are an endless source of material; everyone has a story. Make a list of people you know who

– have lived through important historical events: war, the civil rights era, the Depression, etc. – have been through challenging experiences: survived a major health crisis, difficult childhood, etc. – have an unusual job or hobby, or special talent or skill. – have unique personalities: they are eccentric, funny, selfless, energetic, artistic, etc.

Places can be equally interesting. Consider a local establishment, a natural wonder, a festival or celebration, a landmark, a museum, a gathering place, etc. What makes that place interesting and worth visiting? What makes it special or noteworthy?

Don’t just think about what you want to write about; instead, think about what you want to say about it. Why is it interesting to you, and why might your audience find it worth reading about?

Student Paper Rationale

For an assignment to write a profile essay, Joshua Dawson described his purpose and audience: “This essay is about my grandmother and how she overcame the hardships of life. [. . .] The purpose of this essay is to show how a woman can be tough and can take anything life throws at her. I hope the essay reaches students who have a single parent and those who don’t know what a single parent goes through.” Joshua showed a clear idea of what he wanted his essay to do.

Sources Used to Create This Chapter

The majority of the content for this section has been adapted from the following OER Material:

• Write What Matters by Liza Long and Amy Minervini, and Joel Gladd, which was published under a CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Starting the Journey: An Intro to College Writing Copyright © by Leonard Owens III; Tim Bishop; and Scott Ortolano is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

How to write an essay on political topics

Is a political essay your next challenge at a higher educational establishment? Do you like dealing with political essays? Some students adore disputing about modern government and political relationships between different countries. Even so, there is a category of students for whom any topic related to the behavior of politicians or political activity is just a first nightmare. If you are one of them, then you should make yourself familiar with our guidelines which will help you create powerful and effective political essays.

What You Should Consider Choosing a Topic

In sober fact, the success of your essay is contingent on the topic you select. Nevertheless, there is a category of students who adore writing and can creatively cover absolutely any theme. If you aren’t one of them and you only start developing your writing skills, you should think twice before you scope out a particular theme. Firstly, you need to bear in mind any theme you are going to develop in your essay should be based on proved facts. Otherwise stated, you need to select powerful resources and base your writing on them. The area of political science is very broad, and one particular theme can touch lots of other aspects as well. Secondly, it is better when the theme is well familiar to you. In this scenario, there are more chances that you will cover it successfully. Nevertheless, if you have a desire to explore the unfamiliar theme and you’ll bet you can cover it, you shouldn’t limit yourself. If you are a newbie in this area, you also shouldn’t take too broad topics. The length of an essay is usually limited. Thus, you won’t cover it! For that reason, it is better to prefer narrow themes.

What Problems Do Students Usually Face

As well as any other type of academic assignment , this one is also not easy (especially for newbies). Usually, students face the following challenges: • I haven’t the foggiest idea where to start and what argument I should cover first. • How to structurize the facts to create a clear and coherent argument? • How to air my opinion correctly? The key goal of our guideline is to help colleges get through all these issues and cope with this creative task productively.

Tips on Writing

Below, you can find several crucially important tips which will help you meet this challenge and create a worthy essay. In very deed, when you are aware of all aspects that should be taken into consideration, it will be easier to work on this task and focus on really significant things: • Organize your work. This is a key formula for success. When you finally received a topic from your teacher (or chose it by yourself), you should organize your thoughts and finally decide what aspects should be mentioned in your essay. • Sketch out an outline . This is just another step forward. In very deed, a brief outline will help you to form a clear idea of what you are going to mention. • Try to use simple terms to explain complicated notions. If this is a university or college essay, there is no need to use hard-hitting questions or notions. Following this recommendation, you will simplify your work. Your targeted audience will understand what you wanted to tell. • Form your opinion. This is the hidden purpose of any essay – to teach students to air their opinions regarding the given topic. This is an extremely useful skill which will help you build your career in the future. These simple essays allow you to form this habit. Writing a conclusion, you need to add a sophisticated opinion which supports your arguments.

Though political themes are very serious ones and this kind of assignment is not the place where you can show your sense of humor, you should try to stay creative! Your professor will immediately notice your creative manner of writing. Those works that have an original insight are more interesting than traditional ones!

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• 140 Sociology Essay Topics
• 140 Opinion Essay Topics
• 140 Environmental Essay Topics
• 135 Controversial Essay Topics
• 125 Classification and Division Essay Topics
• 120 Literary Essay Topics
• 100 Profile Essay Topics
• 90 Heart of Darkness Essay Topics
• 80 Holocaust Essay Topics

Testimonials

Published Essays

Border Lines and Border Regions, Political and Personal (2016) My Return to Israel (2005) Jerusalem Again: A Personal Political Journey (2004)

Mostly written in 2000-2002

Pizza Night / a group of comrades forms and transforms Codeless / confronting death and rules in my ambulance-job past Nostalgia Tripping / the past moves forward My Daughter's Education / public school affects creativity and individuality From A Married Anarchist / reconciling politics and life Disability Blues / bummer

Other pieces with personal components

• Personalized discussion of the appropriate level of action
• What brought me to critical psychology (rambling on, in chapter for an academic book)
• Creating RadPsyNet (more rambling on, at a critical psychology conference)
• Anarchism and Psychology (2011 article partly touching on personal side of things)

More on personal history

About Dennis Fox

Informal personal/political observations [but no longer updated]

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How To Write A Profile Essay Like A Professional Writer

Welcome to our blog, where we embark on a journey to master the art of writing profiles essays. Whether you’re a high school or college student, understanding the critical components of a profile essay is essential for academic success. In this comprehensive guide, we will delve into the definition of a profile essay and provide practical tips, example of a profile essay, and expert advice to help you excel in this form of writing.

A profile essay is a captivating narrative that enables students to explore the lives and experiences of individuals. Through vivid descriptions and engaging storytelling, these essays offer readers a glimpse into the unique qualities and perspectives of the profiled subjects. By mastering the fundamentals of this writing style, you can effectively communicate your observations and insights, creating compelling and informative profiles.

In our blog, we will discuss the essential elements of a profile essay and emphasize the importance of high-quality writing and the benefits of expert guidance. Whether you’re a student aiming to improve your writing skills or a teacher seeking to enhance your students’ abilities, this guide is designed to provide you with the necessary tools and techniques to create exceptional profiles.

Join us on this enriching journey, where we share valuable knowledge, practical profile essay examples, and insider tips, empowering you to produce outstanding profile essays. Let’s unlock the secrets of this unique form of writing and achieve fast, awesome results together.

Table of Contents

What is a profile essay, how to start a profile essay, profile essay structure guides, key considerations for writing engaging profile essays, crafting an outstanding profile essay: essential tips, profile essays in academic settings.

A profile essay is not just a collection of facts and figures; it is a powerful literary piece that delves deep into the essence of a person, place, or event. This form of writing goes beyond surface-level descriptions to create a vivid and engaging portrayal that captivates readers emotionally.

When crafting a profile essay outline, the writer aims to explore a specific individual’s life, personality, experiences, achievements, or unique qualities of a place or event. It seeks to paint a comprehensive picture, offering readers a window into the subject’s world and allowing them to connect with it on a deeper level.

A well-written profile essay immerses the reader in the subject’s experiences, thoughts, and emotions by employing descriptive language, storytelling techniques, and insightful observations. It evokes empathy and understanding, enabling readers to forge a connection and gain a deeper appreciation for the person, place, or event being portrayed.

In summary, a profile essay is a literary work that aims to go beyond superficial details and statistics. It is a means of conveying the essence of a subject through engaging storytelling, providing readers with a rich and immersive experience that leaves a lasting impact.

The beginning of a profile essay is vital in capturing the reader’s attention and setting the tone for the rest of the piece. It requires careful consideration and strategic planning to ensure a strong start. Here are a few practical ways how to write a good profile essay:

• Look for unique qualities: Seek out subjects with unique backgrounds, experiences, or achievements. These aspects can add depth and intrigue to your profile essay.
• Consider relevance: Choose a subject relevant to your intended audience or the purpose of the assignment. This will help create a stronger connection and interest among your readers.
• Interview your subject: Reach out to the individual you are profiling and request an interview. Prepare a thoughtful question list about their life, experiences, and perspectives. These interviews will provide invaluable insights and personal anecdotes that can enhance the depth of your essay.
• Read articles and books: Explore articles, books, and other publications related to your subject. This will provide a broader context and enable you to include relevant background information in your profile essay.
• Explore online sources: Utilize reputable online sources such as websites, blogs, and academic databases to gather additional information and perspectives on your subject. Be critical of your authorities and ensure they are credible and reliable.
• Be concise and specific: State your main argument or the central theme of your profile essay clearly and concisely.
• Make it captivating: Use language that captures the reader’s attention and creates intrigue. A compelling thesis statement will generate interest and encourage readers to continue reading.
• Provide a roadmap: Your thesis statement should act as a roadmap for your essay, indicating the main points or areas of focus you will cover. This helps readers understand the structure and flow of your essay.

Starting a profile essay requires careful consideration of the subject, thorough research, and a well-crafted thesis statement. Choosing an intriguing topic, conducting a comprehensive analysis, and formulating a solid thesis statement can captivate your readers and set the stage for a compelling and informative profile essay. Remember, the start of your essay sets the tone for the entire piece, so invest time and effort into crafting a high quality and strong opening that engages and intrigues your readers.

Writing a profile essay requires a structured approach combining storytelling and factual information. Follow these steps to create a well-crafted profile essay:

• Introduction: Begin your essay with a compelling opening sentence that hooks the reader. Provide some background information about the subject and introduce the main thesis statement.
• Body Paragraphs: Divide your essay into multiple paragraphs, each focusing on a specific aspect or theme related to the topic. Use a mix of narrative storytelling and factual information to engage the reader. Include anecdotes, quotes, and descriptions to bring your subject to life.
• Organization and Flow: Ensure a logical progression from one paragraph to another. Use transitional phrases to maintain the coherence of your essay. Consider arranging your sections thematically or chronologically, depending on what suits your subject best.
• Descriptive Language: Incorporate vivid and descriptive language to create a sensory experience for the reader. Use specific details and imagery to make your subject come alive.
• Conclusion: Summarize the main points discussed in your essay and leave the reader with a lasting impression. Reflect on the significance of your topic and its impact on the reader.

A profile essay offers a comprehensive portrayal of a person or place, providing readers with a detailed understanding of the subject. Whether it’s about a place or a person, crafting an engaging profile essay requires careful planning and effective storytelling. Here are some key steps to consider:

How to Write a Profile Essay on a Place:

Choose an intriguing place: Select a location that is unique and holds significance for the readers. Observe and research: Immerse yourself in the place, exploring its history, culture, and physical aspects. Structure your essay: Begin with an engaging introduction, describe the place vividly, and provide personal insights. Incorporate sensory details: Utilize descriptive language to appeal to the readers’ senses. Conclude with a reflection: Share your overall impression and highlight the significance of the place.

How to Write a Profile Essay on a Person:

Select a captivating individual: Find someone with an interesting background, achievements, or experiences. Conduct interviews: Engage in in-depth conversations to gather firsthand information about the person. Organize your essay: Begin with an attention-grabbing introduction, present the person’s background and accomplishments, and delve into their personality traits and influences. Use anecdotes and examples: Illustrate the person’s characteristics through real-life stories and specific instances. Wrap up with a reflection: Offer your personal insights, reflect on the person’s impact, and conclude with a memorable ending.

Remember, in both types of profile essays, it is crucial to maintain a balanced blend of factual information and compelling storytelling to engage readers and leave a lasting impression.

When writing a profile essay, it’s essential to remember key elements that will enhance the quality of your work. Here are some essential tips to help you craft an outstanding profile essay:

• Choose an Engaging Format: While there is no strict format for a profile essay, you can structure it to suit your subject and the narrative you want to create. You can opt for a chronological structure, a thematic approach, or a combination of both.
• Conduct Thorough Interviews: Interviews are crucial in gathering firsthand information about your subject. Prepare a list of relevant questions and conduct interviews with the subject and individuals associated with them. These interviews will enrich your profile essay with unique insights and personal anecdotes.
• Focus on Descriptive Details: Pay attention to descriptive details to bring your subject to life. Use sensory language to create a vivid picture in the reader’s mind. Describe the subject’s appearance, gestures, and mannerisms. Include details about the environment, sounds, and smells to transport the reader to the scene.
• Utilize Direct Quotes: Direct quotes from your subject and others you interview add authenticity and credibility to your profile essay. Use quotes to highlight important points or capture the subject’s voice and perspective.
• Show, Don’t Tell: Rather than simply stating facts, show the reader the subject’s personality, values, and experiences through storytelling. Engage the reader’s emotions by narrating impactful moments or sharing significant events that shaped the subject’s life.
• Revise and Edit: Once you have completed your profile essay’s first draft, revise and edit it. Check for clarity, coherence, and grammar errors. Trim unnecessary information and ensure a smooth flow of ideas. Consider seeking feedback from peers or instructors to gain valuable insights.

Profile essays are commonly assigned in various academic settings, including high school, college, and university. These assignments allow students to develop their research, writing, and storytelling skills while exploring diverse subjects and honing their analytical thinking.

Following Guidelines:

When working on a profile essay for school or college, it’s crucial to follow the guidelines provided by your instructor. This ensures that you stay on track and meet the assignment requirements. Consider the following points:

• Pay attention to specific requirements: Your instructor may provide instructions regarding length, formatting, citation style, and other essential details. Make sure to adhere to these guidelines to avoid any penalties.
• Understand the objectives: Familiarize yourself with the purposes of the assignment. This will help you shape your essay and focus on the key aspects your instructor wants you to explore.
• Align with learning outcomes: Consider how the profile essay fits into the broader learning outcomes of the course. This will enable you to approach the assignment with a clear understanding of its purpose and relevance.

Seeking Assistance:

If you struggle with the assignment or need extra support, online essay assignment help and custom writing services are available. These services offer expert guidance and assistance, ensuring you receive high-quality, well-crafted profile essays that meet your academic requirements. Here are some key points to consider:

• Online homework helpers: These platforms connect you with knowledgeable tutors who can guide and answer your questions about profile essay writing. They can offer valuable insights and help you overcome challenges you may encounter.
• Custom writing services: If you feel overwhelmed or lack time to complete the assignment, custom writing services can be a viable option. These services employ professional writers who can create custom profile essays tailored to your needs and requirements. However, it’s essential to choose a reputable and trustworthy service to ensure the quality and originality of the work.

Profile essays in academic settings offer students a valuable opportunity to develop their research, writing, and storytelling skills. By following the guidelines provided by your instructor and seeking assistance when needed, you can ensure that your profile essays meet the objectives of the assignment and align with the course’s learning outcomes. Remember, practice and persistence are crucial to mastering the art of writing compelling and informative profile essays.

Get Profile Essay Writing Help Today!

Mastering the art of writing a profile essay requires a combination of skill, guidance, and support. By following the guidelines and tips provided by experts, you can create captivating profiles that engage and resonate with your readers. Along the way, it’s essential to seek assistance when needed, and fortunately, there are affordable options available that provide class-leading customer support.

When embarking on the journey of writing a profile essay, remember to choose an intriguing subject and conduct thorough research to ensure the accuracy and depth of your piece. Craft a strong thesis statement that serves as a roadmap for your essay, guiding your readers through the main aspects you’ll be exploring.

In the process, it’s reassuring to know that expert guidance and support are accessible. Whether you require assistance structuring your essay, some college assignment help , or understanding the nuances of profile essay writing, affordable online platforms provide the expertise you need. These platforms offer friendly customer support to address your queries and provide valuable insights, ensuring you receive the guidance necessary to excel in your writing endeavors.

By availing yourself of these resources, you can enhance your profile essay writing skills, boost your confidence, and achieve outstanding results. So, embrace the art of writing profiles backed by expert guidance, affordable options, class-leading support, and friendly assistance. Let your words paint vivid portraits and create lasting connections with your readers through the power of the profile essay.

What is a profile essay, and what is its purpose?

A profile essay is a type of academic or journalistic writing that aims to provide a detailed description and analysis of a particular person, place, event, or organization. Its purpose is to present a comprehensive and engaging portrayal of the subject, highlighting its unique qualities, experiences, and significance.

How do I choose a suitable subject for my profile essay?

When selecting a subject for your profile essay, consider individuals, places, or events that possess distinct characteristics, have a compelling story, or hold relevance in a specific context. It could be a notable figure in your community, a memorable travel destination, or an event with cultural significance. The key is to choose a subject that allows for rich exploration and offers an opportunity to captivate your readers.

What are the essential elements to include in a profile essay?

A profile essay typically includes several key elements to portray the subject comprehensively. These elements may include a vivid and engaging introduction, background information, descriptive details, anecdotes, quotes, and personal observations. It is important to capture the subject’s personality, experiences, and significance through a well-structured narrative that keeps the reader engaged.

How can I ensure the accuracy and credibility of the information in my profile essay?

To maintain accuracy and credibility in your profile essay, conducting thorough research and gathering information from reliable sources is crucial. This can involve interviewing the subject, conducting background research, and seeking multiple perspectives. Always verify the information you gather and cross-reference it with trustworthy sources to ensure the accuracy of your content. Remember to attribute any quotes or specific details to their respective sources.

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The Personal Is Political

Where Did This Women's Movement Slogan Come From? What Does It Mean?

• History Of Feminism
• Important Figures
• Women's Suffrage
• Women & War
• Laws & Womens Rights
• Feminist Texts
• American History
• African American History
• African History
• Ancient History and Culture
• Asian History
• European History
• Latin American History
• Medieval & Renaissance History
• Military History
• The 20th Century
• J.D., Hofstra University
• B.A., English and Print Journalism, University of Southern California

"The personal is political" was a frequently-heard feminist rallying cry, especially during the late 1960s and 1970s. The exact origin of the phrase is unknown and sometimes debated. Many second-wave feminists used the phrase "the personal is political" or its underlying meaning in their writing, speeches, consciousness-raising, and other activities.

The meaning has sometimes been interpreted to mean that political and personal issues affect each other. It has also meant that the experience of women is the grounding of feminism, both personal and political. Some have seen it as a kind of practical model for creating feminist theory: begin with the small issues with which you have personal experience, and move from there to the larger systemic issues and dynamics which may explain and/or address those personal dynamics.

The Carol Hanisch Essay

Feminist and writer Carol Hanisch's essay titled "The Personal is Political" appeared in the anthology Notes From the Second Year: Women's Liberation in 1970, and is often credited with creating the phrase. However, in her introduction to the 2006 republication of the essay, Hanisch wrote that she did not come up with the title. She believed "The Personal Is Political" was selected by the editors of the anthology, Shulamith Firestone and Anne Koedt, who were both feminists involved with the group New York Radical Feminists.

Some feminist scholars have noted that by the time the anthology was published in 1970, "the personal is political" had already become a widely used part of the women's movement and was not a quote attributable to any one person.

The Political Meaning

Carol Hanisch's essay explains the idea behind the phrase "the personal is political." A common debate between "personal" and "political" questioned whether women's consciousness-raising groups were a useful part of the political women's movement. According to Hanisch, calling the groups "therapy" was a misnomer, as the groups were not intended to solve any women's personal problems. Instead, consciousness-raising was a form of political action to elicit discussion about such topics as women's relationships, their roles in marriage, and their feelings about childbearing.

The essay came in particular out of her experience in the Southern Conference Educational Fund (SCEF) and as part of the women's caucus of that organization, and out of her experience in the New York Radical Women  and the Pro-Woman Line within that group.

Her essay "The Personal Is Political" said that coming to a personal realization of how "grim" the situation was for women was as important as doing political "action" such as protests. Hanisch noted that "political" refers to any power relationships, not just those of government or elected officials.

In 2006 Hanisch wrote about how the essay's original form came out of her experience of working in male-dominated civil rights, anti-Vietnam War and left (old and new) political groups. Lip service was given to women's equality, but beyond narrow economic equality, other women's issues were often dismissed. Hanisch was particularly concerned about the persistence of the idea that women's situation was women's own fault, and perhaps "all in their heads." She also wrote of her regret at not anticipating the ways in which both "The Personal Is Political" and the "Pro-Woman Line" would be misused and subject to revisionism.

Other Sources

Among the influential works cited as bases for "the personal is political" idea are sociologist C. Wright Mills' 1959 book The Sociological Imagination , which discusses the intersection of public issues and personal problems, and feminist Claudia Jones ' 1949 essay "An End to the Neglect of the Problems of Negro Women!"

Another feminist sometimes said to have coined the phrase is Robin Morgan , who founded several feminist organizations and edited the anthology Sisterhood is Powerful , also published in 1970. Gloria Steinem has said that it is impossible to know who first said "the personal is political" and that saying you coined the phrase "the personal is political" would be like saying you coined the phrase " World War II ." Her 2012 book,  Revolution from Within , has been cited as a later example of the use of the idea that political issues cannot be addressed separately from the personal.

Some have critiqued the focus on "the personal is political" because, they say, it has meant a focus more exclusively on personal issues such as family division of labor, and has ignored systemic sexism and political problems and solutions.

Sources and Further Reading

• Hanisch, Carol. " The Personal is Political. " Notes from the Second Year: Women’s Liberation. Eds. Firestone, Shulasmith and Anne Koedt. New York: Radical Feminism, 1970.
• Jones, Claudia. " An End to the Neglect of the Problems of Negro Women! " Political Affairs Jefferson School of Social Science, 1949.
• Morgan, Robin (ed.) "Sisterhood is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings fom the Women's Liberation Movement." London: Penguin Random House LLC. 
• Steinem, Gloria. "Revolution From Within." Open Road Media, 2012. 
• Mill, C. Wright. "The Sociological Imagination." Oxford UK: Oxford University Press, 1959. 
• Redstockings Radical Feminist Group
• 6 Quotes from ‘Female Liberation as the Basis for Social Revolution’
• Feminist Organizations of the 1970s
• 1970s Feminism Timeline
• Top 20 Influential Modern Feminist Theorists
• Significant Feminist Protests
• Feminism in the United States
• 10 Important Feminist Beliefs
• Feminist Consciousness-Raising Groups
• Combahee River Collective in the 1970s
• The Feminist Movement in Art
• Feminist Poetry Movement of the 1960s
• Biography of Arturo Alfonso Schomburg, African History Expert
• New York Radical Women: 1960s Feminist Group
• Goals of the Feminist Movement
• Biography of Patricia Hill Collins, Esteemed Sociologist

Kim Mulkey's controversial coaching style addressed in much-anticipated profile

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The Minnesota Vikings suspended offensive coordinator Wes Phillips for three weeks following the legal resolution of his December 2023 traffic stop in Minneapolis.

Kelly Oubre Jr. scored 17 of his 25 points in the fourth quarter and Joel Embiid added 24 points in his return to lift the Philadelphia 76ers to a 109-105 victory over the visiting Oklahoma City Thunder on Tuesday.

Bo Horvat and Simon Holmstrom scored in the third period as the New York Islanders rallied to earn a critical 2-1 victory over the Chicago Blackhawks on Tuesday night in Elmont, N.Y.

Nick Suzuki scored two goals and the host Montreal Canadiens ended a seven-game losing streak against the Florida Panthers with a 5-3 win on Tuesday night.

Getting Started

John f. kennedy profile in courage essay contest, contest topic.

Describe and analyze an act of political courage by a US elected official who served during or after 1917. 

To learn more about political courage, visit  Contest Information  and  FAQs .

All submissions must adhere to  contest requirements .

Contest Deadline

The Profile in Courage Essay Contest opens for submissions on September 1, 2023. The contest deadline is January 12, 2024.

Recognition and Awards

First-place:  $10,000           Second-place:  $3,000           Five Finalists:  $1,000 each          Ten Semi-finalists: $100 each     

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