racial segregation essay title

14 influential essays from Black writers on America's problems with race

• Business leaders are calling for people to reflect on civil rights this Martin Luther King Jr. Day.
• Black literary experts shared their top nonfiction essay and article picks on race. 
• The list includes "A Report from Occupied Territory" by James Baldwin.

For many, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is a time of reflection on the life of one of the nation's most prominent civil rights leaders. It's also an important time for people who support racial justice to educate themselves on the experiences of Black people in America. 

Business leaders like TIAA CEO Thasunda Duckett Brown and others are encouraging people to reflect on King's life's work, and one way to do that is to read his essays and the work of others dedicated to the same mission he had: racial equity. 

Insider asked Black literary and historical experts to share their favorite works of journalism on race by Black authors. Here are the top pieces they recommended everyone read to better understand the quest for Black liberation in America:

An earlier version of this article was published on June 14, 2020.

"Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases" and "The Red Record: Tabulated Statistics and Alleged Causes of Lynching in the United States" by Ida B. Wells

In 1892, investigative journalist, activist, and NAACP founding member Ida B. Wells began to publish her research on lynching in a pamphlet titled "Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases." Three years later, she followed up with more research and detail in "The Red Record." 

Shirley Moody-Turner, associate Professor of English and African American Studies at Penn State University recommended everyone read these two texts, saying they hold "many parallels to our own moment."  

"In these two pamphlets, Wells exposes the pervasive use of lynching and white mob violence against African American men and women. She discredits the myths used by white mobs to justify the killing of African Americans and exposes Northern and international audiences to the growing racial violence and terror perpetrated against Black people in the South in the years following the Civil War," Moody-Turner told Business Insider. 

Read  "Southern Horrors" here and "The Red Record" here >>

"On Juneteenth" by Annette Gordon-Reed

In this collection of essays, Pulitzer Prize-winning author Annette Gordon-Reed combines memoir and history to help readers understand the complexities out of which Juneteenth was born. She also argues how racial and ethnic hierarchies remain in society today, said Moody-Turner. 

"Gordon-Reed invites readers to see Juneteenth as a time to grapple with the complexities of race and enslavement in the US, to re-think our origin stories about race and slavery's central role in the formation of both Texas and the US, and to consider how, as Gordon-Reed so eloquently puts it, 'echoes of the past remain, leaving their traces in the people and events of the present and future.'"

Purchase "On Juneteenth" here>>

"The Case for Reparations" by Ta-Nehisi Coates

Ta-Nehisi Coates, best-selling author and national correspondent for The Atlantic, made waves when he published his 2014 article "The Case for Reparations," in which he called for "collective introspection" on reparations for Black Americans subjected to centuries of racism and violence. 

"In his now famed essay for The Atlantic, journalist, author, and essayist, Ta-Nehisi Coates traces how slavery, segregation, and discriminatory racial policies underpin ongoing and systemic economic and racial disparities," Moody-Turner said. 

"Coates provides deep historical context punctuated by individual and collective stories that compel us to reconsider the case for reparations," she added.  

Read it here>>

"The Idea of America" by Nikole Hannah-Jones and the "1619 Project" by The New York Times

In "The Idea of America," Pulitzer Prize-winning investigative journalist Nikole Hannah-Jones traces America's history from 1619 onward, the year slavery began in the US. She explores how the history of slavery is inseparable from the rise of America's democracy in her essay that's part of The New York Times' larger "1619 Project," which is the outlet's ongoing project created in 2019 to re-examine the impact of slavery in the US. 

"In her unflinching look at the legacy of slavery and the underside of American democracy and capitalism, Hannah-Jones asks, 'what if America understood, finally, in this 400th year, that we [Black Americans] have never been the problem but the solution,'" said Moody-Turner, who recommended readers read the whole "1619 Project" as well. 

Read "The Idea of America" here and the rest of the "1619 Project here>>

"Many Thousands Gone" by James Baldwin

In "Many Thousands Gone," James Arthur Baldwin, American novelist, playwright, essayist, poet, and activist lays out how white America is not ready to fully recognize Black people as people. It's a must read, according to Jimmy Worthy II, assistant professor of English at The University of Massachusetts, Amherst.

"Baldwin's essay reminds us that in America, the very idea of Black persons conjures an amalgamation of specters, fears, threats, anxieties, guilts, and memories that must be extinguished as part of the labor to forget histories deemed too uncomfortable to remember," Worthy said.

"Letter from a Birmingham Jail" by Martin Luther King Jr.

On April 13 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. and other Civil Rights activists were arrested after peaceful protest in Birmingham, Alabama. In jail, King penned an open letter about how people have a moral obligation to break unjust laws rather than waiting patiently for legal change. In his essay, he expresses criticism and disappointment in white moderates and white churches, something that's not often focused on in history textbooks, Worthy said.

"King revises the perception of white racists devoted to a vehement status quo to include white moderates whose theories of inevitable racial equality and silence pertaining to racial injustice prolong discriminatory practices," Worthy said. 

"The Transformation of Silence into Language and Action" by Audre Lorde

Audre Lorde, African American writer, feminist, womanist, librarian, and civil rights activist asks readers to not be silent on important issues. This short, rousing read is crucial for everyone according to Thomonique Moore, a 2016 graduate of Howard University, founder of Books&Shit book club, and an incoming Masters' candidate at Columbia University's Teacher's College. 

"In this essay, Lorde explains to readers the importance of overcoming our fears and speaking out about the injustices that are plaguing us and the people around us. She challenges us to not live our lives in silence, or we risk never changing the things around us," Moore said.  Read it here>>

"The First White President" by Ta-Nehisi Coates

This essay from the award-winning journalist's book " We Were Eight Years in Power ," details how Trump, during his presidency, employed the notion of whiteness and white supremacy to pick apart the legacy of the nation's first Black president, Barack Obama.

Moore said it was crucial reading to understand the current political environment we're in. 

"Just Walk on By" by Brent Staples

In this essay, Brent Staples, author and Pulitzer Prize-winning editorial writer for The New York Times, hones in on the experience of racism against Black people in public spaces, especially on the role of white women in contributing to the view that Black men are threatening figures.  

For Crystal M. Fleming, associate professor of sociology and Africana Studies at SUNY Stony Brook, his essay is especially relevant right now. 

"We see the relevance of his critique in the recent incident in New York City, wherein a white woman named Amy Cooper infamously called the police and lied, claiming that a Black man — Christian Cooper — threatened her life in Central Park. Although the experience that Staples describes took place decades ago, the social dynamics have largely remained the same," Fleming told Insider. 

"I Was Pregnant and in Crisis. All the Doctors and Nurses Saw Was an Incompetent Black Woman" by Tressie McMillan Cottom

Tressie McMillan Cottom is an author, associate professor of sociology at Virginia Commonwealth University and a faculty affiliate at Harvard University's Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society. In this essay, Cottom shares her gut-wrenching experience of racism within the healthcare system. 

Fleming called this piece an "excellent primer on intersectionality" between racism and sexism, calling Cottom one of the most influential sociologists and writers in the US today.  Read it here>>

"A Report from Occupied Territory" by James Baldwin

Baldwin's "A Report from Occupied Territory" was originally published in The Nation in 1966. It takes a hard look at violence against Black people in the US, specifically police brutality. 

"Baldwin's work remains essential to understanding the depth and breadth of anti-black racism in our society. This essay — which touches on issues of racialized violence, policing and the role of the law in reproducing inequality — is an absolute must-read for anyone who wants to understand just how much has not changed with regard to police violence and anti-Black racism in our country," Fleming told Insider.  Read it here>>

"I'm From Philly. 30 Years Later, I'm Still Trying To Make Sense Of The MOVE Bombing" by Gene Demby

On May 13, 1985, a police helicopter dropped a bomb on the MOVE compound in Philadelphia, which housed members of the MOVE, a black liberation group founded in 1972 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Eleven people, including five children, died in the airstrike. In this essay, Gene Demby, co-host and correspondent for NPR's Code Switch team, tries to wrap his head around the shocking instance of police violence against Black people. 

"I would argue that the fact that police were authorized to literally bomb Black citizens in their own homes, in their own country, is directly relevant to current conversations about militarized police and the growing movement to defund and abolish policing," Fleming said.  Read it here>>

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Civil Rights Act of 1964

By: History.com Editors

Updated: January 10, 2023 | Original: January 4, 2010

The Civil Rights Act of 1964, which ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin, is considered one of the crowning legislative achievements of the civil rights movement. First proposed by President John F. Kennedy , it survived strong opposition from southern members of Congress and was then signed into law by Kennedy’s successor, Lyndon B. Johnson . In subsequent years, Congress expanded the act and passed additional civil rights legislation such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965 .

Lead-up to the Civil Rights Act

Following the Civil War , a trio of constitutional amendments abolished slavery (the 13 Amendment ), made the formerly enslaved people citizens ( 14 Amendment ) and gave all men the right to vote regardless of race ( 15 Amendment ).

Nonetheless, many states—particularly in the South—used poll taxes, literacy tests and other measures to keep their African American citizens essentially disenfranchised. They also enforced strict segregation through “ Jim Crow ” laws and condoned violence from white supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan .

For decades after Reconstruction , the U.S. Congress did not pass a single civil rights act. Finally, in 1957, it established a civil rights section of the Justice Department, along with a Commission on Civil Rights to investigate discriminatory conditions.

Three years later, Congress provided for court-appointed referees to help Black people register to vote. Both of these bills were strongly watered down to overcome southern resistance.

When John F. Kennedy entered the White House in 1961, he initially delayed supporting new anti-discrimination measures. But with protests springing up throughout the South—including one in Birmingham, Alabama , where police brutally suppressed nonviolent demonstrators with dogs, clubs and high-pressure fire hoses—Kennedy decided to act.

In June 1963 he proposed by far the most comprehensive civil rights legislation to date, saying the United States “will not be fully free until all of its citizens are free.”

Civil Rights Act Moves Through Congress

Kennedy was assassinated that November in Dallas, after which new President Lyndon B. Johnson immediately took up the cause.

“Let this session of Congress be known as the session which did more for civil rights than the last hundred sessions combined,” Johnson said in his first State of the Union address. During debate on the floor of the U.S. House of Representatives , southerners argued, among other things, that the bill unconstitutionally usurped individual liberties and states’ rights.

In a mischievous attempt to sabotage the bill, a Virginia segregationist introduced an amendment to ban employment discrimination against women. That one passed, whereas over 100 other hostile amendments were defeated. In the end, the House approved the bill with bipartisan support by a vote of 290-130.

The bill then moved to the U.S. Senate , where southern and border state Democrats staged a 75-day filibuster—among the longest in U.S. history. On one occasion, Senator Robert Byrd of West Virginia, a former Ku Klux Klan member, spoke for over 14 consecutive hours.

But with the help of behind-the-scenes horse-trading, the bill’s supporters eventually obtained the two-thirds votes necessary to end debate. One of those votes came from California Senator Clair Engle, who, though too sick to speak, signaled “aye” by pointing to his own eye.

Lyndon Johnson Signs The Civil Rights Act of 1964

Having broken the filibuster, the Senate voted 73-27 in favor of the bill, and Johnson signed it into law on July 2, 1964. “It is an important gain, but I think we just delivered the South to the Republican Party for a long time to come,” Johnson, a Democrat , purportedly told an aide later that day in a prediction that would largely come true.

Did you know? President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 with at least 75 pens, which he handed out to congressional supporters of the bill such as Hubert Humphrey and Everett Dirksen and to civil rights leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Roy Wilkins.

What Is the Civil Rights Act?

Under the Civil Rights Act of 1964, segregation on the grounds of race, religion or national origin was banned at all places of public accommodation, including courthouses, parks, restaurants, theaters, sports arenas and hotels. No longer could Black people and other minorities be denied service simply based on the color of their skin.

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act barred race, religious, national origin and gender discrimination by employers and labor unions, and created an Equal Employment Opportunity Commission with the power to file lawsuits on behalf of aggrieved workers.

Additionally, the act forbade the use of federal funds for any discriminatory program, authorized the Office of Education (now the Department of Education) to assist with school desegregation, gave extra clout to the Commission on Civil Rights and prohibited the unequal application of voting requirements.

Legacy of the Civil Rights Act

Civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. said that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was nothing less than a “second emancipation.”

The Civil Rights Act was later expanded to bring disabled Americans, the elderly and women in collegiate athletics under its umbrella.

It also paved the way for two major follow-up laws: the Voting Rights Act of 1965 , which prohibited literacy tests and other discriminatory voting practices, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which banned discrimination in the sale, rental and financing of property. Though the struggle against racism would continue, legal segregation had been brought to its knees in the United States.

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Essay Samples on Racial Segregation

Racial categorization: a dark part of the us history.

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The Plessy Versus Ferguson Case: Race Separation as the Aftermath

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Best topics on Racial Segregation

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2. Damaging Effects of Social World on People of Color

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The Issue of Racial Segregation in the United States Essay

Racism is a system of discrimination against specific race due to differences in color, belief, norms and values (Fredrickson 4). Certainly, racial segregation has been viewed as a form of cruelty and tyranny that debases the victims and those who are susceptible to victimization.

Despite the fact that United States is one of the economically stable countries in the world, its historical roots of racism was based on slavery and genocide (Fredrickson 6). The backdrop of racism has a deep-seated influence on the current state of American society. American has been known for racism right from the late 1980s (Yong 297). All aspects of the American society had been infiltrated by racism. However, little progress had been made in the fight against racism by the beginning of 20 th century.

It is also imperative to note that racism was commonly used as an institutional ideology from the past decades. It has made it impossible to turn into new episodes due to the increased rate of racism in the Americans’ hearts (Monroy 14). Racism eroded down family ties into debris hence influencing relationships of Americans, Asians and Hispanic people in America. To date, this can be felt quite well especially due to the fact that myriad of races can co-exist with little regard of their racial backgrounds.

Apparently, the nature of racism in America was based on the belief that, a group if people with certain biological traits were superior to other. Difference in make up brought a distinction among the several races in America (Blitz & Green 22)). The race that was deemed to be superior gain higher positions in the society. In this case, they were economically empowered. For this reason, such races exert social dominance over the other inferior races. Besides this, in the past centuries, racism was based on color (Monroy 12).

Significantly, black people were being discriminated against by the white people in America. Currently, racism has taken a new dimension where other aspects other than color have been incorporated into the issue. In this case, racism became multicolored and as well multicultural as it was observed in the 19 th and 20 th century. Worthwhile, the situation is exasperating due to the eminent effort being put to terminate it (Blitz & Green 54)).

It is worth noting that there has been an amplified diversification of the population in America. Many immigrants from Africa, Asia and Europe had intruded the continent as early as 1800s (Monroy 4). Evidently, majority of immigrants in America were from Europe specifically the American Jews and Irish Americans (Yong 268). For this reason, racism became expansive primarily due to the antagonism among the different cultural communities.

Definitely, manifestation of racism and its intertwined issues was depicted in several ways. As an example, works of art, myths and social legends show the history of how natives have lived from the past to current (Blitz & Green 8). In other words, since history is understood from oral myths, ideals and values passed through successive generations, one can identify the intensity of racialism from the current people.

Ultimately, the social construction of the American history was highly dependent on what lay within their mind, memories and experience (Monroy 6). Significantly, this can be derived from the collected facts by scholars and journalists. Moreover, there was a lot of racial bias depicted through education systems of America. Public discourse regarding the Nation’s origin, development, growth and future destiny was very controversial (Blitz & Green 12)).

In this case, the way the natives interpreted facts, portrayed their altitude and culture. In a slight emphasis, racial chauvinism created an invisible barrier to the people in favor of the white natives. Unconsciously, various societal institutions implanted racism in the American citizens (Monroy 12).

Racism has been depicted in various forms in economic, social and political aspects. For instance, formal racism was very rampant in the early 1990s (Monroy 14). Mostly, it was common in the political spheres and was highly repugnant toward the morals of the American natives. All the same, it was terminated in the middle of 20th century (Yong 269). Besides this, historical racism has been out of control as it is oriented in the social-economic aspects.

Social stratification in America has for long been embedded on racism. This is characterized by the inequalities in housing, employment, educations and government services. No wonder, immigrant races has impacted massively in the American history of racism. Additionally, social institutions in America have not been left behind in the bigotry. Actually, institutional racism has been rampant thereby disorienting the victims. To shed light on this, social culture and policies governing the institutions chained white privileges.

These institutions never depicted their bias naturally unless they are deliberatively prompted (Blitz & Green 7). In most case, forces of racism remained covered and even those disoriented lived unconsciously. For this reason, Asians and Hispanic natives have struggled for long to institute themselves in the community.

Recent research done reveals that in the past years Hispanics and Asians laid face down in prejudice. Needless to say, they experienced social economic and political strife in the midst of the racist Americans. Moreover, racial bias instilled stress to the immigrants due to day to day prejudice. Poverty was quite towering among the minority races as compared to the superior whites (Blitz & Green 120). According to the grapevine, the minorities experienced poor mental health due to environmental intolerance as combined with poverty.

Statistics indicate that, the proportion of Asians and Hispanics who suffered mental illnesses is relatively higher compared to that of whites.

However, long history of stereotyping, racial profiling, prejudice and racial attitudes shaped relationships between white Americans and Hispanic and Asian peoples in the recent centuries (Monroy 54). Imperatively, racism kept on changing into new forms decade after the other.

This fueled hatred among the three racial groups. All the same, white people were not adversely affected since their privileges were superior to those of the minorities. Even with the advocating against racism, majority of the whites remained to segregate the Asians and Hispanics. This rose of conflicts hence the racial relations became complicated. The stereotyped perceptions of the whites led to subversive resistances by the civilians. This caused deaths of many white Americans.

For instance, the Hispanic natives were prejudiced and segregated by the White Americans. Having been subjected to segregation, they were forcibly made to return to their country of origin.

Additionally, the Asians have been denied immigration permit into America with numerous injustice against those who had already ventured in to the state (Yong 347). Severally, Asians were denied rights to own land, citizenship and federal privileges. In the recent centuries, though the number of Asians in America has increased eminently, there has been a fast-growing aim for hatred against them by the Americans.

Status profiling was debased on race making Asian immigrants to suffer in the hand of whites administrators (Yong 288). Additionally, vast migration of different races into America led to problems in the criminal justice system. For this reason, minor races were susceptible for crimes committed. In this case, they had to look for a way out to evade themselves from social prejudice. This triggered to an evolution in the immigrants’ culture and personal identity to attain social safety.

Definitely, culture evolved to respond to the constant changes in the American society (Frederickson 7). Research done indicates that, racial discrimination at some point forced immigrants to further explore and undertake certain ethnic identity. To escape struggle, different races including the Asians and Hispanics changed their way of life to adopt in the new environment (Frederickson 40).

For this reason, there developed a community with similar social values, ethics, perception and customs as a form of unifying influence. Since culture can be learnt or unlearnt, immigrant individuals adopted new aspects in order to have a sense of belonging in the complex society. Evidently, minor races in America and specifically the Asian immigrants faced acculturation conflicts (Frederickson 135).

Besides choosing the language to use, these immigrants had to undergo cultural allegiances to fit into the set values of the society. To resolve acculturation conflicts, individuals use several strategies. For instance, majority opted to be bicultural in order to be able to negotiate all the aspects of both culture.

Others assimilated their culture to adapt to the host one. Only few individuals maintain their cultural values. Imperatively, the outcomes of cultural exchange influenced the character of an individual (Frederickson 70). The unique combination of variables assassinated the characters of Hispanics and Asians, forcing them to depict new behavior repertoires.

Despite the fact that all the experiences were well documented in the minds of the minor races, Asians maintained their cultural identity. Moreover, due to social connectedness, inferior races rose to struggle for their civil rights and they no longer feel like outsiders.

Obviously, Asians became racial sensitive and strived for equality in the American society (Yong 268). Insightfully, they made Americans aware that, they did not come into their country because of poverty. Currently, the Asians formed a joint uniqueness making the racist American to change their altitude toward them.

Conceptually, different dimensions of racial altitude fostered decline and to some point accelerated racism in America (Monroy 43). Subtly, different people maintain separate views toward racism.

It is worth to note that, ancient barriers still existed among natives hence making them to have dividend elevation toward racism. There have always been tags of war among those fighting against racism and, those who resisted in order to uphold their status quo. However, research done indicates that, majority of the natives in America disengaged in racism (Frederickson 22).

From the statistic, only few Americans endorse in stereotypes and racial profiling against other races. Sophisticated measures were employed to disentangle racism. Currently, the series in the American systems have been transformed and, justice has prevailed significantly among all the races in America (Monroy 33). Educational systems in America achieved efficiency in favoring all the races.

In this case, the racists realized that it was inassimilable to brand people for their race. Moreover, the immigrants influenced, regenerated and profoundly transformed the American altitude on racism. Increased number of immigrants remarkably shaped the political climate (Yong 267). Lately, the government ensured that no more racism that subsisted in America. This fostered harmony among individuals and corporate groups in the institutions.

Apparently, by 19 th century racism took a new dimension in the American society. Since then, positive changes have been notable from the perceptional change of the American racists (Yong 271). Due to the struggle against racial prejudice, liberalism has ushered in equality in the American society. Democratically, efforts were made to promote social uniformity among the races and equality enhanced.

To reiterate on this, several acts in the 19 th and 20 th centuries brought to end racism and other forms of prejudice. Evidently, new wave of immigration in the previous decades fostered political and economic revolutions. For example, the Asians and Hispanics welfare was favored by the new political ostracism (Frederickson 188). From the substantial progress made, poverty rate was significantly reduced enhancing economic empowerment among all the races.

Relatively, the disparity rate between the whites and native immigrants had been reduced. During his constitutional office holder as the Chief Justice, Warren made significant changes especially on constitutional provisions. He must have ushered in a new era and energy in the execution of law. He was largely pragmatic in his view of the law. Indeed, fairness and equity could only be obtained in a comprehensive judicial system.

We can also argue that Warren managed to pull together loose judicial strings that had made it impossible to address abuse of constitutional rights, reapportionment as well as racial segregation. He also laid more emphasis on broad ethical principles when executing his judgments. He hardly used skewed interpretive structures of the constitution.

Needless to say, the contemporary socio-political culture in United States was largely shaped by the famous yet sometimes controversial Warren Court rulings. For instance, racial segregation in United States became a thing of the past in most states. By 20 th century, though the relationship among certain races remained overwrought, they had begun to share common, social, economic and political grounds (Frederickson 94).

The frequency of association in the social setting has increased at a larger percentage in the recent centuries. Vividly, different races have intermarried hence declining social disapproval among themselves. Astoundingly, the mass media highly worked toward discouraging racism and other forms of stereotypes (Monroy 188).

Certainly, almost all races considered minor in America enjoyed their progress in the country. To reiterate on this, America became a boiling pot of culture. Moreover, increased immigration in to the state transformed America into a heterogeneous entity. New mode of culture among the natives and newcomers entirely resulted to ethical balance.

Abolition of racism fostered cultural pluralism among diversified groups. This increasingly made it possible for natives to maintain cultural patterns of their choice. Needless to say, negative altitude toward racism emerged as a new aspect in redefining America (Frederickson 137).

Today, majority of the Asians and Hispanics have ventured into inter-ethnic marriages. Economic mobility was witnessed specifically with the robust growth in the industries in America. Predominantly, assimilation and social altitude renewed by the state of cultural pluralism among the American, Asians and Hispanic people.

Works Cited

Blitz Lisa, & Green, Mary. Racism and racial identity: reflections on urban practice in mental health and Social Services . New York. Haworth Press, Inc. 2006. Print.

Fredrickson, George . Racism: a short history . Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2002. Print.

Monroy, Douglas. Thrown Among Strangers: The Making of Mexican Culture in Frontier California . London: California University Press.1993.

Yong, Chen. Chinese San Francisco, 1850-1943: A Trans-Pacific Community . Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000.Press.

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Home / Essay Samples / Social Issues / Racism / Racial Segregation

Racial Segregation Essay Examples

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